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KERNEL SENTENCES: ......................................................................................................................................................... 3
DEFINITION: ............................................................................................................................................................................ 3
MODIFIERS OF NOUNS ..................................................................................................................................................... 9
M1 ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
1.1. THE ARTICLES: DEFINITE AND INDEFINITE ARTICLES ................................................................................................................... 9
1.2. DEMONSTRATIVES ........................................................................................................................................................... 31
1.3. POSSESSIVES ................................................................................................................................................................... 32
1.4 QUANTIFIERS ................................................................................................................................................................... 33
1.5 DISTRIBUTIVES ................................................................................................................................................................. 47
1.6 DIFFERENCE WORDS: ......................................................................................................................................................... 60
1.7 NUMBERS: ...................................................................................................................................................................... 68
1.8 QUESTION WORDS ............................................................................................................................................................ 72
1.9 DEFINING WORDS ............................................................................................................................................................. 72
TENSES: .......................................................................................................................................................................... 81
SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE ........................................................................................................................................................... 81
PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE .................................................................................................................................................. 84
PRESENT PERFECT: .................................................................................................................................................................. 89
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE: ..................................................................................................................................... 97
SIMPLE PAST: ...................................................................................................................................................................... 101
PAST CONTINUOUS: .............................................................................................................................................................. 106
PAST PERFECT: ..................................................................................................................................................................... 108
PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE: ........................................................................................................................................ 111
SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE: ......................................................................................................................................................... 115
FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE: ................................................................................................................................................. 122
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE: ....................................................................................................................................................... 125
FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE: .................................................................................................................................... 128
PASSIVES: ..................................................................................................................................................................... 141
NOUNS: ........................................................................................................................................................................ 153
VERBS: ......................................................................................................................................................................... 176
1. ACTION VERBS ................................................................................................................................................................. 176
2. LINKING VERBS ................................................................................................................................................................ 176
3. HELPING VERBS ................................................................................................................................................................ 177
TWO WORD VERBS ............................................................................................................................................................... 189
ADJECTIVES: ................................................................................................................................................................. 213
ADVERBS: ..................................................................................................................................................................... 244
MODALS:...................................................................................................................................................................... 259
PAST MODALS: .................................................................................................................................................................... 266
USED TO/BE USED TO: * ............................................................................................................................................... 269
TAG QUESTIONS: .......................................................................................................................................................... 281
CAUSATIVE STRUCTURE: .............................................................................................................................................. 285
PHRASES TO AVOID REPETITION: ................................................................................................................................. 288
WISH CLAUSES ............................................................................................................................................................. 291
PRONOUNS: ................................................................................................................................................................. 295
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS ........................................................................................................................................................... 295
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS .................................................................................................................................................. 295
RELATIVE PRONOUNS ............................................................................................................................................................ 295
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SUBJECT PRONOUNS: ............................................................................................................................................................ 296
OBJECT PRONOUNS ............................................................................................................................................................... 296
PREPOSITIONS: ............................................................................................................................................................ 302
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Kernel sentences
1
:
Definition:
A kernel sentence is a simple, declarative
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construction with only one verb and no modifiers
3
or
connectives that may be used in making more complex sentences. A kernel sentence is always active
and affirmative. They are also known as a basic sentence or a kernel. For example, the sentence
4
1. (Noun + Verb)
(Subject + Verb)
---The man teaches.
---The tall man over there usually teaches every day at my school.
2. (Noun + Verb + Adverb/Prepositional Phrase)
(Subj. + Verb + complement)
---My brother works in a factory.
---My hopelessly lazy brother grudgingly works in a modern, well-designed, and well-managed shoe
factory.
---He teaches here.
---He sings beautifully.
3. (Noun + Verb + Noun)
(Subj. + Verb + Direct Object)
---That professor teaches English.
---That famous British professor brilliantly taught Shakespearean English last term.
4. (Noun + Verb + Noun + Noun)
(Subj. + Verb + IO + DO)
Complement
---That man teaches the boys English.
1
2
3
A word or phrase that is used with another word or phrase to limit or add to its meaning; the word ‘fierce’ in ‘
the fierce dog
’ is a
modifier.
4
Good
is a modifier.
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---Year after year, a quiet, patient American man dutifully teaches my boys very useful English.
Verbs used with this pattern: Afford, allot, ask, assign, bring, build, buy, cause, deny, do,
envy, fetch, give, grant, guarantee, hand, lease, leave, lend, make, offer, order, owe, pass, pay, play,
rent, sell, send, show, spare, tell, throw.
---While she was in prison, friends used to bring her books.
No preposition is used with these verbs:
---I envy Mary her long eyelashes.
---Can you afford me a little of your time.
---It cost me 10 dollars.
5. (Noun + Verb + Noun + Noun/Adjective)
(Subj. + Verb + Object + Object Complement
)
Complement:
Complement (verb) means "go with". (Do not confuse with compliment). In clause syntax, the
complement is anything which joins the verb and adds to the meaning of the subject. These
complements can be either direct object, indirect object, subject complement, or object
complement.
Object complement usually follows the direct object:
---Football makes me very happy.
---The voters elected Clinton president of the USA.
---That man called the teacher a genius.
---An unbelievably ignorant man just called our teacher a true genius!
---They kept him busy.
---I kept my knees warm.
---The sunset made the sky red.
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---He thought the exercise silly.
---I always thought him an annoying child.
---The lawyer considered him innocent.
---The company appointed him director.
---The new law left many people worse off than before.
---She likes her coffee black.
---That noise is driving me crazy.
---They declared themselves bankrupt.
---I prefer my coffee black.
---News reports have called it the worst disaster of this century.
---Could you hold the door open for me, please.
---Should I send this letter first class?
6. (Noun + LV + Noun)
(Subject + LV + Complement)
The most common linking verbs are be (is, am, are, was, were, and so on), seem, appear,
look, feel, smell, sound, taste, become, grow, remain, stay, and turn.
Subject complement usually follows the verb. The most common verb for a subject complement is
the verb to be, but some other verb may be substituted where the meaning of be is expressed. These
are called copular (= linking) verbs or simply copulas. In the examples, complements are in bold,
copular verbs underlined:
---She is a doctor.
---The man is a teacher.
---The talkative man in the corridor is a well-known geography teacher.
7. (Noun + LV + Adjective/Adverb/Prepositional Phrase)
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(Subj. + LV + Complement)
Subject Complements: 1. Noun (Only To be)
2. Adjective
3. Adverb without ly
4. PP
---That man is intelligent.
---All bald-headed men are always very intelligent.
---The team grew tired.
---That program remains popular.
---I feel cold.
---They stayed in class.
---The students are feeling dazed and confused.
---He remained there.
8. (There + LV + Noun + Adverb/Preposiuonal Phrase)
(There + LV + Subject + Complement)
---There is a teacher in the classroom.
---There is an angry teacher in the noisy classroom.
---There will be a parade downtown.
Adverb
---There were two exams yesterday
.
Adverb
(1. adv. on the day before the present day; 2. n. day before the present day)
Some clauses begin with the introductory words there or It rather than with the subject of
the sentence. These introductory words are sometimes called expletives.
The expletive there shows that someone or something exists, usually at a particular time or
place. These sentences generally follow the pattern:
There + verb to be + subject
---There are many skyscrapers in New York City.
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---There was a good movie on television last night.
9. (It + LV + Complement)
(It + LV + Adjective/Adverb/Prepositional Phrase/Noun)
---It was before sunrise.
pp
---It is rainy.
Adj.
---It is 30 miles.
N
---It is important to go.
Adj.
---It is here.
Adv.
---It is morning.
---It is a cold, rainy morning in March.
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Some Clauses with It:
The expletive It is used in a number of different situations and patterns:
(with the verb to be + adjective + infinitive)
---It is important to be punctual for appointments.
(with the verb to be + adverbial + noun clause)
---It was in 1959 that Alaska became a state.
(with the verb to take + time phrase + infinitive)
---It takes a long time to learn a language.
(with the verb to be + noun + relative clause)
---It was David who did most of the work.
It and there, along with the verb and other sentence elements, may be missing from the stem.
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MODIFIERS OF NOUNS
M1 = Determiners noun (Articles, Demonstratives, Possessives, Quantifiers,
Numbers, Distributives, Difference words, Question words)
M2 = Adjective/Participle Noun
M3 = Noun noun
M4 = PP Noun prepositional phrase
M5 = Adverb Noun adverb
M6 = Infinitive Noun infinitive
M7 = Adj Clause Noun Adj Clause
M8 = Adjectival/participle phrases Noun Participle phrase
M9 = Appositives Noun Appositives
M1
1.1. The articles: Definite and Indefinite Articles
The, a, an
Use of a/an:
A. Before a singular noun which is countable (i.e. of which there is more than one) when it is
mentioned for the first time and represents no particular person or thing:
---I need a visa.
---They live in a flat.
---He bought an ice-cream.
---When I was a student, I was very hardworking.
---I have a the response you want to hear.
B. Before a singular countable noun which is used as an example of a class of things:
---A car must be insured.
---A child needs love.
C. With a noun complement. This includes names of professions:
---It was an earthquake.
---She'll be a doctor.
---He is an actor.
D. In certain expressions of quantity:
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---A lot of ---A couple of
---A great many ---A dozen (---One dozen is also possible)
---A great deal of
E. With certain numbers:
---A hundred ---A thousand
Before half when half follows a whole number
1
l
/2 kilos = ---One and a half kilos
or ---A kilo and a half
---One and a half days aren’t enough to deal with the whole matter.
---A day and a half isn’t enough to deal with the whole matter.
But 1/2 kg = ---Half a kilo (no a before half), though a + half + noun is sometimes possible
---Half an apple OR ---A half apple
---A half holiday ---A half portion ---A half share
With 1/3 1/4, 1/5 etc. a is usual ---A third, ---A quarter etc., but one is also possible.
One-seventh but two-sevenths
F. In expressions of price, speed, ratio, etc.:
---5 p a kilo ---£1 a meter ---Sixty kilometers an hour
---$l0 a dozen ---Four times a day (Here a/an = per)
G. In exclamations before singular, countable nouns:
---Such a long queue! ---What a pretty girl!
But
---Such long queues! ---What pretty girls! (Plural nouns, so no article)
H. A can be placed before Mr./Mrs./Miss + surname
---A Mr. Smith ---A Mrs. Smith ---A Miss Smith
A Mr. Smith means 'a man called Smith' and implies that he is a stranger to the speaker Mr. Smith,
without a, implies that the speaker knows Mr. Smith or knows of his existence.
---John, there is a Mr. Smith here to see you.
I. Before nouns functioning as appositive:
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---Hamlet, a play by Shakespeare, is worth seeing.
J. Before nouns which look plural.
---A means/species/TV series
---Newspaper advertisement is an effective means for finding qualified job applicants.
---Technology may be seen as a means to bring about emancipation.
---Language is an important means of communication.
---Mountain gorillas are an endangered species.
---Over a hundred species of insects are found in this area.
K. With these expressions:
---Take a seat
---Make a mistake
---Be in a hurry
---Take an interest in
---Keep an eye on
---Keep a close eye on
---Keep sth as a secret
---Take (a) pride in
---Make an attempt
L. Hair
---A hair ---Two hairs
M. Before adjectives attributed to s.o.
---A liar (n.)
---A fool
---A thief
---A hero
---A genius
Omission of a/an
A/an is omitted:
A. Before plural nouns:
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A/an has no plural form. So the plural of ---A dog is ---Dogs, and of ---An egg is
---Eggs
B. Before uncountable nouns:
---Software
---A piece of software
C. Before names of meals, except when these are preceded by an adjective:
---We have breakfast at six.
---He gave us a good breakfast.
The article a is also used when it is a special meal given to celebrate something or in someone's
honor.
---I was invited to dinner. (at their house, in the ordinary way)
but
---I was invited to a dinner given to welcome the new ambassador.
A/an and one:
A. a/an and one (adjective)
1. When counting or measuring time, distance, weight etc. we can use either a/an or one for the
singular:
---£1 = a/one pound ---£1,000,000 = a/one million pounds
But note that, in The rent is £100 a week, the a before week is not replaceable by one.
In other types of statement a/an and one are not normally interchangeable, because one +
noun normally means 'one only/not more than one' and a/an does not mean this.
---A shotgun is no good.
---One shotgun is no good.
Special uses of one:
(a) One (adjective/pronoun) used with another/the other(s):
---One (boy) wanted to read, another/the others wanted to watch TV.
---One day, he wanted his lunch early, another day, he wanted it late.
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(b) One can be used before day/week/month/year/summer/winter etc. or before the name of the
day or month to denote a particular time when something happened:
---One night, there was a terrible storm.
---One winter, the snow fell early.
---One day, a telegram arrived.
(c) One day can also be used to mean 'at some future date'.
---One day, you'll be sorry you treated him so badly. (Some day would also be possible)
B. A/an and one (pronoun)
One is the pronoun equivalent of a/an:
---Did you get a ticket? Yes, I managed to get one.
The plural of one used in this way is some.
---Did you get tickets? Yes, I managed to get some.
Articles: a/an before noun phrases
1 Tick the correct sentence in each pair.
1 a. The company has captured a significant share of the market
b. The company has captured significant share of the market.
2 a. I think they are also right to certain extent
b. I think they are also right to a certain extent.
Don't forget to include a/an before an adjective + singular noun combination:
---He clearly has a good understanding of the issues.
---Many students have a part-time job while studying.
Notice the position of adverbs (very, really, quite, etc.) in these phrases:
---We have a very high percentage of women working in senior government posts.
---There was a really good atmosphere.
---There was quite a good atmosphere.
---In my view, this is quite a strong argument.
Some common noun phrases to be careful with:
• To a certain extent/degree: ---I agree with you to a certain degree.
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• A wide range/variety of: ---We have a wide range of books to choose from.
• A (n) large/small/equal number/amount of: ---An equal number of men and women
• A high/large/small/greater proportion/percentage of: ---A small proportion of patients
• A long time: ---I haven’t seen her for a long time.
2 Correct the mistake below.
---All competitors should have equal chance of winning.
---All
3 Use the words below in the same order to form correct sentences, adding any necessary articles
or prepositions.
1. Only / small / number / troublemakers / were / responsible for / problems.
2. Computers / play / very / important / role / education / nowadays.
3. She / can't / afford to / study / full-time / basis.
4. Teenagers / should be / allowed / greater / degree / freedom
5. They / have / slightly / different / approach to / studying
6. We / had / one-week / intensive / training / course.
7. There / has been / gradual / increase / number / thefts.
8. They / offer / quite / wide / variety / courses.
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The (the definite article):
A. Form:
The is the same for singular and plural and for all genders:
---The boy --- The girl ---The day
---The boys ---The girls ---The days
B. Use:
The definite article is used.
1. When the object or group of objects is unique or considered to be unique:
---(The) earth ---(The) sea ---The sky ---The equator ---The stars
---The sun
---The sun was just dropping below the horizon.
---The moon ---The environment ---The Internet
---The world ---The underground/the Tube/the metro/the subway
---The media
---The news
---The Church
---The tourist/car/hotel/construction industry/trade/business
---The timber/fur/wool/wine/motor/building industry/trade
---The energy/computer/advertising/entertainment/music/hospitality industry/business
---The Industrial Revolution
2. Before a noun which has become definite as a result of being mentioned a second time:
---His car struck a tree; you can still see the mark on the tree.
---I just got a new camera. The camera has an image-stabilization feature.
3. Before a noun made definite by the addition of a phrase or clause:
---The girl in blue ---The man with the banner ---The boy that I met
---The place where I met him
---The assignment that I just got in calculus is a real killer.
4. Before a noun which is clear to both the listener and the speaker:
---Ann is in the garden. (the garden of this house)
---Please, pass the salt. (the salt on the table)
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Similarly,
---The postman (the one who comes to us),
---The car (our car),
---The newspaper (the one we read)
5. Before superlatives and first, second etc. used as adjectives or pronouns, and only:
---The first week ---The best day ---The only way
6. The + singular noun can represent a class of animals, things, plants, and inventions.
---The whale is in danger of becoming extinct.
---The Rafflesia is the world's largest flower.
---Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone.
But man, used to represent the human race, has no article.
---Man is still far more intelligent than the cleverest robot.
---Man is rapidly destroying the Earth.
---This is one of the most dangerous substances known to man.
---If oil supplies run out, man may have to fall back on the horse.
The can be used before a member of a certain group of people:
---The small shopkeeper is finding life increasingly difficult.
