study should be done so as to facilitate finding an answer to the research question. This is largely the
reason behind why it is important to specify the research question prior to making any other decisions
about the methodology.
It is typically best to try to keep the study as simple as possible by stating only one research question.
However, in some instances, it may be appropriate to state an additional question that may be subordinate
to (i.e., important but not as important as) the main question. These questions are sometimes referred to
as subquestions (Mertler & Charles, 2008). If the teacher-researcher has enough previous experience with
the topic at hand, it may be possible to also state the research question, as well as any subquestions, as
research hypotheses. A research hypothesis is simply a specification of the expected answer—or a
prediction, of sorts—to the research question.
Integrated into the specification of research questions and hypotheses is the identification of the variables
that are central to the action research investigation. Recall from Chapter 1 that a variable is any characteristic
that is central to the research topic and, therefore, the research question, about which the researcher wishes
to draw conclusions. Therefore, a variable is in essence the actual characteristic or behavior upon which data
will be collected. For this reason, it is critical that variables be observable and measurable. For example, it is
not possible to observe or measure “understanding of addition and subtraction facts” because actual
understanding of these facts and skills occurs only in a student’s brain. And since we cannot see into
someone’s brain, we cannot actually measure or observe how much the student understands. A more
appropriate variable might be the “ac cu rac y of applying addition and subtraction facts.” Students could be
given a set of addition and subtraction problems to complete. Their accuracy could then be measured by
simply counting the number of problems each student answers correctly.
Closely related to decisions about which specific characteristics will be measured or observed are the
procedures to be used to collect the data on those characteristics; these are the particular decisions related to
the design of the research study. The action researcher needs to decide who can provide the data that are
needed, how many participants are needed for the study, and how to gain access to those individuals (Creswell,
2005). Any of the methodologies briefly described in Chapter 1—whether they be quantitative, qualitative, or
mixed methods in nature—can be used (although usually in somewhat simplified and less sophisticated
form) (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2003). Surveys, comparative studies, correlational studies, experiments,
observations, interviews, analysis of existing records, and ethnographies are just some of the methodological
designs that can be considered and effectively utilized. Also, remember that action research is systematic;
therefore, data collection must be focused, and decisions about the various elements of research design and
data collection must be determined before implementing the actual study (Johnson, 2008). Remember also
that the data to be collected relate directly to the research questions that are guiding the action research study.
Also important during the planning stage of action research studies is close attention to the issue of
research ethics. Research ethics deals with the moral aspects of conducting research, especially research
involving human beings. Consideration must be paid to how participants who are involved in a study are
treated, the level of honesty and openness that participants are afforded, and the manner in which results
are reported. As Mills (2007) states, it basically involves “doing the right thing” from a research perspective
(p. 107). At a minimum level, research ethics addresses such values as honesty, caring, and fairness, among
others. Details regarding research questions and hypotheses, research designs, ethics, and other decisions
related to the development of a research plan are discussed more thoroughly in Chapter 4.
34— PART I • “WHAT IS ACTION RESEARCH?”