44 Triarchi and Karamanis
in Wearing & Grabowski, 2011,p.149). Justice tourism has only recently been
recognized as an emerging trend and given a name. Some authors equate justice
tourism with alternative tourism, based on Holden’s definition (1984) of
alternative tourism as “a process which promotes a just form of travel between
members of different communities. It seeks to achieve mutual understanding,
solidarity and equality amongst participants”. Justice tourism tries to humanize the
tourism industry, in the sense that, “oppressed people are engaging with the
tourism sector to offer heritage tours, and these tours can endorse visitors’
understanding of human rights and justice issues while at the same time giving
voice to the local communities to speak for themselves and tell their own stories of
current oppression and occupation” (Isaak & Hodge, 2011,p.103).
Angela Benson (2005) suggests “research tourism” to be contextualised within the
“alternative tourism paradigm” and more speciffically the educational, scientific
and volunteer sectors. Modern “educational” tourism refers to opportunities that
colleges and universities offer to travel and study abroad. It includes “school trips
and language schools, university and college students in terms of study abroad,
fieldtrips and exhanges, and the adult and seniors market, including cookery, art,
gardening courses in exotic locations, and specialist oreganisers and nature-based
and cultural educational toursim programmes” (Carr and Cooper, 2003, Carr,2003,
Ritchie,2003 cited in Benson 2005). Mieczkowski (1995) views “scientific
tourism” as a form of eco-tourism in the sence that it protects environment,
motivates individuals or groups to visite various eco-systems under the leaderhip
of highly qualified scientists.
In a more simple and different way, alternative tourism is the generic term
encompasses a range of tourism forms such as ‘eco’, ‘agro’, ‘farm’, ‘culture’,
‘community’, ‘rural tourism’, (Scheyvens, 2002; Weaver, 1991, cited in Aslam,
Awang, & Nor’ain, 2014). For example ‘ecotourism’, involves environmental and
ecological awareness that ensure the conservation and preservation. ‘Community
tourism’, takes place within the local community, who are socio-economically
empowered through tourism and ‘rural tourism’, is found in the countryside with
merger of rustic rural life and basic facilities. (Page et al., 2001, cited in Aslam,
Awang, & Nor’ain, 2014). Any form of tourism that showcases the rural life, art,
culture and heritage at rural locations, thereby benefiting the local community
economically and socially as well as enabling interaction between the tourists and
the locals for a more enriching tourism experience can be termed as rural tourism.
It is multi-faceted and may entail farm/agricultural tourism, cultural tourism,
nature tourism, adventure tourism, and eco-tourism.
According to Spanish Institute for Prospective Technological Studies, 2001,
Gartner, 1996, Aslanyurek, 1984, Lier and Taylor 1993, Lawton and Weaver,
2001, cited in Christou,2012, the forms of alternative tourism can be clearly
classified in the following main categories: “ i) Cultural and Historical tourism,
based on the unique identity of visited site, ii) Health Tourism, depending on the
resource and type of facility, iii) Conference-Congress Tourism, depending on the
type of activity , and the aim of the meeting, iv) Sports Tourism, based on both