The + singular noun as used above takes a singular verb. The pronoun is he, she, or it:
---The first-class traveler pays more, so he or she expects some comfort.
7. The + adjective represents a class of persons: ---The old = old people in general
---After the accident, the injured were taken to hospital.
---A nightclub used by the rich and the famous
---He looks for the lonely, the lost, and the unloved.
---The blind ---The old
---The dead ---The poor
---The deaf ---The rich
---The handicapped ---The unemployed
---The mentally ill ---The young = The youth
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---The insurance was invalid for the invalid.
All these adjectives cannot be used with possesives:
--- problems
---The problems of the poor ---Poor people's problems
---The quick and the dead
8. The is also used before names consisting of noun + of + noun
---The problem of homelessness
---The difficulty of bringing up children
---The pain of separation
---There is a problem with the availability of clean water in some villages.
---The distribution of income is uneven in most countries.
---On the whole, the standard of living is better in urban areas.
---Many residents complained about the frequency of bus services.
---This advance was brought about by the development of antibiotics.
---He made a number of recommendations for the improvement of staff training.
We use the development/improvement, etc. of something to describe a general process of change,
but developments/improvements, etc. in something to describe specific changes:
---We try to keep up-to-date with new developments in information technology.
The is used before the adjectives east/west etc. + noun in certain names
---The East End/West End ---The East Indies/West Indies
---(The) North/South Pole (but the is normally omitted)
---South Africa ---North America ---West Germany ---Northern Ireland
The, however, is used before east/west etc. when these are nouns
---The north of Spain
---The north of Iran
---The West (political)
---The Middle East
Compare ---Go north (adverb in a northerly direction) with ---He lives in the north (noun an area in
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the north)
The is used before certain proper names of seas, rivers, groups of islands, chains of mountains (but
not summits ---Mount Everest
no article with singular mountains), plural names of countries,
deserts, regions, planets such as Earth, Sun, and the Moon but not other planets:
---The Atlantic ---The Netherlands
---The Thames ---The Sahara
---The Azores ---The Crimea
---The Alps ---The Riviera
and before certain other names
---The City ---The Mall ---The Sudan
---The Hague ---The Strand ---The Yemen
9. It is also used before names of choirs, orchestras, pop groups etc.:
---The Bach Choir ---The Philadelphia Orchestra ---The Beatles
and before names of newspapers (---The Times)
not magazines ---Time Magazine, famous books
(---The holy Koran/The Bible/The Torah) and ships, trains, and planes (---The Great Britain)
But
Great Britain
10. The with names of people has a very limited use the + plural surname can be used to mean 'the
family'
---The Smiths = Mr. and Mrs. Smith (and children)
The + singular name + clause/phrase can be used to distinguish one person from another of the same
name
---We have two Mr. Smiths. Which do you want? I want the Mr. Smith who signed this letter.
11. Before body parts:
---He hit me in the head.
12. Before decades and centuries:
---In the 1800s ---In the twenties ---The 20
th
century
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13. Before expressions of time and place:
---In the future/in the past
In the near future = in a future not far from now
---For the present (now, at this time)
at the present time
But
---At present
---In the morning/afternoon/evening
---The front/back/middle/top/bottom
14. Before ethnic groups:
---The Indians
---The Aztecs
Nationalities:
---The English
---The Chinese
But
---English people
---Chinese people
But
The English language = English
The Chinese language
15. Double comparatives:
---The sooner, the better
16. Superlative adjectives:
---The best
17. Country:
---In the country
18. With countries having plural s:
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---The Netherlands
---The Philippines
---The British Isles
19. Musical instruments while playing is concerned:
---I play the piano.
20. The very, and The same modifying nouns:
---
21. To talk about something in general. We use the plural if we are talking about something in
general; we use the to identify one specific example.
Compare:
---People with reading difficulties often have problems with numbers.
---The number eight is considered lucky in some countries.
Omission of the:
C. definite article is not used
1. Before names of places except as shown above or before names of people
2. Before abstract nouns except when they are used in a particular sense
---Man fears death.
but
---The death of the Prime Minister left his party without a leader.
---Two million people in the city live in abject poverty.
---The poverty of the people in the rural areas is not as visible as that of the people in the city.
---The coffee I had this morning was Brazilian.
3. After a noun in the possessive case, or a possessive adjective
---The boy's uncle = ---The uncle of the boy
---It is my (blue) book = ---The (blue) book is mine.
4. Before names of meals:
---The Scots have porridge for breakfast.
but
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---The wedding dinner was held in her father's house.
5. Before names of games
---He plays golf.
6. Before parts of the body and articles of clothing, as these normally prefer a possessive adjective:
---Raise your right hand ---He took off his coat.
But notice that sentences of the type
---She seized the child's collar.
could be expressed
---She seized the child by the collar.
---I patted his shoulder.
could be expressed
---I patted him on the shoulder.
---The brick hit John's face.
could be expressed
---The brick hit John in the face.
Similarly in the passive
---He was hit on the head.
---He was cut in the hand.
7. Nature where it means the spirit creating and motivating the world of plants and animals etc. is
used without the
---If you interfere with nature, you will suffer for it.
8. Omission of the before home, church, hospital, prison, school etc. and before work, sea and town:
A. home
When home is used alone i.e. is not preceded or followed by a descriptive word or phrase, the is
omitted:
---He is at home.
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But when home is preceded or followed by a descriptive word or phrase it is treated like any other
noun:
---They went to their new home.
---We arrived at the bride's home.
---For some years, this was the home of your queen.
---A mud hut was the only home he had ever known.
B. Bed, church, court, hospital, prison, school/college/university
The is not used before the nouns listed above when these places are visited or used for their primary
purpose.
---We go:
to bed to sleep or as invalids to hospital as patients to church to pray to prison as
prisoners
to court as litigants etc. to school/college/university to study
Similarly
---We can be:
in bed, sleeping or resting
in hospital as patients
at church as worshippers
at school etc. as students
in court as witnesses etc.
We can be/get back (or be/get home) from school/college/university.
We can leave school, leave hospital, be released from prison.
When these places are visited or used for other reasons the is necessary:
---I went to the church to see the stained glass.
---He goes to the prison sometimes to give lectures.
C. sea
We go to sea as sailors.
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To be at sea = to be on a voyage (as passengers or crew).
But
To go to or be at the sea = to go to or be at the seaside. We can also live by/near the sea.
D. Work and office
Work (= place of work) is used without the:
---He's on his way to work.
---He is at work.
---He isn't back from work yet.
Note that at work can also mean 'working'; hard at work = working hard:
---He's hard at work on a new picture.
Office (= place of work) needs the:
---He is at/in the office.
To be in office (without the) means to hold an official (usually political) position.
To be out of office = to be no longer in power.
E. Town
The can be omitted when speaking of the subject's or speaker's own town:
---We go to town sometimes to buy clothes.
---We were in town last Monday.
F. Do not use the with jobs or titles following their nouns:
---Kennedy, president of America, was one of the most famous politicians in the world.
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Exercise:
Complete the sentences below using the words in brackets. Decide whether or not to use the, or
whether to use the plural.
1. The main advantage of .................... is that it gives us access to information from all over the
world. (Internet)
2. all over Australia. (river)
3. Life in ......................... is very different from life in my country. (America)
4. According to the graph, .................... of people moving into the city each year has more than
doubled. (number)
5. The total figure for 1976 wasas the total figure for 1982. (same)
6. Obesity is much more common inthan in my country. (USA)
7. The graph shows that .....................increase occurred in 1999. (greatest)
8. travels around ............................... at a speed of 3,700 kilometres per hour. (moon,
earth)
Are these sentences right or wrong? Correct those containing mistakes.
1. A diet high in cholesterol is bad for heart.
2. The introduction of computerised systems led to an increase in unemployment.
3. We all benefit from development of new technologies.
4. We were unhappy about quality of the food available.
5. Last year, the airline saw a 20% improvement in delays.
6. There have been changes in the relationship between the teacher and the student.
7. Rates vary depending on standard of accommodation you choose.
8. She focused on the role of a family in a child's education.
Underline the correct article: a/an/the or - (no article).
1. This test measures a/the/- concentration of acid in a/the/- stomach.
2. It took an/the/- incredibly long time for the results to be announced.
3. There have been an/the/- improvements in a/the/- quality as well as an/the/-
efficiency.
4. A/The/- high percentage of businesses fail in the first year.
5. The study found that a/the/- significant number of homes had two cars.
6. This shows a/the/- sharp decline in a/the/- proportion of aid allocated to health.
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7. He studied the role of an/the/- extended family in caring for older people.
8. These reforms have succeeded to a/the/- certain extent.
9. All children should receive a/the/- basic education.
10. The HR department deals with a/the/- recruitment of new staff.
11. What is a/the/- significance of these figures?
12. She has an/the/- excellent communication skills.
Rewrite the sentences below using the word given and making any changes necessary to keep
the meaning the same.
1. The council wants to encourage new businesses to develop.
development ................................................................................................
2. His main role is to assess how good the service is for customers.
quality ...........................................................................................................
3. There has been an increase in the amount of goods transported by road.
transportation...............................................................................................
4. Whether mothers return to work often depends on whether childcare is available.
availability ....................................................................................................
5. Many of the changes are due to the fact that tourism has grown in the region.
growth ...........................................................................................................
Tests:
1. What's
1. door when he comes into room.
2. door when he comes into the room.
3. the door when he comes into room.
4. the door when he comes into the room.
2. "What did John do?"
man's room quickly because the man was seriously ill."
1. in the 2. into the 3. inside the 4. the
3
1. a 2. an 3. the
4. When I was still a
country.
1. a 2. an 3. the
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5
1. the 2. a 3. an
6. In Islam, much attention has been paid t
1. a 2. an 4. the
7
1. the 2. a 3. an
8
1. a 2. an 3. the
9. I say that Ali can play outside, but he mustn'
1. a 3. an 4. the
10
1. a 2. an 3. the 4. one
11
1. a 3. an 4. the
12
1. a 2. the 4. an
13
1. the 2. a 3. an 4. one
14. Nowadays, -storey house is much more expensive than an apartment.
1. a 2. an 3. the
enter
of
my brother bought me yesterday
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ow
Tests:
1- Do you see ......... boy playing over there? He is ......... one who broke my car's windscreen
yesterday.
A) a/-
B) the/the
C) the/-
D) -/the
E) a/the
2- .......... Inca was .......... civilization, .........people of which were more cultivated than any other
civilization of that time.**
A) The/a/the
B) The/a/-
C) An/the/the
D) -/the/a
E) The/-/-
3- For most of .......... past two and half......... million years .......... human beings left their
garbage where it felt.
A) -/a/ the
B) a /the /a
C) the /the /the
D) the/a/-
4- He says that at ........ end of ........ busy day, sleep is ......... best tonic.
A) the / the / -
B) an / a / a
C) the / a / the
D) - / - / the
E) the / - / -
Tests: Peterson's Success
1. The most butterfly eggs are coated with a sticky substance that holds them to
A B C
plants.
D
2. A number of large insurance companies have the headquarters in Hartford,
A B C D
Connecticut.
3. To be effective, an advertisement must first attract an attention.
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A B C D
4. Virgin Islands National Park features a underwater preserve with coral reefs and
A B
colorful tropical fish.
C D
5. Arthritis, a painful swelling of the joints, is often associated with elderly people,
A B C
but can afflict young as well.
D
6. Wilmington is an only large city in the state of Delaware.
A B C D
7. About the third of the Earth's land surface is covered by relatively flat plains.
A B C D
8. In the 1920s, gasoline companies began giving away free road maps to the
A B C D
customers.
9. The Tropic of Cancer is imaginary line that marks the northern boundary of the
A B C D
Earth's tropical zone.
10. Hereford cows are one of most common breeds of cattle raised for beef.
A B C D
11. American soprano Kathleen Battle taught music in elementary school before beginning the career
as a professional singer. A B C
D
12. In 1891, first state law to help local communities pay for highways was passed in New Jersey.
A B C D
13. Lumber is dried and seasoned in an heated chamber called a dry kiln.
A B C D
14. Grandfather Mountain, a highest mountain in the Blue Ridge mountain range, is in North
Carolina. A B C D
15. The eardrum is the only organ in a human body that is capable of detecting
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A B C
changes in air pressure.
D
16. It was around 1925 that accurate, convenient system for recording the
A B C
choreography of ballet was developed.
D
1. most
2. their
3. attention
4. an underwater
5. the young
6. the only
7. a third/ one third
8. (their) customers
9. an imaginary
10. the most common
11. her career
12. the first
13. a heated
14. the highest
15. the human
16. an accurate
Tests: Rahnama
1. The watt is named after James Watt, the British engineer who developed
A B
the steam engine in 1760s.
C D
2. Methane is a odorless burning gas and is the main ingredient of natural gas.
A B C D
3. The alcohol acts as a narcotic on the nervous system and the brain.
A B C D
4. Zachary Taylor was first president to be elected from a state west of the Mississippi River.
A B C D
5. Barnacles, which are related to lobsters, shrimp, and crabs, make strongest
A B C D
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glue.
6. In the 1860s, Louis Pasteur discovered that bacteria in air caused the perishable
A B C
food to go bad.
D
7. Land covers almost third of the earth's surface, of which two-thirds is too cold
A B C D
or too dry for farming.
8. "Old Faithful" in the Yellowstone National Park is probably the world's most
A B C D
famous geyser.
9. Thermographs are special pictures that show the variation in heat emitted by
A B C
different areas of body.
D
10. The most of the energy used in our homes and factories is generated from
A B
coal, oil, and natural gas.
C D
11. The scholarship that Wilson received to study history at Cambridge presented
A B C
an unique opportunity.
D
12. Ford designed the first large-scale assembly line at plant in Highland Park, Michigan.
A B C D
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1.2. Demonstratives
This, that, these, those, such, such a (n)
the very = exact, particular, specific
---That post marks the beginning of the mined area.
---This is the very book I've been looking for all month.
---You're the very person we need for the job.
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1.3. Possessives
My, your, his, her, its, our, their + Noun/Ving (gerund)
---Because of your leaving late, you will have to take a taxi in order to catch your train.
---Professor Jones was angry at my coming late to class every day.
---I really appreciate your trying to arrive on time.
---We objected to their calling at this hour.
---I approve of one’s living on his or her own before marriage.
---The government’s imposing new deadlines generated a lot of discussion.
---The referee’s delaying the start of the game allowed the field to dry.
---I resented their interrupting our conversations.
---I don't like his being punished.
---Bob’s adjusting the antenna did not improve the reception.
Test:
My to get nominated for the office is enough; I don't care if I win or not.
A B C D
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1.4 Quantifiers
(A) Few, (a) little, much, many, a lot of, lots of, plenty of, a great deal of, a large quantity/ amount of,
a large number of, a number of the number of, most, some, any, several, enough.
(A) few +
Few:
---
---I'm an unhappy person. I have few friends.
---I have had few problems with the system.
A few:
---
---I'm a happy person. I have a few friends.
---She sold a few of the books.
---A few of the soldiers were wounded.
Few and far between:
---In that town, good restaurants are few and far between.
.
No fewer than: used to show that you consider a number to be surprisingly large
---No fewer than five hundred delegates attended the conference.
---No fewer than five children died.
Not a few:
---Not a few of the students have cars.
(A)little +
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Little:
---
---I'm very poor. I have little money.
---I have had little information about the system.
---I have little room to work in.
---There is little hope left.
A little:
---
---I still have a little money left.
---I'm not so poor. I have a little money.
---A little Knowledge is a dangerous thing.
.
---John thought he knew how to take care of the garden, but he killed all the flowers. A little
knowledge is a dangerous thing.
Only + a few / a little + … = Few/Little
---Only a few dollars have been budgeted for supplies.
---We have only a little homework for Monday.
There are few, if any, criterion that are more important than honesty in the
A B C D
assessment of a person's character.
A lot of/Lots of +
A lot of:
---A lot of money
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---A lot of students
---He's got a lot of bottle.
A lot: adv.
---On holiday, we walk and swim a lot.
---The government seems to change its mind a great deal.
Plenty of +
Plenty of:
---Don't rush, there's plenty of time.
---Plenty of shops take checks.
A great deal of/A large amount of +
---I have thrown a large amount of old clothing.
---Mr. Lucas has spent a great deal of time in the Far East.
A great/large/small number of + → A plural verb is needed after a / an (large,
small, etc.) number of
---A large number of people have applied for the job.
Much +
Much: adj.
Great in quantity, measure, or degree:
-1
---There is much truth in what you say.
---There is much debate about the project.
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Much: adv.
---Much heavier
---I'm much happier now.
---We much prefer the country to the town.
---Janet much enjoyed her stay with your family.
---I very much like your brother.
Much: n. much can be used alone A great quantity, measure, or degree:
---Much of his research was unreliable.
---He gave much of his wealth to the poor.
---Much of the rest belongs to me.
NOTE:
---very little experience.)
---something from it.)
---Much interesting memories
1
Much polluted air
2
Much brilliant gold
1. [much+ adj] + countable nouns
2. [much+ adj] + uncountable nouns
[much] + adj+ [uncountable nouns]
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To be not much of a something = to not be a good example of something or not be very good
at something:
---I'm not much of a football player, I'm afraid.
---It wasn't really much of a storm.
---He is not much of a cook.
---He is not much of a teacher.
Many +
Many:
---Many soldiers were killed.
---Heownsmanyhouses.
---Many students
---There are many concerns about the project.
TOEFL/IELTS: If we have a pronoun or a determiner plus a noun after many or much, we need of.
Many/Much of + determiner (a, the, this, my...) + noun.
---You can't see much of a country in a week.
---Much of the work/Much of it was done by me.
---I won't pass the exam. I have missed many of my lessons.
---Many of her friends/Many of them live abroad.
Idiomatic expressions:
A good many (or a great many) = a lot of, numerous
---I remember meeting him a good many years ago.
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The meaning of not many and not much is similar to the one expressed by (very) few and (very)
little, respectively:
---
---
The only difference between the four sentences above is that the ones with (very) few and (very)
little connote a smaller quantity.
Many: Many can be used alone.
---Many of her friends/Many of them live abroad.
---Many were still lying where they had been injured.
---Many hands make light work.
---Many hands make light work, and when the three men worked together they quickly finished
moving the furniture.
Too many chiefs and not enough Indians.
---I can't find anyone to do the photocopying. There are too many chiefs and not enough Indians in
this company.
Too many cooks spoil the broth (UK)/soup (US).
---There were so many people working on the same project; no one knew what anyone else was
doing. I think it was a case of too many cooks.
Exercise:
1. Tick the correct sentence in each pair.
1 a. I don't have many time to complete my assignment.
b. I don't have much time to complete my assignment.
2 a. When I did a search on my computer, I could only find a few informations about the topic.
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b. When I did a search on my computer, I could only find a little information about the
topic.
TOEFL: As Many As
Remember that as many as is used before a specific number to express an estimate that does not
exceed the number.
Avoid using as many instead of as many as. Avoid using much instead of many before a specific
number.
Note: Comparative estimates with as much as are also used before a specific number that
refers to weight, distance, or money.
For example,
---As much as ten pounds,
---As much as two miles, or
---As much as twenty dollars
---We expect as much as thirty people to come.
---We expect as many as thirty people to come.
---There are as many fifteen thousand students attending summer school.
---There are as many as fifteen thousand students attending summer school.
---The children can see as much as twenty-five baby animals in the nursery at the zoo.
---The children can see as many as twenty-five baby animals in the nursery at the zoo.
---Many as ten planes have sat in line waiting to take off.
---As many as ten planes have sat in line waiting to take off.
---State University offers as much as two hundred major fields of study.
---State University offers as many as two hundred major fields of study.
---
1898.
(A) approximate
(B) until
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(C) as many as
(D) more
---It is generally accepted that the common cold is caused by as much as forty strains of viruses
that may be present in the air at all times.
Many a(n) + = Many +
---I've told you many a time not to ride your bike on the pavement.
---It remained a mystery for many a year.
---Many a man has martyred in the way of truth.
---Many a man and woman has wished that he or she had had a better education.
---I have been to the top of the Eiffel tower many a time.
---Many a white lie better than a seditious truth.
Most + 1.
2.
Most: adj.
In the majority of instances:
---Most operations are successful.
---Most religious and racial discrimination is based on ignorance.
Most: n.
The greatest quantity, amount, or degree; the utmost:
---The most I can hope for is a passing grade.
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Most: adv.
---It's a most puzzling case.
---Most certainly
---Most quickly
---A most interesting story
---That is most kind of you.
---Thank you for a most interesting afternoon.
---Iran's most beautiful city is Shiraz.
1. ---Most difficult questions (very)
---Most difficult questions ()
2.---The Most difficult questions
M1
Some +
Some:
---Some nights
---This criticism applies to some students only.
---I have some responses, but I am not sure that they are the responses you want to hear.
Some: pron.
---Some agree and some disagree.
---Some like it cooked.
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---They have been married for some years.
---I waited there some hours.
---Some eighty houses
---Some ten of them
---It was some dinner!
---That was some party last night!
---Eat some!
---I slept some.
---Have some patience!
---You must run some to catch up with them.
---Some person called me.
---I'll do it someday.
---A request for help from some man in the hall
---Some book
---I have bought some agricultural land.
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---We have some good honey.
---Some of the butter
---Some of the cars
---Some of the book
---Some of the books
Some or other + singular verb
---Some or other has stolen the money.
Any 1. In positive statements +
2. In negative statements/Questions +
Any:
---Any student may answer.
---Any teacher knows this.
---Any one of them
---Take any book you like.
-2
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---He doesn't tolerate any criticism.
---I don't have any time.
---Are there any chairs in this class?
---Is there any money left?
---Did you see any accident in the street when you were coming?
Ø-3
---They didn't have any money to give me.
) -4
---By any means
---In any case
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Anywhere
A: I will go anywhere she goes.
B: They shouldn't go anywhere.
anything
A: There isn't anything in the fridge.
B: I am very hungry; I will eat anything.
anyone/anybody
the result of presidential election. sA: Anyone/Anybody know
B: He didn't see anybody/anyone in the back yard.
anyone/anybodyAB
---It is crystal clear that each person could not cope with communities' problems.
Several +
Several:
1. Some; an amount that is not exact but is fewer than many; more than two but not very many
---There were 70 men and only several women.
---A stay of several months in England...
2. Separate; different:
---Her knowledge of three several languages was perfect.
NP (HN) NP
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---Their ownership is several and not joint.
Exercise:
1. Tick the correct sentence in each pair.
1 a. There are several problem with this idea.
b. There are several problems with this idea.
2 a. Many charity organisations provide a great deal of help.
b. Many charity organisation provides a great deal of help.
Enough +
Enough:
---enough room.
---He has enough money to live well.
---We have enough time to walk to the office.
---We have time enough to walk to the office. (Exception)
---He is old enough to travel by himself.
---Surprisingly (enough), he, too, collects stamps.
---Interestingly (enough), none of their three children ever married.
---Interestingly (enough), Pearson made no attempt to deny the rumour.
---I, oddly enough, feel tired.
---Ironically enough/ironically, for a man who hated war, he would have made a superb war
cameraman.
---She said, convincingly enough, that she was innocent.
---Sadly enough/ sadly, the forests of Sulawesi are now under threat.
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---Enough is enough!
---I have had enough.
1.5 Distributives = referring to the members of a group individually, as the adjectives each and
every.
All, both, half, either, neither, each, every, no
All +
All:
-1
---All the people
---All the professors resigned.
---I read all the books.
---Life is not all pleasure.
---We all give our lives.
All of + the + noun
All of + object pronoun (plural)
All/ All the + noun
---All (of) the book
---All books
The only quantifier which equals its Persian equivalents
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---All of the apple is rotten.
---All of the apples are rotten.
All and all of are both possible before nouns with determiners (the, my, this)
---All (of) my friends.
Before a noun without a determiner, we do not normally use of.
---All children can be difficult.
Do not say
---She has been studying all the day/all the night/all the morning/all the afternoon/all the
evening/all the week/all the month/all the year,
but
---She has been studying all day/all night/all morning..., that is, we omit the and the preposition of
in the expression all + day, night, and so on. Note also all (of) the time, all (of) the summer, etc. The
is optional in the phrase all (the) year round.
Notice the following as well: throughout/all through the night, the day, and so forth.
Either +
Either: use this to talk about one of two people, places, or things, especially when it does not
matter which one
Any one of two; one or the other:
---Wear either coat.
One and the other; each, both:
---She had a ring on either hand.
---Either class
---You can use either hand.
---He had a knife in either hand.
---Applications are welcomed from people of either sex and any age.
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Either: pron.
1. One or the other:
---There are two roads into the town, and you can take eitherEither will do'.
---We have two apples; you can take either but not both.
:either of.etc
either of
.the bathrooms either ofYou can use ---
perfectly capable of looking after the baby. is Either of the children---
.either of my math teachersI don't like ---
Neither + +
Neither:
---Neither class
---Neither boy went.
---Neither of them was invited.
---He made two suggestions but neither was accepted.
---"Will you have tea or coffee?" "Neither, thanks"
---Neither candidate is having an easy time with the press.
---On two occasions, she was accused of stealing money from the company, but in neither case was
there any evidence to support the claims.
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TOEFL:
Neither/either + NP + nor/or + + plural verb
Neither/either + NP + nor/or + + singular verb
Neither of/either of + + singular verb
---Neither my sister nor my brothers go to university.
---Neither my sisters nor my brother goes to university.
---Neither of/either of the students speak/speaks a foreign language.
---Either (one) of them is competent to do the job.
---Neither of the two pieces was familiar to him.
TOEFL:
None of the + 1. + singular verb
2. + plural verb
---None of the counterfeit money has been found.
---None of the students have finished the exam yet.
---I planted hundreds of seeds but none have come up.
---Everybody loved her, but none more than I did.
none
---How many of the books have you read? None.
noneno books
none .
Each +
Each: adj.
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1. Every one of two or more considered individually or one by one:
---Each stone in a building
---A hallway with a door at each end
-1
---He called me each day and asked about my circumstances.
---Each student was given a ticket.
---Each year
Each: pron.
. Every one individually; each one:
---Each had a different solution to the problem.
-2
each of.
---Each of them has to pay five dollars.
---Three shots were fired, each missing the mark.
Each: adv.
3. To, from, or for each; apiece = each; for each one:
---They cost a dollar each.
---She gave us two apples each.
-5
---The oranges cost 2000 tomans each.
---Each other
---The two sisters love each other.
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For more than two people use one another.
---These 3 students are fighting with one another.
Every +
Every: (Always adj. and always before a noun)
-1
---Every man and woman
---Every teacher knows this.
---Every few days
---Every year
---Every day
---To work hard for every penny
ی -2
---Every citizen was there.
---They have every needed facility.
---Every student passed (the test).
---I have read every one of his books.
......-3
---Take this medicine every three hours. .
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No:
Adj. Ø
No+ 1.
---
2.
---No trees grow in the desert.
3.
---No tree grows in the desert.
1. Not any:
---No money
-2
---There are no mistakes in your composition.
---I have no doubt.
---I have no time.
---No animal lives there.
---He gave no answer.
Note: No body or nobody? Use these exemplar sentences as a guide:
---It was believed that he had been murdered, but NO BODY was ever found, and so
nothing could be proved. (= no corpse) Corps.
---NOBODY likes going to the dentist. (= no one)
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WITH COUNT NOUN WITH NON-COUNT NOUN
A(n), the, some, any The, some, any
This, that, these, those much (usually in negatives or questions)
None, one, two, three,... this, that
Many none
A lot of a lot of
A number of a large amount of
(A) few a little
Fewer... than less....than
More....than more....than
Tests:
1. a little 2. less 3. more 4. a few
money for his future.
1. few 2. a few 3. a little 4. many
1. many 2. much 3. any 4. a large number of
4. There is
1. large amount of 2. large number of 3. many 4. a few
1. much 2. many 3. some 4. any
1. many 2. a few 3. few 4. a little
1. often 2. much 3. many 4. some
1. few 2. a few 3. many 4. some
1. a lot of 2. many 3. a large number of 4. a few
1. a large amount of 2. much 3. a little 4. plenty of
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1. many 2. much 3. any 4. little
1. many 2. much 3. any 4. a little
water in the bottle?
1. much 2. a few 3. few 4. many
1. any 2. a little 3. a few 4. much
1. a few 2. too many 3. so much 4. another
spent on this problem?
1. many times 2. much time 3. far 4. soon
1. much 2. many 3. a few 4. some
18. I saw
1. much 2. a lot of 3. any 4. a
19.
1. several 2. a number of 3. so many 4. a large amount of
20. When we run out of bread, we use flour to make bread. But now we have ................ flour left.
1. very much 2. several 3. hardly any 4. too much
21. Several fish ............. dying because of the pollution in the water.
1. is 2. are 3. have 4. to be
22. He made ............... noise about the poor food in the restaurant and decided not to eat anything
there again.
1. many 2. a few 3. a large number of 4. a lot of
23. Did you hear about the crash? There.......... a lot of news about it on TV last week.
1. were 2. is 3. had 4. was
1. little 2. few 3. many 4. much
1. A great many 2. A large number of
3. A great deal 4. A large amount of
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26. She would like to ask you ..........questions. She needs ..........more information.
1. a few / a little 2. more / a few 3. a few / a few 4. a little/ much
27. The lecture he gave was highly complicated,
following it.
1. lesser 2. a few 3. few 4. more
1. a few 2. many 3. few 4. much
29. There will be .......... work to do after PCs have been put into the bank systems.
1. less 2. many 3. too many 4. very few
30. A ........ people typically agree that life is always sweet.
1. large amount of 2. great quantity of
3. larger number of 4. lot
31. A small amount of poison............. found in the coffee cup I used last week.
1. is 2. are 3. was 4. were
32. The price of meat has really gone up. They now give you .......... for your money.
1. so few 2. so much 3. much less 4. fewer
friends
money
rain
time
snow
times
bread some
water
wild animal
question
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sand
fish
noise
news
information
effort
question information
peoplefew
Work
poisonamount
meatmuchfar
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Tests: Peterson's Success
(A) no
(B) not
(C) without
(D) neither
Park.
(A) none of
(B) no
(C) nothing
(D) not
3. Joseph Priestly, the discoverer of oxygen, had little or not interest in science
A B C
until he met Benjamin Franklin in Paris.
D
(A) not
(B) nor
(C) no
(D) none
sheet music in front of them.
(A) without
(B) not having
(C) lacking
(D) and no
6. had existed before.
(A) never
(B) no one
(C) none
(D) not one
7. A peanut is not actually a nut but a legume alike peas and beans.
A B C D
(A) no
(B) not
(C) nor
(D) none
9. Twenty-four carat gold is no one hundred percent gold because pure gold is too
A B C D
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soft to be used in jewelry.
(A) without
(B) none
(C) no
(D) not
(A) There was not a
(B) Nor a
(C) Not one of
(D) No
(A) not with
(B) no
(C) not having
(D) without
1. no
2. not
3. no
4. not
5. without
6. none
7. like
8. not
9. not
10. no
11. no
12. without
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1.6 Difference words:
Other, the other, another, both
Other +
Other: (ADDITIONAL)
1. additional to the item or person already mentioned:
---The product has many other time-saving features.
---There is no other work available at the moment.
2. used at the end of a list to show that there are more things, without being exact about
what they are:
---Apples and other fruits
---The plan has been opposed by schools, businesses and other local organizations.
---These two books will be especially useful for editors, journalists and other professional users of the
language.
---He likes travelling abroad and learning about other people's customs and traditions.
Others: pron.
1. additional ones:
---I only know about this book, but there might be others. (= other books).
2. people in general, not including yourself:
---You shouldn't expect others to do your work for you.
---Some people prefer a vegetarian diet, while others prefer a meat-based diet.
The other +
The rest
---She's much brighter than all the other children in her class.
---I chose this coat in the end because the other ones were all too expensive.
The others: pron.
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---After her departure, the others resumed the discussion.
---She gave me one book last week and promised to bring the others on Wednesday.
The other +
the second of two things or people, or the item or person that is left in a group or set of things:
---I've found one earring - do you know where the other one is?
---Hold the racquet in one hand and the ball in the other.
---One man was arrested, but the other one got away.
(than noun )
---You won't be able to sell it other than by reducing the price.
---All parts of the house other than the windows were in good condition.
---He had no other clothes than those he was wearing.
---The other day (or night)
---I saw Jack the other day.
Another +
Another:
---Do you want to exchange this toaster for another (one) or do you want your money back?
---
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---
---Another change that Sue made was to install central heating.
---In another place
---At another time
---A person of another race
---Wait another week
---I don't want this book. Please give me another.
(another = any other book - not specific)
---I don't want this book. Please give me the other.
(the other = the other book, specific)
---One movie starts at five, another movie starts at seven, and the other
adj. adj. (indefinite) adj.(definite)
movie starts at nine.
---One of my roommates studies engineering, another studies business, and the other studies
computer science.
---Some houses are for rent, other houses are for sale, and the other houses are empty.
Both +
Both: adj.
One and the other; two together:
---Both my parents are teachers.
---They have two grown children, both of whom live abroad.
---The problem with both of these proposals is that they are hopelessly impractical.
---I think it's important to listen to both sides of the argument.
---Improved child-care facilities would benefit both sexes, not just women.
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Both: pron.
The one as well as the other:
---Both of us were going to the party.
---I knew them both. (or I knew both of them)
Both: conj.
Alike; equally:
---He is both ready and willing.
TOEFL/IELTS
Indefinite pronouns such as anybody, somebody, anyone, everyone, nobody, each, either, neither,
and no one require singular verb forms.
Tests:
1. There
1. anyone 2. someone 3. no one 4.none
-making invented.
1. know 2. knows 3. didn't know 4. doesn't know
3. "Is she going to stay at home this weekend?"
"
1. anywhere 2. everywhere 3. somewhere 4. nowhere
1. anywhere 2. somewhere 3. everywhere 4. nowhere
1. anything 2. everything 3. nothing 4.something
6. The accident looked serio
1. anyone 2. everyone 3. someone 4. no one
1. anything 2. everything 3. nothing 4. something
1. some 2. any 3. no 4. none
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9. I met two strangers on the way to work. One of them greeted me
1. other 2. another 3. the other 4. another one
10. A: "Why can't you take me to school in the car today?
1. no 2. not 3. any 4. never
1. a 2. any 3. no 4. some
12. I can't give you
1. none 2. any 3. no 4. not
1. is 2. isn't 3. are 4. aren't
1. no 2. not 3. any 4. none
15. A: "How many chairs are there in the dining room?"
1. no 2. none 3. any 4. much
16. "Have you read these two books?"
1. the others one 2. another 3. the other one 4. other
17. I am too thi
1. the another 2. another 3. others 4. the others
1. both 2. either 3. neither 4. no
19. "Do you like to have cheese or butter for breakfast?"
1. both of them 2. none of them 3. either of them 4. neither of them
1. another 2. the other 3. other 4. the another
21. One of my friends studies biochemistry, ......... studies science.
1. others 2. other 3. the another 4. the other
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1. anyone 2.someone 3. no one 4. none
1. no any 2. any 3. none 4. not one
24.
1. anything 2. everything 3. nothing 4. something
1. none of 2. nor of 3. either of 4. neither of
26. "Are there
1. no 2. none 3. no one 4. any
1. each where 2. nowhere 3. somewhere 4. everywhere
nd if I open the window?
1. anybody 2. somebody 3. nobody 4. everybody
1. anybody 2. everybody 3. nobody 4. somebody
hard.
1. either one 2. each one 3. each other 4. one other
31. I have two close friends.
1. any 2. one 3. both 4. no
4. nobody 3. man 2. some 1. anybody
1. else 2. others 3. other 4. another
34. Two dogs were fighting over a bone............... was able to eat it because a very fierce and strong
dog came and took it.
1. each 2. either 3. some 4. neither
35. The village house has had ........ comfortable furniture in it, and many of the windows have been
broken as well.
1. no 2. many 3. just a few 4. not many
36. Among many signif
Taiwan companies to manufacture computers in the Netherlands.
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1. is 2. are 3. was 4. were
?ctcorre37. Which sentence is
1. Mary, accompanied by her, were very well received at the show.
2. Several pets, two dogs and a cat, needs to be taken care of while we travel.
3. His knowledge of languages and international relations helps him in his work.
4. Everybody like to take part in the concert.
any
nobody
s
no
the
none
another
either of
none no ink
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else
neither
among
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1.7 Numbers:
1. Cardinal = 1, 2, 3
---Tendollars =
---Room 5 =
Do not use the before cardinal numbers.
---The answer to this question is in line fifteen on page four.
Singular noun+ Cardinal numbers
---Chapter six
---Book one of the series is about verbs.
---Pick up your boarding passes at gate five.
2. Ordinal= 1
st
, 2
nd
, 3
rd
The+ Ordinal numbers+ singular noun
---The sixth chapter
---The first book of the series is about verbs.
But ---A third of his composition has been corrected.
---A third of their compositions have been corrected.
---Ninety percent of the students in our school are pleased with the instruction.
Use percent only with a number (30 percent, 9 percent, etc). If you mean 'an amount expressed as
part of a total' use percentage:
---A high percentage (NOT percent) of the population was illiterate.
---The large percentage of the students in our school is pleased with the instruction.
Note: When preceded by the, percentage takes a singular verb:
---The percentage of unskilled workers is small.
When preceded by a, it takes either a singular or plural verb, depending on the number of the
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noun in the prepositional phrase that follows:
---A small percentage of the workers are unskilled.
---A large percentage of the crop has spoiled.
---Five hundred miles is a long distance to drive in a day.
TOEFL:
…+ on + the + ordinal numbers + of + month
---Valentine's day is on the fourteenth of February.
…+ on + month + ordinal number
---Valentine's day is on February fourteenth.
Note 6: A number of students are in the campus.
M1 N
The number of students is not clear yet.
M1 N
NP of NP of NP of NP verb
HN
---The number of slimming products on the market is beginning to reflect this trend.
---The handle of the door is broken.
M1 HN
---The door handle is broken.
M3 HN
---The number of buses on our roads has increased each year.
Correct the mistake below.
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---The number of woman studying science increased dramatically last year.
---dramatically last year.
Choose the correct answer:
---The number of men / man studying science has decreased.
Note: Numbers
Remember to hyphenate all compound numbers between twenty-one and
ninety-nine when they are written as words.
Round numbers over one hundred, like two thousand, five million, and so on,
are also usually written in words.
Write dates (21 October 2001) and sums of money (£10.50) and specific
measurements (10.5 cm) in figures.
Time can be written in words or figures (three o'clock/3 o'clock) but 24-hour
clock times are always written in figures (08.00).
Centuries can be written in words or figures (the 18th century/the eighteenth century).
How do I write large numbers?
Tick the correct sentence in each pair.
a. The government spent ten millions dollars on education last year.
b. The government spent ten million dollars on education last year.
a. There were thousands of people at the football match.
b. There were a thousand of people at the football match.
200,000 = two hundred thousand (not two hundred thousands)
10,000,000 = ten million (not ten millions)
---There must have been at least three thousand students at the protest.
---If I won a million dollars, I would probably take a year off and travel around the world.
---The president promised to increase the health budget by one million dollars.
---There must have been thousands of students at the protest.
---More than two million people attended last year.
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but:
2,001,967 people attended last year.
---Half a (million);
---A/one third of a (million);
---Three quarters of a (million);
---One and a quarter (million);
---One and three quarter (million):
---According to the chart, in 2004 over half a million Ukranians went to the cinema.
Underline the correct number in the sentences below.
The skeleton had remained hidden for a thousands / thousands of years.
The chart shows that three hundreds / three hundred whales were seen here in 1990.
Three and a half billion / three and a half of a billion will watch the ceremony.
I pay six hundred dollars / six hundred dollar rent each month.
Real estate in my city is very expensive; a small house can cost three quarter of a
million / three quarters of a million dollars.
A million of / Millions of dollars are spent on space exploration each year.
By 2005, more than six hundred / six hundreds of children were enrolled in the school.
The company has sold one and a half billions / one and a half billion computers so far.
Match each amount (1-5) with its correct written equivalent (a-i). You'll need to read the words
carefully.
1 $305,000 a thrity-five dollars
b three and a half million dollars
2 $35 c three hundreds and five dollar
d thirty five thousands dollars
3 $35,000 e three millions and five hundred thousands dollars
f thirty-five dollars
4 $3,500,000 g three hundred and five thousand dollars
h thirty-five thousand dollars
5 $305 i three hundred and five dollars
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1.8 Question words
Which, what, whose:
Which: adj.
Which one of (a certain number or group mentioned or implied)?
---Which book do you want?
What: adj.
1. (Used interrogatively before nouns):
---What clothes shall I pack?
---What kind of rice is served in that restaurant?
---What kinds of rice are served in that restaurant?
2. Whatever:
---Take what supplies you need.
TPO 26 R 28 1
st
p
Whose:
---Whose bag is this?
---I don't care whose fault it is.
1.9 Defining words
Which, whose
Which: Whichever; any that:
---Go which way you please, you'll end up here.
Whose:
---A woman whose father has died
---Farmers whose land is flooded
---Dogs whose tails are cut
The following words are pre-determiners. They go before determiners, such as articles:
Such a (n), what, half, rather, quite
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What:
Predeterminer, determiner
Used to introduce your opinion
---"She can't come." "What (= I think it is) a shame/pity."
---What a lovely view!
---What strange clothes he was wearing.
---What nonsense/rubbish!
Rather: predeterminer = very; to a large degree
---He's a rather nice man.
---He's rather a nice man.
Quite:
---He's quite pleasant-looking but he's not what you'd call handsome.
-1
---He is quite a gentleman.
---Quite a sudden change
Quite a few: many
---Quite a few towns are now banning cars from their shopping centres.
---His encouragement and interest inspired quite a few people to take up skiing.
Quite a bit of: a great deal/amount of
---It requires quite a bit of work and research.
---My family has moved around quite a bit since then.
Quite a lot of:
---With a penny, you could buy quite a lot of candy in those days.
---My job involves quite a lot of travel.
---He's got quite a lot of friends.
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As/how/so/too/this/that+ adjective+ a/an+ noun
---How good a pianist he is.
---It was so warm a day that I could hardly work.
---She is too polite a person to refuse.
---I couldn't afford that big a car.
---It is too long an essay.
---I have as good a voice as you.
Tests:
1. Family rifts rarely involve the transgressions of just one person. In most disputes, ... the
participants share .......... degree of blame.
a. every of / a little
b. all / some
c. each / plenty of
d. whole / enough
e. some of / too many
2. In the office, there was........... noise that I couldn't focus on my work.
a. very much
b. enough
c. so many
d. so much
e. too much
3. He made ............... noise about the poor food in the restaurant and decided not to eat
anything there again.
a. too many
b. a little
c. enough
d. a lot of
e. so many
4. There is some meat in the refrigerator. Let's consume it because it has been there for.............
a long time.
a. very
b. too
c. much
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d. quite
e. enough
5. The two dogs were fighting over a bone. ..............was able to eat it because a very fierce and
strong dog came and took it.
a. Each
b. Either
c. Some
d. Neither
e. Enough
6. In the construction of the building ............. sand was mixed with cement to make concrete.
a. several
b. a number of
c. such many
d. so many
e. a large quantity of
7. Sand has been used in large quantities in the building, so I won't be surprised if it collapses
after.............. earth tremors.
a. every
b. too much
c. very much
d. some
e. each
8. When we run out of bread, we use flour to make bread. But now we have ................ flour left.
a. very much
b. several
c. hardly any
d. too much
e. enough
9. After standing in a queue for more than two hours, I had ............. patience left.
a. enough
b. any
c. no
d. several
e. too much
10. As we were making innovations in our shop, we had to keep guard the ...........night.
a. all
b. half
c. each
d. very
e. whole
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11. Instead of meeting friends for a meal, she arranges to walk or go bike riding with them.
There's not enough time in her day for a social life and exercise. This is a nice way to have
............ .
a. neither
b. each
c. both
d. either
e. too
12. It is important to understand how the kidneys function. The two bean-shaped
organs,................ about the size of a fist, house an elaborate filtering system that processes
about 200 quarts of blood - the equivalent of 500 cans of soda - daily.
a. every
b. each
c. some
d. neither
e. none
13. Of their three daughters, I find Jane the .......... beautiful.
a. very much
b. much more
c. enough
d. too much
e. most
14. My aunt gave birth to healthy twins last night........... is so sweet.
a. Both
b. Each
c. All
d. Whole
e. Either
15. You can try .......... of these two dishes; they are.......... delicious.
a. one / either
b. neither / all
c. both / all
d. both / either
e. either / both
16. When I decide to take rest on a weekend day, my twins become a great hindrance. ..............of
them insists on going to the zoo with me.
a. either
b. both
c. all
d. neither
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e. every
17. ............. of the complaints were taken into account, but not............ of them.
a. Several / all
b. Plenty / the whole
c. Every / some
d. Most / a majority
e. Some / a number
18. Nowadays, we have .........things to do than we used to.
a. so many
b. several
c. too many
d. a lot more
e. far many
19. I tried the two alternatives you told me. Unfortunately, ......... of them worked.
a. both
b. all
c. either
d. some
e. neither
Tests:
1- I tried the two. My brother didn't let me
............. in the bottle.
A) some of / a few
B) many of / quite little
C) much of / a little
D) enough of / several
E) most of / many more
2- We are in need of............ money since............. the machinery in our factory has been out of
date.
A) Some / several
B) enough / so much
C) a good deal of / a lot of
D) too much / each of
E) a number of / plenty of
3- Whenever it rains cats and dogs in this area, the houses on ........... sides of the river
are........... flooded.
A) each / each
B) all / both
C) either / several
D) several / both
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E) both / all
4- An old woman asked me for ..........bread but I couldn't give her ..........because my son had
consumed all of it.
A) some / any
B) several / no
C) a little / a few
D) plenty of / so many
E) a bit of / so much
5- ........... of the cotton in Turkey is grown in Adana. In other words, ............ cotton fields are
found in Adana.
A) Every / every
B) Much / some
C) Some / either
D) Most / most
E) So many / too many
6- We are all unanimous that.......... racial discrimination is based on ignorance.
A) quite
B) enough
C) some
D) little
E) most
7- It's obvious that the fight between ............ countries will not come to an end. ........... is willing
to negotiate a cease-fire.
A) both / Neither
B) every / Each
C) all / Every
D) whole / Little
E) several / Either
8- ........... countries had been fighting for six years until........... of them decided to negotiate a
cease-fire.
A) All / many
B) Some / so much
C) Both / either
D) A lot of / neither
E) So many / too many
9- ............. of the teachers we have interviewed so far ........... that our educational system needs
to be changed wholly.
A) All / thinks
B) Too much / think
C) Some / thinks
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D) Each / thinks
E) Most / thinks
10- In the last six years,.................major studies have consistently associated high intakes of
vitamin E with reduced risk of heart disease.
A) little more
B) a great deal of
C) so much
D) too much
E) a number of
11- I learned ............. about teaching from my experiences in the English classroom.
A) every
B) too many
C) a number of
D) a great deal
E) plenty of
12- I think there is ........... that he does not deserve. He is .......... of the best-tempered man that
ever existed.
A) something / each
B) anything / none
C) nothing / one
D) everything / some
E) a little / most
13- Nationalism, theology, the exquisite glories of war, business, and racism have .................at
one time or another functioned as the primary yardstick for human belief system.
A) every
B) enough
C) little
D) either
E) each
14- The new couple of compensation systems are starting to link the broker's pay to the client's
success. ............ can be successful by jumping in and out of the stock market in panic or
euphoria.
A) Each
B) All
C) Whole
D) Enough
E) Many
15- It's a curious fact that in .......... ages and all societies, ........... numbers of people are attracted
to the gentle, not the strong, to the sufferers and not the successful.
A) every / great
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B) several / some
C) all / large
D) any / very much
E) enough / plenty
16- By 1948 it was clear the relationships of the two sides were deteriorating, and .......... of them
was very happy.
A) neither
B) enough
C) each
D) both
E) all
17- Jessie arranges to have the kids tested. ........... of them undergoes an echo-cardiogram, which
can reveal only symptoms, not the actual disease. The results calm her. ........... of the kids
show symptoms.
A) All / Some
B) So many / Most
C) Most / No one
D) Each / None
E) Some / Many
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Tenses:
Simple Present Tense
How do we make the Simple Present Tense?
subject
+
auxiliary verb
+
main verb
do
base
There are three important exceptions:
1. For positive sentences, we do not normally use the auxiliary.
2. For the 3rd person singular (he, she, it), we add s to the main verb or es to the auxiliary.
3. For the verb to be, we do not use an auxiliary, even for questions and negatives.
Look at these examples with the main verb like:
subject
auxiliary verb
main verb
+
I, you, we, they
like
coffee.
He, she, it
likes
coffee.
-
I, you, we, they
do
not
like
coffee.
He, she, it
does
not
like
coffee.
?
Do
I, you, we, they
like
coffee?
Does
he, she, it
like
coffee?
Look at these examples with the main verb be. Notice that there is no auxiliary:
subject
main verb
+
I
am
French.
You, we, they
are
French.
He, she, it
is
French.
-
I
am
not
old.
You, we, they
are
not
old.
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He, she, it
is
not
old.
?
Am
I
late?
Are
you, we, they
late?
Is
he, she, it
late?
How do we use the Simple Present Tense?
We use the simple present tense when:
1. The action is general.
2. The action happens all the time, or habitually, in the past, present, and future.
3. The action is not happening only now.
4. The statement is always true.
---John drives a taxi.
past
present
future
It is John's job to drive a taxi. He does it every day (past, present, and future).
Look at these examples:
---I live in New York.
---John drives a taxi.
---He does not drive a bus.
---Nurses look after patients in hospitals.
---I usually go away at weekends.
---The earth goes round the sun.
---The cafe opens At 7.30 in the morning.
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Note that with the verb to be, we can also use the simple present tense for situations that
are not general. We can use the simple present tense to talk about now. Look at these
examples of the verb "to be" in the simple present tense - some of them are general,
some of them are now:
---Am I right?
---Tara is not at home.
---You are happy.
past
present
future
The situation is now.
---I am not fat.
---Why are you so beautiful?
---Ram is tall.
past
present
future
The situation is general. Past, present and future.
This page shows the use of the simple present tense to talk about general events. However,
note that there are some other uses for the simple present tense, for example in conditional
or if sentences, or to talk about the future. You will learn about those later.
Complete the sentences using the following verbs:
speak(s) take(s) cause(s) connect(s) drink(s) Live(s) open(s)
1. German very well.
2. I doncoffee.
3. The swimming at 7.30 every morning.
4. Bad drivingmany accidents.
5. My parentsn a very small flat.
6. place every four years.
7. the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
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Answers:
1. speaks
2. drink
3. opens
4. causes
5. live
6. take
7. connects
Present Continuous Tense
How do we make the Present Continuous Tense?
The structure of the present continuous tense is:
subject
+
auxiliary verb
+
main verb
be
base + ing
Look at these examples:
subject
auxiliary verb
main verb
+
I
am
speaking
to you.
+
You
are
reading
this.
-
She
is
not
staying
in London.
-
We
are
not
playing
football.
?
Is
he
watching
TV?
?
Are
they
waiting
for John?
How do we use the Present Continuous Tense?
We use the present continuous tense to talk about:
1. actions happening now
2. actions in the future
1. a for action happening exactly now
---I am eating my lunch.
past
present
future
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The action is happening now.
Look at these examples. Right now you are looking at this screen and at the same time...
---The pages are turning.
---The candle is burning.
---The numbers are spinning.
1. b for action happening around now
The action may not be happening exactly now, but it is happening just before and just
after now, and it is not permanent or habitual.
---John is going out with Mary. (These days)
past
present
future
The action is happening around now.
Look at these examples:
---Muriel is learning to drive. (These days)
---I am living with my sister until I find an apartment. (These days)
2. Present continuous tense for the future
We can also use the present continuous tense to talk about the future - if we add a future
word!! We must add (or understand from the context) a future word. "Future words"
include, for example, tomorrow, next year, in June, at Christmas etc. We only use the
present continuous tense to talk about the future when we have planned to do something
before we speak. We have already made a decision and a plan before speaking.
---I am taking my exam next month.
past
present
future
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A firm plan or program exists
now.
The action is in the future.
Look at these examples:
---We're eating in a restaurant tonight. We've already booked the table.
---They can play tennis with you tomorrow. They're not working.
---When are you starting your new job?
Verbs NOT normally used in the continuous tenses:
The continuous tenses are chiefly used for deliberate actions. Some verbs are, therefore, not
normally used in the continuous and have only one present tense, the simple present. These verbs
can be grouped as follows:
A Verbs of the senses (involuntary actions): feel, hear, see, smell; also notice and observe (= notice),
and feel, look, taste used as linking verbs.
B Verbs expressing feelings and emotions, e.g. admire (= respect), adore, appreciate (= value), care
for (= like), desire, detest, dislike, fear, hate, like, loathe, love, mind (= care), respect, value, want,
wish.
But the continuous can be used with admire meaning 'look at with admiration', appreciate
meaning 'increase in value', care for meaning 'look after', long for, mind meaning 'look
after/concern oneself with', value meaning 'estimate the financial worth of, enjoy and sometimes
like/love meaning 'enjoy', and hate meaning the opposite, though it is safer to use the simple tenses
with like, love and hate:
---He's enjoying his holiday in the Arctic. He hates touristy places and he doesn't mind the cold.
---I'm minding my own business.
---How are you liking/Do you like your new job?
---I'm hating it/I hate it. I just don't like work, you see.
C Verbs of mental activity, e.g. agree, appreciate (= understand), assume, believe, expect (= think),
feel (= think), feel sure/certain, forget, know, mean, perceive, realize, recall, recognize, recollect,
remember, see (= understand), see through someone (= penetrate his attempt to deceive),
suppose, think (= have an opinion), trust (= believe/have confidence in), understand. But the
continuous can be used with appreciate meaning 'to increase in value'.
D Verbs of possession: belong, owe, own, possess, have:
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---How much do I owe you?
E The auxiliaries, except be and have in certain uses.
F appear (= seem), concern, consist, contain, hold (= contain), keep (= continue), matter, seem,
signify, sound (= seem/appear):
---It concerns us all.
---This box contains explosives.
meaning 'to come before the public' can be used in the continuous. appearBut
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Put the verb into the correct form. Sometimes you need the negative (I'm not doing
etc.).
1.
2. any more.
3. You can turn off (listen) to it.
4. Kate phoned me last night. (have) a great time
and doesn't want to come back.
5. I want (eat) lunch.
6. Andrew has just started evening classes. He(learn) German.
7. Paul and Sally have had an argument. They(speak) to each other.
8. (get) tired. I need a rest.
9. Tim(work) this week. He's on holiday.
Answers:
1. am trying
2. is not raining
3. am not listening
4. is having
5. am not eating
6. is learning
7. are not speaking
8. am getting
9. is not working
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Present perfect:
How do we use the Present Perfect Tense?
This tense is called the present perfect tense. There is always a connection with the past
and with the present. There are basically three uses for the present perfect tense:
1. Experience
2. Change
3. Continuing situation
4. An action that was completed in the very recent past (expressed by 'just')
1. Present perfect tense for experience
We often use the present perfect tense to talk about experience from the past. We are
not interested in when you did something. We only want to know if you did it:
---I have seen ET.
---He has lived in Bangkok.
---Have you been there?
---We have never eaten caviar.
past
present
future
The action or state was in the
past.
In my head, I have a memory
now.
Connection with past: the event was in the past.
Connection with present: in my head, now, I have a memory of the event; I know something about
the event; I have experience of it.
2. Present perfect tense for change
We also use the present perfect tense to talk about a change or new information:
---I have bought a car.
past
present
future
-
+
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Last week I didn't have a car.
Now I have a car.
---John has broken his leg.
past
present
future
+
-
Yesterday, John had a good
leg.
Now, he has a bad leg.
---Has the price gone up?
past
present
future
+
-
Was the price $1.50
yesterday?
Is the price $1.70 today?
---The police have arrested the killer.
past
present
future
-
+
Yesterday, the killer was free.
Now, he is in prison.
Connection with past: the past is the opposite of the present.
Connection with present: the present is the opposite of the past.
Americans do not use the present perfect tense so much as British speakers. Americans often
use the past tense instead. An American might say "Did you have lunch?", where a British person
would say "Have you had lunch?"
3. Present perfect tense for continuing situation
We often use the present perfect tense to talk about a continuing situation. This is a
state that started in the past and continues in the present (and will probably continue
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into the future). This is a state (not an action). We usually use for or since with this
structure.
---I have worked here since June.
---He has been ill for 2 days.
---How long have you known Tara?
past
present
future
The situation started in the
past.
It continues up to now.
(It will probably continue into
the future.)
Connection with past: the situation started in the past.
Connection with present: the situation continues in the present.
4. An action that was completed in the very recent past (expressed by 'just')
---I have just finished my work.
Adverbs used with this tense: Since, for, just, yet, several times, many times, up to now,
till now, until now, so far, already, ever.
For & Since with Present Perfect Tense
We often use for and since with the present perfect tense.
We use for to talk about a period of time: 5 minutes, 2 weeks, 6 years.
We use since to talk about a point in past time: 9 o'clock, 1st January, Monday.
for
since
a period of time
a point in past time
x------------
20 minutes
6.15 pm
three days
Monday
6 months
January
4 years
1994
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2 centuries
1800
a long time
I left school
ever
the beginning of time
etc.
etc.
Here are some examples:
---I have been here for 20 minutes.
---I have been here since 9 o'clock.
---John hasn't called for 6 months.
---John hasn't called since February.
---He has worked in New York for a long time.
---He has worked in New York since he left school.
---I have worked here for five years. She has lived here for twenty years.
---They have been married for six months.
---I have lived here since 1998.
---They have been married since June.
---We have been at this school since last year.
For can be used with all tenses. Since is usually used with perfect tenses only.
PRESENT PERFECT + adverbs (ever, never, already, yet, still)
'Ever' and 'never' are always placed before the past participle.
'Ever', sometime before now, is used:
a. in questions
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---Have you ever been to Canada?
---Has she ever met someone famous?
b. in negative questions
---Haven't they ever been to Canada?
---Haven't you ever eaten Thai food?
c. and in negative statements using the pattern nothing.......ever, nobody.......ever e.g.
---Nobody has ever said that to me before.
---Nothing like that has ever happened to me.
d. 'Ever' is also used with 'The first time.... e.g.
---It's the first time I've ever eaten Thai food.
---This is the first time I've ever been to Canada.
'Never' = not ever. Never is used after have/has.
---I have never visited London. I've never been so sick.
Already: It can be placed before the main verb (past participle) or at the end of the sentence.
Already, sooner than expected, is used:
---I've already heard the story five times.
---Most people have already gone.
It is also used in questions:
---Have you already rung Mike?
---Has he arrived already?
Yet is used in negative statements and questions when we are expecting something to happen and
goes at the end of the sentence.
---Have you bought a ticket yet?
---I haven't met her yet.
---Has your course started yet?
---They haven't arrived yet.
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Still = continuing longer than expected. Still is stronger than yet and often expresses surprise that a
situation has continued for so long.
---She isn't home yet. She's still at work.
---I still haven't found what I'm looking for.
---I'm still thinking about it.
Present perfect or past simple?
Very Important: When we want to give or ask details about when, where, and who, we use the
simple past.
Example:
---He saw last week.
Use the present perfect when the time is not important.
Use the simple past when the time or place is important.
Present Perfect or Past Simple Test:
1. When ________________ the school?
a) have you joined
b) did you joined
c) did you join
d) have you ever joined
2. ___________________ in England?
a) Did you ever worked
b) Have you ever worked
c) Worked you
d) Didn't you have worked
3. That's the best speech ______________
a) I never heard
b) I didn't hear
c) I used to hear
d) I've ever heard
4. He's the most difficult housemate _____________________
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a) I never dealt with.
b) I never had to deal with.
c) I've ever had to deal with.
d) I've never had to deal with.
5. ___________________ to him last week.
a) I spoke
b) I've already spoken
c) I didn't spoke
d) I speak
6. ______________ a contract last year, and it is still valid.
a) We have signed
b) We signed
c) We haven't signed
d) We have sign
7. _______________ from a business trip to France.
a) I come back
b) I came back
c) I never came back
d) I've just come back
8. Prices ________ in 1995 but then _____ in 1996.
a) rises falled
b) rose fell
c) have risen have fallen
d) rose have fallen
9. You ____________ to a word ____________
a) listened
c) listened saying
I say
10. I cannot believe that ________________ the news.
a) you haven't read
c) you don't read
d) you read not
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Answers:
1. C
2. B
3. D
4. C
5. A
6. A
7. D
8. B
9. B
10. A
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Present Perfect Continuous Tense:
How do we make the Present Perfect Continuous Tense?
The structure of the present perfect continuous tense is:
subject
+
auxiliary verb
+
auxiliary verb
+
main
verb
have
has
been
base +
ing
Here are some examples of the present perfect continuous tense:
subject
auxiliary verb
auxiliary verb
main verb
+
I
have
been
waiting
for one hour.
+
You
have
been
talking
too much.
-
It
has
not
been
raining.
-
We
have
not
been
playing
football.
?
Have
you
been
seeing
her?
?
Have
they
been
doing
their homework?
Contractions
When we use the present perfect continuous tense in speaking, we often contract the subject and
the first auxiliary. We also sometimes do this in informal writing.
I have been
I've been
You have been
You've been
He has been
She has been
It has been
John has been
The car has been
He's been
She's been
It's been
John's been
The car's been
We have been
We've been
They have been
They've been
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Here are some examples:
---I've been reading.
---The car's been giving trouble.
---We've been playing tennis for two hours.
Adverbs used with this tense: lately, recently, since, for, how long
All + adverb of time
All this week
How do we use the Present Perfect Continuous Tense?
This tense is called the present perfect continuous tense. There is usually a connection
with the present or now. There are basically two uses for the present perfect continuous
tense:
1. An action that has just stopped or recently stopped
We use the present perfect continuous tense to talk about an action that started in the
past and stopped recently. There is usually a result now.
---I'm tired because I've been running.
past
present
future
Recent action.
Result now.
---I'm tired
[now]
because I've been running.
---Why is the grass wet
[now]
? Has it been raining?
---You don't understand
[now]
because you haven't been listening.
2. An action continuing up to now
We use the present perfect continuous tense to talk about an action that started in the
past and is continuing now. This is often used with for or since.
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---I have been reading for 2 hours.
past
present
future
Action started in past.
Action is continuing now.
---I have been reading for 2 hours. [I am still reading now.]
---We've been studying since 9 o'clock. [We're still studying now.]
---How long have you been learning English? [You are still learning now.]
---We have not been smoking. [And we are not smoking now.]
Present Perfect Simple or Continuous?
In some examples two answers may be possible but one is more natural than the other. This natural
one is the correct answer.
1. I'm very hungry. I______________________ all day.
a) didn't eat
b) haven't ate
c) haven't eaten
d) have been eating
2. Their new kitchen looks fantastic. They ________ completely ________ it.
a) have been redecorating
b) have redecorated
c) already redecorated
d) didn't redecorated
3. Our kitchen's a mess. We____________________ any cleaning for weeks.
a) didn't do
b) haven't been doing
c) have done
d) haven't done
4. I think they are dating. They______________ each other a lot recently.
a) had seen
c) have been seeing
d) have seen
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5. We've discovered this great café and we__________________ there a lot.
a) have been going
b) have gone
c) are going
d) have went
6. How's your Mum? I ______________________ her for ages.
a) had seen
b) haven't seen
c) haven't been seeing
d) didn't see
7. You're covered in paint! What __________ you __________?
a) have done
b) were doing
c) did do
d) have been doing
8. She's gone to the doctor's. She ______________________ too well lately.
a) hasn't felt
b) hasn't been feeling
c) has felt
d) doesn't feel
9. Where have you been? I______________________ for ages.
a) have waited
b) waited
c) was waiting
d) have been waiting
10. I have to write an essay. I___________________ about half of it so far.
a) have written
b) have been writing
c) wrote
d) have to write
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Simple past:
How do we make the Simple Past Tense?
To make the simple past tense, we use:
past form only
or
auxiliary did + base form
Here you can see examples of the past form and base form for irregular verbs and
regular verbs:
V1
base
V2
past
V3
past participle
regular
verb
work
explode
like
worked
exploded
liked
worked
exploded
liked
The past form for all regular
verbs ends in -ed.
irregular
verb
go
see
sing
went
saw
sang
gone
seen
sung
The past form for irregular
verbs is variable. You need to
learn it by heart.
You do not need the past
participle form to make the
simple past tense. It is shown
here for completeness only.
The auxiliary verb did is not conjugated. It is the same for all persons (I did, you did, he
did etc.). And the base form and past form do not change. Look at these examples with
the main verbs go and work:
subject
auxiliary verb
main verb
+
I
went
to school.
You
worked
very hard.
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-
She
did
not
go
with me.
We
did
not
work
yesterday.
?
Did
you
go
to London?
Did
they
work
at home?
Exception! The verb to be is different. We conjugate the verb to be (I was, you were,
he/she/it was, we were, they were); and we do not use an auxiliary for negative and
question sentences. To make a question, we exchange the subject and verb. Look at
these examples:
Subject
main verb
+
I, he/she/it
was
here.
You, we, they
were
in London.
-
I, he/she/it
was
not
there.
You, we, they
were
not
happy.
?
Was
I, he/she/it
right?
Were
you, we, they
late?
Adverbs used with this tense: yesterday, the day before yesterday, ago
last morning, last night
Last + adverbs of time: last week, last Friday
last month, and
last year,
How do we use the Simple Past Tense?
We use the simple past tense to talk about an action or a situation - an event - in the
past. The event can be short or long.
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Here are some short events with the simple past tense:
---The car exploded at 9.30am yesterday.
---She went to the door.
---We did not hear the telephone.
---Did you see that car?
Past
present
future
The action is in the past.
Here are some long events with the simple past tense:
---I lived in Bangkok for 10 years.
---The Jurassic period lasted about 62 million years.
---We did not sing at the concert.
---Did you watch TV last night?
Past
present
future
The action is in the past.
Notice that it does not matter how long ago the event is: it can be a few minutes or
seconds in the past, or millions of years in the past. Also, it does not matter how long
the event is. It can be a few milliseconds (car explosion) or millions of years (Jurassic
period).
We use the simple past tense when:
the event is in the past
the event is completely finished
we say (or understand) the time and/or place of the event
In general, if we say the time or place of the event, we must use the simple past tense; we cannot
use the present perfect.
Here are some more examples:
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---I lived in that house when I was young.
---He didn't like the movie.
---What did you eat for dinner?
---John drove to London on Monday.
---Mary did not go to work yesterday.
---Did you play tennis last week?
---I was at work yesterday.
---We were not late (for the train).
---Were you angry?
Note that when we tell a story, we usually use the simple past tense. We may use the
past continuous tense to "set the scene", but we almost always use the simple past tense
for the action. Look at this example of the beginning of a story:
"The wind was howling around the hotel and the rain was pouring down. It was cold. The door
opened and James Bond entered. He took off his coat, which was very wet, and ordered a
drink at the bar. He sat down in the corner of the lounge and quietly drank his..."
This page shows the use of the simple past tense to talk about past events, but note that there
are some other uses for the simple past tense, for example in conditional or if sentences.
Complete the sentences using the following verbs in the correct form:
buy catch cost fall hurt sell spend teach throw make
1.
2. 'How did you learn to
3.
4.
5.
6.
Answers:
1. made
2. taught
3. sold
4.
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5.
6.
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Past continuous:
How do we make the Past Continuous Tense?
The structure of the past continuous tense is:
subject
+
auxiliary verb BE
+
main verb
conjugated in simple past tense
present participle
was
were
base + ing
For negative sentences in the past continuous tense, we insert not between the auxiliary
verb and main verb. For question sentences, we exchange the subject and auxiliary
verb. Look at these example sentences with the past continuous tense:
subject
auxiliary verb
main verb
+
I
was
watching
TV.
+
You
were
working
hard.
-
He, she, it
was
not
helping
Mary.
-
We
were
not
joking.
?
Were
you
being
silly?
?
Were
they
playing
football?
Adverbs used with this tense:
At this time + adverbs (past time)
At this time yesterday
At this time last week
At + time + adverbs (past time)
At 7 yesterday
At 8 last night
All + adverbs (past time)
All the last night
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1. Simple past + while + past continuous
---She arrived while they were playing ping-pong.
2. Past continuous + when + Simple past
---The sun was shining when I got up.
3. When + Simple past + past continuous
---When you came, they were washing dishes.
4. While + past continuous + Simple past
---While they were eating lunch, the telephone rang.
Put the verb into the correct form, past continuous or past simple.
1.
2. yesterday?' 'I was asleep.'
3.
4.
5.
6. We were in a very difficult pos
7. ) find a job.
8.
9.
10.
Answers:
1. was waiting
2. were you doing
3. Did you go out
4. were you driving
5.
6. did not know
7.
8.
9. wanted
10.
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Past perfect:
How do we make the Past Perfect Tense?
The structure of the past perfect tense is:
subject
+
auxiliary verb HAVE
+
main verb
conjugated in simple past tense
past participle
had
V3
For negative sentences in the past perfect tense, we insert not between the auxiliary
verb and main verb. For question sentences, we exchange the subject and auxiliary
verb. Look at these example sentences with the past perfect tense:
subject
auxiliary verb
main verb
+
I
had
finished
my work.
+
You
had
stopped
before me.
-
She
had
not
gone
to school.
-
We
had
not
left.
?
Had
you
arrived?
?
Had
they
eaten
dinner?
When speaking with the past perfect tense, we often contract the subject and auxiliary
verb:
I had
I'd
you had
you'd
he had
she had
it had
he'd
she'd
it'd
we had
we'd
they had
they'd
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The 'd contraction is also used for the auxiliary verb would. For example, we'd can mean:
We had
or
We would
But usually the main verb is in a different form, for example:
---We had arrived. (past participle)
---We would arrive. (base form)
It is always clear from the context.
How do we use the Past Perfect Tense?
The past perfect tense expresses action in the past before another action in the past. This
is the past in the past. For example:
---The train left at 9 am. We arrived at 9.15 am. When we arrived, the train had left.
---The train had left when we arrived.
past
present
future
Train leaves in the past at 9
am.
We arrive in the past at 9.15
am.
Look at some more examples:
---I wasn't hungry. I had just eaten.
---They were hungry. They had not eaten for five hours.
---I didn't know who he was. I had never seen him before.
---"Mary wasn't at home when I arrived."
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---"Really? Where had she gone?"
You can sometimes think of the past perfect tense like the present perfect tense, but
instead of the time being now the time is past.
past perfect tense
present perfect tense
had |
done |
> |
have |
done |
> |
past
now
future
past
now
future
For example, imagine that you arrive at the station at 9.15am. The stationmaster says to
you:
---"You are too late. The train has left."
Later, you tell your friends:
---"We were too late. The train had left."
We often use the past perfect tense in reported speech after verbs like said, told,
asked, thought, wondered:
Look at these examples:
---He told us that the train had left.
---I thought I had met her before, but I was wrong.
---He explained that he had closed the window because of the rain.
---I wondered if I had been there before.
---I asked them why they had not finished.
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Past Perfect Continuous Tense:
How do we make the Past Perfect Continuous Tense?
The structure of the past perfect continuous tense is:
subject
+
auxiliary verb HAVE
+
auxiliary verb BE
+
main verb
conjugated in simple past tense
past participle
present
participle
had
been
base + ing
For negative sentences in the past perfect continuous tense, we insert not after the first
auxiliary verb. For question sentences, we exchange the subject and first auxiliary verb.
Look at these example sentences with the past perfect continuous tense:
subject
auxiliary verb
auxiliary verb
main verb
+
I
had
been
working.
+
You
had
been
playing
tennis.
-
It
had
not
been
working
well.
-
We
had
not
been
expecting
her.
?
Had
you
been
drinking?
?
Had
they
been
waiting
long?
When speaking with the past perfect continuous tense, we often contract the subject and
first auxiliary verb:
I had been
I'd been
you had been
you'd been
he had
she had been
it had been
he'd been
she'd been
it'd been
we had been
we'd been
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they had been
they'd been
How do we use the Past Perfect Continuous Tense?
The past perfect continuous tense is like the past perfect tense, but it expresses longer
actions in the past before another action in the past. For example:
---Ram started waiting at 9 am. I arrived at 11 am. When I arrived, Ram had been
waiting for two hours.
---Ram had been waiting for two hours when I arrived.
past
present
future
Ram starts waiting in past at 9
am.
9
11
I arrive in past at 11 am.
Here are some more examples:
---John was very tired. He had been running.
---I could smell cigarettes. Somebody had been smoking.
---Suddenly, my car broke down. I was not surprised. It had not been running well for a long time.
---Had the pilot been drinking before the crash?
You can sometimes think of the past perfect continuous tense like the present perfect
continuous tense, but instead of the time being now the time is past.
past perfect continuous tense
present perfect continuous tense
had |
been |
doing |
>>>> |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
have |
been |
doing |
>>>> |
past
now
future
past
now
future
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For example, imagine that you meet Ram at 11am. Ram says to you:
---"I am angry. I have been waiting for two hours."
Later, you tell your friends:
---"Ram was angry. He had been waiting for two hours."
Tests:
1. Not again! This is the third time that I ....... my keys since I ........ home this morning.
a) am losing/was leaving
b) had lost/left
c) lose/had left
d) have lost/left
e) will lose/have left
'This is + the first/second/third + time/book/exam + Pres Perfect' and 'Since + S. Past' help us as a
clue to solve this question. Thus, D is the correct choice.
2. He ......... of retiring until after he .......... enough to afford a life abroad after retirement.
a) hasn't thought/will save
b) isn't thinking/has been saving
c) won't think/is saving
d) doesn't think/has saved
e) didn't think/will have saved
For past tenses, we use 'Until + S. Past, Past Perfect' and for present and future; 'Until + S.
Present/Present Perfect, (Present)/Future Tense' should be used. Tense conjunctives cannot be
followed by a future tense in the subordinate clause, and if we test the 'until + tense sequence'
pattern, we see that the correct answer is D.
3. For a year now, Mr. Harris .................. charity balls to collect money for the homeless.
a) had been organizing
b) was organizing
c) would be organizing
d) organized
e) has been organizing
'For + Time Expression + Now = Present Perfect Continuous. E is the correct choice.
4. By the time it ............ mid-summer, I ............... at this firm for about ten years.
a) was/could have worked
b) will be/will have worked
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c) has been/will be working
d) would be/had worked
e) is/will have worked
As regards the English grammar, 'by the time + Simple Past + Past Perfect tense' and 'by the time +
Simple present + Future perfect' should be used. By requires a perfect tense.
5. When Bill called me I ............. that we ............ fishing soon.
a) remembered/had gone
b) was remembering/would be going
c) remembered/ would go
d) remember/will be going
e) had remembered/will go
'When' is a conjunction and needs time sequence (past-past, present-present). 'When + simple past +
simple past'. 'Called' is a verb in the past form and this means all the gap should be in the past. Soon
doesn't change anything in terms of tense use. But it gives a future idea and due to past tense
is suitable.
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Simple Future Tense:
The simple future tense is often called will, because we make the simple future tense
with the modal auxiliary will.
How do we make the Simple Future Tense?
The structure of the simple future tense is:
subject
+
auxiliary verb WILL
+
main verb
invariable
base
will
V1
For negative sentences in the simple future tense, we insert not between the auxiliary
verb and main verb. For question sentences, we exchange the subject and auxiliary
verb. Look at these example sentences with the simple future tense:
subject
auxiliary verb
main verb
+
I
will
open
the door.
+
You
will
finish
before me.
-
She
will
not
be
at school tomorrow.
-
We
will
not
leave
yet.
?
Will
you
arrive
on time?
?
Will
they
want
dinner?
When we use the simple future tense in speaking, we often contract the subject and
auxiliary verb:
I will
I'll
you will
you'll
he will
she will
it will
he'll
she'll
it'll
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we will
we'll
they will
they'll
For negative sentences in the simple future tense, we contract with won't, like this:
I will not
I won't
you will not
you won't
he will not
she will not
it will not
he won't
she won't
it won't
we will not
we won't
they will not
they won't
Adverbs used with this tense:
Tomorrow, soon, the day after tomorrow
next morning, next month
Next + adverb of time
next night next week
How do we use the Simple Future Tense?
1. No Plan
We use the simple future tense when there is no plan or decision to do something before
we speak. We make the decision spontaneously at the time of speaking. Look at these
examples:
---Hold on. I'll get a pen.
---We will see what we can do to help you.
---Maybe we'll stay in and watch television tonight.
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In these examples, we had no firm plan before speaking. The decision is made at the
time of speaking.
We often use the simple future tense with the verb to think before it:
---I think I'll go to the gym tomorrow.
---I think I will have a holiday next year.
---I don't think I'll buy that car.
2. Prediction
We often use the simple future tense to make a prediction about the future. Again, there
is no firm plan. We are saying what we think will happen. Here are some examples:
---It will rain tomorrow.
---People won't go to Jupiter before the 22nd century.
---Who do you think will get the job?
When the main verb is be, we can use the simple future tense, even if we have a firm
plan or decision before speaking.
Examples:
---I'll be in London tomorrow.
---I'm going shopping. I won't be very long.
---Will you be at work tomorrow?
Note that when we have a plan or intention to do something in the future, we usually use other
tenses or expressions, such as the present continuous tense or going to.
Form of Simple Future Tense: Be going to
a) Affirmative (positive) Sentences
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I
am going to
write the letter.
wash the car.
He
She
It
is going to
We
You
They
are going to
---I am going to eat lunch at 12:30 this afternoon.
---She is going to watch the film on the TV after she finishes her homework.
---Tom is studying hard. He is going to pass the test.
---Mr. Watson is going to be here tomorrow.
b) Negative Sentences
I
am not going to
write the letter.
wash the car.
He
She
It
is not going to
We
You
They
are not going to
---I didn't study last night, and I am not going to study tonight either.
---They are not going to play football this afternoon.
---John is sick. He isn't going to be in class tomorrow.
---I have changed my plans. I am not going to fly to Istanbul this weekend.
c) Question Sentences
Am
I
going to
write the letter?
wash the car?
Is
He
She
it
Are
We
You
they
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---Are you going to stay at home this weekend?
---Is she going to watch TV this evening?
---What are they going to do tomorrow?
---Are you going to call me later?
Using Simple Future Tense: Will vs. Be going to
a) Using "will" to express a voluntary action / willingness
A: I'm really hungry.
B: I'll make some sandwiches.
A: These bags are so heavy!
B: I'll help you.
A: The phone is ringing.
B: I'll get it.
b) Using "will" in promises.
---Don't worry! I will call you as soon as I arrive at the airport.
---Thank you for lending me the money. I will pay it back on Friday. I promise!
---I promise I will not tell him about the surprise birthday party.
c) Using "be going to" to express a future plan.
---I am tired of taking the bus to work. I am going to buy a car as soon as possible.
---I bought some paint this morning. I am going to paint the garage tomorrow.
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---I am going to start making dinner before my wife gets home from work today.
---We are going to wait here until Jessica comes.
---When they get to the hotel, they are going to jump into the swimming pool.
d) Using "be going to" and "will" to express predictions
---The weather reports say it will be sunny tomorrow.
---Look at those black clouds. It's going to rain.
---Be careful. You will hurt yourself!
---She is studying hard. She is going to pass the exam.
---I think Persepolis will become the champion this year.
Using Present Continuous for Future
---Bill is coming to the meeting tomorrow. (= Bill is going to come to the meeting
tomorrow.)
---We are flying to Istanbul tonight. (= We are going to fly to Istanbul tomorrow.)
---They are playing football this afternoon. (=They are going to play football this
afternoon.)
---I am leaving home tomorrow morning. (= I am going to leave home tomorrow
morning.)
Using Simple Present for Future
---The bus leaves the station at 7:45 tomorrow morning.
---The semester ends in two more weeks.
---His new job starts next Friday.
Future Time Clauses with "Before, After, When"
---Before Mary goes to school tomorrow, she will eat breakfast.
---Before Mary will go to school tomorrow, she will eat breakfast.
---After I eat dinner tonight, I will do my homework.
---After I will eat dinner tonight, I will do my homework.
---I will get some fresh fruit when I go to the market tomorrow.
---I will get some fresh fruit when I will go to the market tomorrow.
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Present plans for future activities: Using Intend, Plan, Hope
---I intend to go to London. / I am intending to go to London.
(INCORRECT: I will intend to go to London)
---I'm planning to buy another car this year. / I plan to buy another car this year.
(INCORRECT: I will plan to buy another car this year.)
---I am hoping to finish the school this semester. / I hope to finish the school this
semester. (INCORRECT: I will hope to finish the school this semester.)
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Future Continuous Tense:
How do we make the Future Continuous Tense?
The structure of the future continuous tense is:
subject
+
auxiliary verb WILL
+
auxiliary verb BE
+
main verb
invariable
invariable
present participle
will
be
base + ing
For negative sentences in the future continuous tense, we insert not between will and
be. For question sentences, we exchange the subject and will. Look at these example
sentences with the future continuous tense:
subject
auxiliary verb
auxiliary verb
main verb
+
I
will
be
working
at 10am.
+
You
will
be
lying
on a beach
tomorrow.
-
She
will
not
be
using
the car.
-
We
will
not
be
having
dinner at home.
?
Will
you
be
playing
football?
?
Will
they
be
watching
TV?
When we use the future continuous tense in speaking, we often contract the subject and
will:
I will
I'll
you will
you'll
he will
she will
it will
he'll
she'll
it'll
we will
we'll
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they will
they'll
For spoken negative sentences in the future continuous tense, we contract with won't,
like this:
I will not
I won't
you will not
you won't
he will not
she will not
it will not
he won't
she won't
it won't
we will not
we won't
they will not
they won't
We sometimes use shall instead of will, especially for I and we.
Adverbs used with this tense:
1. At 7 tomorrow
2. At this time + adverbs for future
At this time next Friday
At this time next week
At this time next tomorrow
3. All + the + adverbs for future
All the next week
All the tomorrow
How do we use the Future Continuous Tense?
The future continuous tense expresses action at a particular moment in the future. The
action will start before that moment but it will not have finished at that moment. For
example, tomorrow I will start work at 2pm and stop work at 6pm:
---At 4 pm tomorrow, I will be working.
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past
present
future
4 pm
At 4 pm, I will be in the middle
of working.
When we use the future continuous tense, our listener usually knows or understands
what time we are talking about. Look at these examples:
---I will be playing tennis at 10 am tomorrow.
---They won't be watching TV at 9 pm tonight.
---What will you be doing at 10 pm tonight?
---What will you be doing when I arrive?
---She will not be sleeping when you telephone her.
---We 'll be having dinner when the film starts.
---Take your umbrella. It will be raining when you return.
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Future Perfect Tense:
The future perfect tense is quite an easy tense to understand and use. The future perfect
tense talks about the past in the future.
How do we make the Future Perfect Tense?
The structure of the future perfect tense is:
subject
+
auxiliary verb WILL
+
auxiliary verb HAVE
+
main verb
invariable
invariable
past participle
will
have
V3
Look at these example sentences in the future perfect tense:
subject
auxiliary verb
auxiliary verb
main verb
+
I
will
have
finished
by 10am.
+
You
will
have
forgotten
me by then.
-
She
will
not
have
gone
to school.
-
We
will
not
have
left.
?
Will
you
have
arrived?
?
Will
they
have
received
it?
In speaking with the future perfect tense, we often contract the subject and will.
Sometimes, we contract the subject, will and have all together:
I will have
I'll have
I'll've
you will have
you'll have
you'll've
he will have
she will have
it will have
he'll have
she'll have
it'll have
he'll've
she'll've
it'll've
we will have
we'll have
we'll've
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they will have
they'll have
they'll've
We sometimes use shall instead of will, especially for I and we.
How do we use the Future Perfect Tense?
The future perfect tense expresses action in the future before another action in the
future. This is the past in the future. For example:
---The train will leave the station at 9 am. You will arrive at the station at 9.15 am. When you arrive,
the train will have left.
---The train will have left when you arrive.
past
present
future
Train leaves in future at 9
am.
9
9.15
You arrive in future at 9.15
am.
Look at some more examples:
---You can call me at work at 8 am. I will have arrived at the office by 8.
---They will be tired when they arrive. They will not have slept for a long time.
---"Mary won't be at home when you arrive."
---"Really? Where will she have gone?"
You can sometimes think of the future perfect tense like the present perfect tense, but
instead of your viewpoint being in the present, it is in the future:
present perfect tense
future perfect tense
|
have |
done |
will |
have |
done |
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> |
> |
past
now
future
past
now
future
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Future Perfect Continuous Tense:
How do we make the Future Perfect Continuous Tense?
The structure of the future perfect continuous tense is:
subject
+
auxiliary verb
WILL
+
auxiliary verb
HAVE
+
auxiliary verb
BE
+
main verb
invariable
invariable
past participle
present
participle
will
have
been
base + ing
For negative sentences in the future perfect continuous tense, we insert not between will
and have. For question sentences, we exchange the subject and will. Look at these
example sentences with the future perfect continuous tense:
subject
auxiliary verb
auxiliary verb
auxiliary verb
main verb
+
I
will
have
been
working
for four
hours.
+
You
will
have
been
travelling
for two
days.
-
She
will
not
have
been
using
the car.
-
We
will
not
have
been
waiting
long.
?
Will
you
have
been
playing
football?
?
Will
they
have
been
watching
TV?
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When we use the future perfect continuous tense in speaking, we often contract the
subject and auxiliary verb:
I will
I'll
you will
you'll
he will
she will
it will
he'll
she'll
it'll
we will
we'll
they will
they'll
For negative sentences in the future perfect continuous tense, we contract with won't,
like this:
I will not
I won't
you will not
you won't
he will not
she will not
it will not
he won't
she won't
it won't
we will not
we won't
they will not
they won't
How do we use the Future Perfect Continuous Tense?
We use the future perfect continuous tense to talk about a long action before some point
in the future. Look at these examples:
---I will have been working here for ten years next week.
---He will be tired when he arrives. He will have been traveling for 24 hours.
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Tests:
1. do they do 2. they do 3. are they doing 4. they are doing
1. is speaking 2. speaks 3. has spoken 4. spoke
1. has gotten 2. got 3. is getting 4. gets
1. rose 2. is rising 3. rises 4. has risen
5. "Do you know him?" ."
1. do 2. know 3. am 4. did
1. plays 2. is playing 3. played 4. has played
1. causes 2. caused 3. is causing 4. had caused
1. brush 2. is brushing 3. brushes 4. has brushed
1. goes to see 2. is going to see 3. go to see 4. went to see
1. has won 2. had won 3. wins 4. is winning
1. has just arrived 2. has just arrive 3. is just arriving 4. just has arrived
1. isn't explained 2. hasn't explained 3. has explained 4. haven't explained
1. haven't spoken 2. has spoken 3. don't speak 4. am speaking
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1. have worked 2. has worked 3. is working 4. worked
15. What ......... be doing this time tomorrow?
1. were you 2. did you 3. have you 4. will you
1. never saw 2. was never seeing 3. had never seen 4. never had seen
1. solved 2. had solved 3. has solved 4. was solving
1. looked out 2. had looked out 3. has looked out 4. was looking out
1. he left 2. did he leave 3. had he left 4. was he leaving
20. They
1. will study 2. will be studying 3. would study 4. will have studied
1. have be going 2. will be going 3. have gone 4. would have gone
om him for the past six months.
1. had heard 2. has heard 3. heard 4. hears
1. had left 2. has left 3. is leaving 4. was leaving
month.
1. didn't go 2. hadn't go 3. haven't gone 4. wouldn't go
1. had studied 2. has studied 3. would study 4. was studying
so far?
1. did you have 2. do you have 3. have you had 4. you have had
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1. had read 2. has read 3. hadn't read 4. hasn't read
efore her husband arrived.
1. will cook 2. would cook 3. had cooked 4. has cooked
1. would begin 2. has begun 3. had begun 4. will begin
30. Don't be in a h
1. stops 2. stopped 3. will be stopped 4. will stop
1. do you watch 2. did you watch
3. have you watched 4. are you going to watch
1. damages 2. is damaging 3. has damaged 4.has been damaging
33.
1. are, working 2. have, being worked
3. were, working 4. have, been working
1. has been standing 2. has stood
3. was being stood 4. are standing
1. worked 2. was going to work
3. had worked 4. has been working
1. work 2. was working
3. have worked 4. have been working
1. went 2. go 3. going 4. gone
1. see 2. saw 3. seen 4. seeing
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1. eats 2. ate 3. eat 4. eaten
1. speaks 2. is speaking 3. has spoken 4. has speaking
1. try 2. am trying 3. have tried 4. have been trying
1. plays 2. play 3. has played 4. is playing
eak window.
1. tries 2. is trying 3. is tried 4. is being tried
-pong.
1. is playing 2. has played 3. played 4. was playing
lue from gold.
1. get 2. gets 3. is getting 4. was getting
1. are crying 2. cry 3. have cried 4. have been crying
1. listened 2. listening 3. listen 4. listens
1. writing 2. write 3. wrote 4. writes
1. listen 2. listened 3. listening 4. listens
1. didn't lock 2. hadn't locked 3. hasn't locked 4. wouldn't lock
1. not have heard 2. have heard not 3. not have heard 4. have not heard
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1. before 2. for 3. since 4. until
1. has watched 2. was watching 3. watched 4. will be watching
54. When we were having dinner, I suddenly remembered t
1. didn't lock 2. hadn't locked 3. wouldn't lock 4. haven't locked
55. By
1. had lived 2. has lived 3. was living 4. lived
1. entered 2. is entering 3. enters 4. has entered
1. is crossing 2. is crossed 3. was crossed 4. was crossing
1. came 2. has been coming 3. had come 4. was coming
1. had taken 2. has taken 3. is taken 4. was taken
1. took 2. was taking 3. had taken 4. has taken
61. "Did he go to Europe last year?"
1. doesn't have 2. didn't have 3. hasn't had 4. hadn't had
1. had left 2. has left 3. would leave 4. left
1. has run 2. would run 3. would be running 4. was running
64. It was my first flight in an airplane. I was very afraid becaus
1. didn't fly 2. haven't flown 3. hadn't flown 4. wasn't flying
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1. went 2. will go 3. were going 4. have gone
car in 1364.
1. bought 2. hadbought 3. has bought 4. would have bought
1. take 2. took 3. had taken 4. has taken
garden.
1. is working 2. worked 3. was working 4. works
1. every day 2. tomorrow 3. a few minutes ago 4. next week
70. C
1. doesn't cleans 2. doesn't clean 3. don't clean 4. don't cleans
1. sings 2. sang 3. sung 4. sing
onkey doing at the moment?" "I don't know."
1. does 2. is 3. do 4. was
1. does, does 2. does, --- 3. ---, does 4. does, do
74. "Have you e
1. have 2. be 3. was 4. have been
1. had eaten 2. eat 3. eating 4. ate
d 12 yesterday.
1. was sleep 2. was sleeping 3. slept 4. sleep
1. didn't see 2. wasn't see 3. haven't seen 4. hadn't seen
the class.
1. until 2. for 3. by 4. since
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1. has heard 2. has hear 3. heard 4. had heard
1. had to 2. have to 3. has to 4. has
walk home.
1. have to 2. has to 3. had 4. had to
1. stays 2. stay 3. staying 4. to stay
83.
1. did 2. do 3. does 4. are
1. have to 2. has to 3. had 4. had to
1. has not to 2. not has to 3. doesn't have to 4. doesn't has to
1. see 2. seeing 3. to see 4. saw
1. every day 2. tomorrow 3. an hour ago 4. a and c
88. A: "Why didn't you go to shiraz by plane?"
1. took off 2. has taken off 3. taken off 4. had taken off
89. A: "Have you ever written a letter to your father?"
a letter last month."
1. have written 2. had written 3. wrote 4. was writing
90. Which sentence is not grammatically correct?
1. I had not my lunch in a restaurant; I had my dinner in a restaurant.
2. They have had a big meal, so they are not hungry.
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3. Their friend had had a pizza before the class started.
4. The old man has not had a sandwich. He has had chicken.
91. The most unusually packaged tourist ............ our country at this time next week.
1. has visited 2. is visiting 3. is to visit 4. will be visiting
92. Which one of the underlined words is wrong?
William Faulkner said that it is not possible to understand the South if you were not born there.
a b c d
was
1. the earth was the center of the universe
2. the earth is the center of the universe
3. the center of the universe is earth
4. the universe has earth at the center
94. Choose the incorrect item.
Because early balloons were dependent on winds, they are not
a b c
considered a practical means of transportation until the 1850s.
d
were
95. Which sentence is correct?
1. I thought that he is coming today.
2. He is among the few who want to continue working on the project.
3. It was an accepted custom for a man to open the door for a woman when he accompanies a
woman.
4. Jack tries to finish his research, but he finds only part of the information that he needs.
at the moment
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three times a day
so far
just
yet
since
for
at this time
because never
before
while
agodid
before
when
many/several/three …..+times
how long
since
did to
usually on
last night
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all
for
since
put
s
every day
did
at the moment
every day does ses
last year
before
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cuts
havedidn't
said
wants
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Passives:
The passive voice involves a construction where the subject is acted on, as opposed to performing
the action as in an active sentence. We will touch on this briefly, because academic writing,
specifically writing argument, involves active style. But, the passive voice causes many problems with
Steps: Changing an Active Sentence to a Passive Sentence (no DO = Direct Object):
1. Change Direct Object to Subject.
2. Bring down the main verb and change to past participle.
3. Add auxiliary verb.
4. Add by phrase: The subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the preposition in the
passive sentence.
SVDirect Object
---I ate some rice.
1. Some rice
2. Some rice_____eaten
3. Some rice was eaten by me.
1 3 2 4
Steps: Some rice/ was/ eaten/ by me.
Example:
Active: I am gathering carrots.
Passive: Carrots are being gathered by me.
Example:
---I was teaching the classes.
1. Change Direct Object to Subject.
The classes
2. Bring down main verbchange to v3
The classes_____ _____taught
3. Add auxiliary verb. If there is already an auxiliary verb, we bring it down, too, before we add a
new one.
4. Aux./ add/ v3(past perfect)
---The classes were being (added) taught.
Because the main verb was progressive, the auxiliary verb we added must be progressive, as well.
Also, we changed the auxiliary verb was from the active sentence to were in the passive sentence,
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because the auxiliary verb must agree in number with the subject of the sentence. The subject
classes is plural, so the auxiliary must be plural. Change the subject of the active sentence to the
object of the preposition by in the passive sentence.
---The classes were being taught by me.
Exceptions:
---It rained last night. No passive.
---It happened. No passive.
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Active Form Passive Form
1. Simple present:
---They teach English in high schools. ---English is taught in high schools.
2. Present continuous:
---They are teaching English this year. ---English is being taught this year.
3. Present perfect:
---They have taught English for many years. ---English has been taught for many years.
4. Present perfect continuous:
---They have been teaching English for many years.---English has been being taught for many years.
5. Simple past:
---They taught English last year. ---English was taught last year.
6. Past continuous:
---They were teaching English when I started school.---English was being taught when I started school.
7. Past perfect:
---They had taught English for many years when I started school.
---English had been taught for many years when I started school.
8. Past perfect continuous:
---They had been teaching English for many years when I started school.
---English had been being taught for many years when I started school.
9. Future simple:
---They will teach English next year. ---English will be taught next year.
10. Future continuous:
---They will be teaching English next year.
---English will be being taught next year.
11. Future perfect:
---They will have taught English for three years by next September.
---English will have been taught for three years by next September.
12. Future perfect continuous:
---They will have been teaching English for three years by next September.
(This tense form is rarely used in passive.)
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Tests:
1. been 2. will 3. was 4. had
1. was written 2. was wrote 3. wrote 4. written
1. taught 2. teach 3. is taught 4. are taught
1. had be damaged 2. had damaged
3. had being damaged 4. had been damaged
1. are being 2. were being 3. are 4. have been
1. was being offered 2. has been offered
3. was offered 4. had been offered
1. is spoken 2. was spoken 3. spoke 4. are spoken
1. hadn't been 2. was not 3. haven't been 4. wouldn't
1. wasn't invited 2. had not invited
3. wouldn't be invited 4. hadn't been invited
1. will write 2. will be written 3. will be writing 4. will be wrote
1. was broken 2. is broken 3. were broken 4. broke
12. Why couldn't you use your bicycle this morning?
1. has been repairing 2. was being repaired
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3. was having repaired 4. was repairing
week.
1. will correct 2. would correct 3. will be corrected 4. would be corrected
1. be 2. have 3. had 4. would
1. be 2. is 3. was 4. being
1. has been 2. have been 3. was 4. were
1. be taught 2. be teaching 3. have taught 4. teach
1. had been made tighten 2. may have been tightened
3. should be tightened 4. was tightened
1. are measuring 2. are measured 3. is measuring 4. is measured
1. has drawn 2. had drawn 3. was drawn 4. drew
1. had 2. has 3. is 4. was
1. will be published 2. will publish
3. would be published 4. would publish
1. repair 2. be repaired 3. will repair 4. have been repaired
1. has invented 2. invented 3. was invented 4. has been invented
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driving yesterday.
1. fined 2. was fined 3. found 4. was found
26. The longest fish in the contest............. by Jim.
1. was catching 2. was caught 3. caught 4. has caught
27. Five hundred years ago, the sun ............ to revolve around the earth. People did not know then
what we know now.
1. has been thought 2. should be thought
3. was thought 4. had thought
28. During the winter months that village ............... because of heavy snow.
1. is isolating 2. has been isolating 3. was isolated 4. had isolated
29. Shortly after taking off from India for Russia, the 727 ................. missing.
1. reported 2. must have reported
3. was reported 4. might have reported
1. will brought 2. will be brought 3. were brought 4. is brought
31. He heard on the evening news that a family of six.......... in an explosion.
1. were being injured 2. have injured 3. had injured 4. had been injured
32. Many houses....... during the earthquake and they ...... yet.
1. have been knocked down/weren't rebuilt
2. were knocked down/haven't been rebuilt
3. knocked down/haven't been rebuilt
4. had been knocked down/weren't rebuilt
33. The music was so wonderful that all the tickets ...........
1. have been sold 2. will be sold 3. had sold 4. were sold
34. Various kinds of atomic weapons .......... in the past few years by several countries.
1. are produced 2. have been produced
3. were produced 4. will be produced
35. A: "I heard you had an accident."
B: "Yes, but no one ..........."
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1. wasn't hurt 2. were hurt 3. was hurt 4. didn't hurt
36. Things .......... a lot since Laurent was a child.
1. have changed 2. were changed 3. had been changing 4. had changed
37. How many innocent men.......... by the hijackers?
1. had killed 2. has been killed 3. were killed 4. will have killed
38. Thirty-seven people ...... till now after the demonstration against the government's policies.
1. have been arrested 2. have arrested
3. were arrested 4. had been arrested
39. By 2016 the entire railway network .......... .
1. will have been modernized 2. were to be modernized
3. will modernize 4. will have modernized
40. I had thought that we .......... to dinner.
1. would invite 2. had invited
3. were going to be invited 4. were going to invite
41. The president and vice president are the only public officials in the United States
A B
who choose in a nationwide election, which takes place every four years.
C D
last year
before
now
since
tomorrow
yesterday
next week told
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height waves
ago
soon
have to/has to + be + pp
no one
till now
by
Exercise 7.5:
From the book (Ace the TOEFL Essay)
Directions: Change the following sentences from active to passive voice.
1. The boys played football.
2. The army was flying helicopters over the base late at night.
3. The girls achieved the highest award given by the organization.
4. The baseball team won most of the games they played this year.
5. The jury decided the fate of the accused murderers.
6. The plane crashed in the Andes late last night.
7. No one survived the crash in the Andes last night.
8. The group of boys taunted the girls walking across the yard.
9. The kittens roamed about the yard playing.
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10. The professor pounded the desk in frustration.
11. The teacher modeled his class after what he was taught.
12. The bear splashed through the stream clumsily.
13. The best student flunked the exam.
14. The girl perused the headlines for any word of snow.
15. The fat, old, ugly bear consumed the picnic.
16. Beside the road, a snake swallowed the mouse.
17. The regiment formed a battle line.
18. The ball hit the backboard and made a noise.
19. The policemen captured the murderer behind the station.
20. An old lady hobbled along the sidewalk.
21. A dog ripped open the sack when he smelled the meat.
Answers to Exercise 7.5
Directions: Change the following sentences from active to passive voice.
1. The boys played football.
Football was played by the boys.
2. The army was flying helicopters over the base late at night.
Helicopters were being flown by the army over the base late at night.
3. The girls achieved the highest award given by the organization.
The highest award given by the organization was achieved by the girls.
4. The baseball team won most of the games they played this year.
Most of the games they played this year were won by the baseball team.
5. The jury decided the fate of the accused murderers.
The fate of the accused murderers was decided by the jury.
6. The plane crashed in the Andes late last night.
The plane was crashed in the Andes late last night.
7. No one survived the crash in the Andes last night.
The crash in the Andes last night was not survived by anyone.
8. The group of boys taunted the girls walking across the yard.
The girls walking across the yard were taunted by the group of boys.
9. The kittens roamed about the yard playing.
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The yard was roamed about by the kittens playing.
10. The professor pounded the desk in frustration.
The desk was pounded in frustration by the professor.
11. The teacher modeled his class after what he was taught.
The class was modeled by the teacher after what he was taught.
12. The bear splashed through the stream clumsily.
The stream was clumsily splashed through by the bear.
13. The best student flunked the exam.
The exam was flunked by the best student.
14. The girl perused the headlines for any word of snow.
The headlines were perused by the girl for any word of snow.
15. The fat, old, ugly bear consumed the picnic.
The picnic was consumed by the fat, old, ugly bear.
16. Beside the road, a snake swallowed the mouse.
The mouse was swallowed by a snake beside the road.
17. The regiment formed a battle line.
A battle line was formed by the regiment.
18. The ball hit the backboard and made a noise.
The blackboard was hit and a noise was made by the ball.
19. The policemen captured the murderer behind the station.
The murderer was captured behind the station by the policemen.
20. An old lady hobbled along the sidewalk.
The sidewalk was hobbled along by the old lady.
21. A dog ripped open the sack when he smelled the meat.
The sack was ripped open by a dog when he smelled the meat.
Exercise 7.6
Directions: Change from active to passive voice.
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1. Eating an apple is a noisy experience.
2. Along the highway, we encountered a wolf.
3. To sing a song helps the heart.
4. Singing achieves a merriment in the heart.
5. The old miser distributed ill will around his neighborhood.
6. The rotten apple stank.
7. The glisten of the lights made the car shine.
9. The cub pranced through its den.
10. The water made a trickling sound as it ran down the drain.
11. To win the game, the goalie cheated.
12. He repaired the copier.
13. He is eating dinner later now.
14. The lady tossed the ashtray into the receptacle.
15. The computer whirred when he turned it on.
EXERCISE 7.6 EXERCISE 7.5
Answers to Exercise 7.6
Directions: Change from active to passive voice.
1. No change
2. A wolf was encountered by us along the highway.
3. The heart is helped by singing a song. (by + gerund)
4. A merriment in the heart is achieved by singing.
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5. Ill will was distributed around his neighborhood by the old miser.
6. No change
7. The car was made to shine by the glisten of the lights.
8. The brakes were made to squeak loudly as he applied them.
9. The den was pranced through by the cub.
10. A trickling sound was made by the water as it ran down the drain.
11. No change: Can make gerund. Cheating was done by the goalie . . .
12. The copier was repaired by him.
13. Dinner is being eaten later now.
14. The ashtray was tossed into the receptacle by the lady.
15. No change: Can make gerund. Whirring was made by the computer.
EXERCISE 7.7
Exercise 7.7
Directions: Change the following sentence from active to passive, and punctuate it.
The man wrapped the gift then he hid the bottle in the fireplace next the man threw out the extra
paper finally he discarded the evidence
Answers to Exercise 7.7
Directions: Change the following sentence from active to passive, and punctuate it.
The gift was wrapped by the man; then, the bottle was hidden by him in the fireplace. Next, the extra
paper was thrown out by the man. Finally, the evidence was discarded by him.
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Nouns:
A noun is a word that names persons, animals, places, objects, and abstract ideas. It is true that the
other parts of speech can name things, too, but we usually associate the naming function with
nouns. Here are some examples of nouns:
Cheryl, woman, girl, armadillo, scorpion, stone, cactus, desert, sand, stream, honesty, love, infinity,
pride, courage
Nouns come in these varieties: common nouns, proper nouns, compound nouns, and
collective nouns.
1. Common nouns name any one of a class of person, place, or thing.
---Girl ---City ---Food
---Insects thrive in warm weather.
---Botany is the study of plants.
2. Proper nouns name a specific person, place, or thing. Proper nouns are always capitalized.
---Barbara
---New York City
---The Milky Way has a graceful, pinwheel like form.
---Switzerland owes much to its glaciers.
3. Compound nouns
are two or more nouns that function as a single unit. A compound noun can be
two individual words, words joined by a hyphen, or two words combined.
a. Individual words:
---Time capsule
b. Hyphenated words:
---Great-uncle
c. Combined words:
---Basketball
4. Collective nouns name groups of people or things.
---Audience
---Family
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---Herd
---Crowd
The majority + singular verb
The majority of the + plural noun + plural verb
---The majority believes that we are in no danger.
---The majority of the students believe him to be innocent.
The police/sheep/fish + plural verb
---The sheep are breaking away.
---The police come only to see the dead bodies and a ruin in the bank.
A couple + singular verb
---A couple is walking on the path.
The couple + plural verb
---The couple are racing their horses through the meadow.
Flock of birds, sheep
herd of cattle
pack of dogs + singular verb
school of fish
pride of lions
pod of adult dolphins
pod of pilot whales
---The flock of birds is circling overhead.
Possessive Nouns:
In grammar, possession shows ownership. Follow these rules to create possessive nouns.
1. With singular nouns, add an apostrophe and an s.
Dog → ---Dog's bone
Singer → ---Singer's voice
2. With plural nouns ending in s, add an apostrophe after the s.
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Dogs' → ---Dogs' bones
Singers' → ---Singers' voices
3. With plural nouns not ending in s, add an apostrophe and an s.
Men → ---Men's books
Mice → ---Mice's tails
Countable and Uncountable Nouns:
Uncountable Nouns
Equipment, clothing, food, furniture, money, traffic, jewelry
Water,
Ice, bread, butter, cheese, meat, gold, iron, silver, glass, paper, cotton, wood
S
Rice, chalk, corn, dust, hair, pepper, salt, sand, sugar
Beauty, confidence, courage, education, fun, happiness, health, honesty, luck, intelligence,
homework, work
work
---Shakespeare'sworksareinteresting.
Arabic, Chinese, English, Farsi
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C
Many noncount nouns can be used as count nouns but with a predictable shift in meaningto
Gasoline—noncount: The price of gasoline is outrageous. (liquid)
Gasoline—count: The station sells three gasolines. (different grades of gasoline)
Spanish—noncount: I am learning Spanish. (language)
Spanish—count: There are several Spanishes in America. (different kinds of Spanish)
Cheese—noncount: I love cheese. (food)
Cheese—count: The store sells a variety of cheeses. (different kinds of cheese)
Some noncount nouns have count noun counterparts but with different meanings. Here are some
examples:
Iron—noncount: The chain is made of iron. (material)
Iron—count: The hotel will provide irons. (electric appliances for pressing clothes)
Paper—noncount: Books are made of paper. (material)
Paper—count: The border guards stopped me and asked to see my papers. (official documents,
especially ones that show who you are)
Chicken—noncount: Chicken is a heart-healthy meat. (food)
Chicken—count: There were a dozen chickens in the yard. (living animals)
Coffee—noncount: Too much coffee makes me nervous. (liquid)
Coffee—count: We would like two coffees, please. (cups or servings of coffee)
There are some irregular formations for noun plurals. Some of the most common ones are
listed below.
Examples of irregular plurals:
Cactus cacti
Focus foci
Fungus fungi
Locus loci
---The locus of decision-making is sometimes far from the government's offices.
Nucleus nuclei
Syllabus syllabi/syllabuses
Analysis analyses
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Diagnosis diagnoses
ʊ'eɪsɪs] oases
Thesis theses
Crisis crises
Phenomenon phenomena
Criterion criteria
Datum data / /
Medium media
Some nouns have the same form in the singular and the plural.
Examples:
Singular Plural
Species species
Means means
TV series TV series
Aircraft aircraft
A cod two cod
A deer two deer
A fish two fish
A sheep two sheep
A shrimp two shrimp
A trout two trout
Foreign plurals: Some foreign words in English have retained their foreign plurals. Some have both
foreign and English plurals. Take care, however, with the words that are asterisked below because
the foreign plural of these is used in a different sense from the English plural. Check these words
under individual entries for the distinction in meaning.
Singular –a foreign plural English plural
Alga algae – BrE [ˈælɡiː] NAmE [ˈælɡiː]
Antenna antennae antennas*
Formula formulae formulas*
Larva larvae –
Nebula nebulae nebulas
Vertebra vertebrae vertebras
Fossa fossae
Singular -eau foreign plural English plural
–ex/-ix
Appendix appendices appendixes*
Index indices indexes*
Matrix matrices matrixes
Vortex vortices vortexes
Singular -is
Analysis analyses –
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Axis axes – the vertical/horizontal axis *ˌhɒrɪˈzɒnt(ə)l+ US
Crisis crises –
Diagnosis diagnoses –
Hypothesis hypotheses –
Parenthesis parentheses –
Synopsis synopses –
Singular –o
Graffito graffiti – mural – intramural / interpersonal/intrapersonal
Virtuoso virtuosi virtuosos
Singular –on
Criterion criteria –
Phenomenon phenomena –
Singular –um
Aquarium aquaria aquariums
Bacterium bacteria –
Curriculum curricula curriculums
Datum data –
Memorandum memoranda memorandums
Millennium millennia millenniums
Stratum strata – stratify
Ultimatum ultimata ultimatums
Ovum ova – lacto ovo vegetarian
Addendum addenda
Spectrum spectra
Singular –us
Bacillus bacilli –
Cactus cacti cactuses
Fungus fungi funguses
Hippopotamus hippopotami hippopotamuses
Nucleus nuclei –
Radius radii radiuses
Stimulus stimuli –
Syllabus syllabi syllabuses
Some nouns are quite irregular in the formation of their plural. Some words don't change:
Aircraft, cannon, bison, cod, deer, sheep, trout, bass
Some have a choice about changing or staying the same in the plural:
Buffalo or buffaloes
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Eskimo or Eskimos
Words ending in -f and -fe generally add -s to form the plural:
Roof roofs
Cliff cliffs
Handkerchief handkerchiefs
Carafe carafes
Giraffe giraffes
There are 13 exceptions which end in -ves in the plural. You can always hear when this is the
case, but here is the complete list for reference:
Knife/knives; Life/lives; Wife/wives; Elf/elves; Self/selves; Shelf/shelves; Calf/calves; Half/halves;
Leaf/leaves; Sheaf/sheaves; Thief/thieves; Loaf/loaves; Wolf/wolves.
Four words can be either -fs or -ves:
Hoofs/hooves; Scarfs/scarves; Turfs/turves; Wharfs/wharves.
Some nouns have a plural form but take a singular verb.
Examples:
News ---The news is on at 6.30 p.m.
Athletics ---Athletics is good for young people.
Linguistics ---Linguistics is the study of language.
Darts ---Darts is a popular game in England.
Billiards ---Billiards is played all over the world.
TOEFL:
Some nouns with a singular form can be treated either as singular (with a singular
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verb) or plural (with a plural verb):
---The council has (or have) postponed a decision on the new road.
Other words like this include association, audience, class, club, college, committee,
community, company, crowd, department, electorate, enemy, family, firm, generation,
government, group, jury, orchestra, population, press, public, school, staff, team,
university, and the names of specific organizations such as the Bank of England, the
BBC, IBM, and Sony. We use a singular verb if we see the institution or organization
as a whole unit and a plural verb if we see it as a collection of individuals. Often you
can use either with very little difference in meaning, although in formal writing (such
as academic writing) it is more common to use a singular verb.
In some contexts a plural form of the verb is needed. We would say:
---The committee usually raise their hands to vote 'Yes', (not ...raises its hands...) as
this is something that the individuals do, not the committee as a whole. In others, a
singular form is preferred. We would say:
---The school is to close next year, (not the school are...) as we are talking about
something which happens to the school as a building or institution, not to the
individuals that comprise it.
Plural-Only Nouns: Some plural nouns have no corresponding singular form at all or
else have a singular form that differs substantially from the meaning of the plural.
One group of plural-only nouns refers to tools or articles of clothing that have two
equal parts joined together:
Tools: bellows, binoculars, (eye)glasses, forceps, pincers, scissors, shears, spectacles,
tongs, tweezers
Clothing: braces, briefs, flannels, jeans, pants, pajamas, shorts, slacks, suspenders,
tights, tops, trousers, trunks
Here are some other plural-only nouns with idiomatic meanings:
Accommodations (living arrangements)
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Funds (money)
Arms (weapons)
Guts (courage)
Brains (intellect)
Looks (appearance)
Communications (means of communication)
Manners (behavior)
Credentials (records or documents)
Pains (trouble, effort)
Customs (duty)
Wits (intelligence)
A few plural-only nouns have no plural marking: cattle, livestock, poultry, people,
police. Here are some examples with the plural verb underlined:
---The police are investigating the crime.
---People were beginning to talk.
Some nouns are usually plural and take a plural verb. These include belongings,
clothes, congratulations, earnings, goods, outskirts, particulars (= information),
premises (= building), riches, savings, stairs, surroundings, thanks, pliers ,
tongs , scissors, shorts, pants, jeans, trousers, eyeglasses, spectacles, pajamas,
binoculars, tweezers:
---The pants are in the drawer.
---A pair of pants is in the drawer.
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---The company's earnings have increased for the last five years.
The nouns police and people also always have a plural verb. The noun whereabouts
can be used with either a singular or plural verb.
Some nouns always end in -s and look as if they are plural, but when we use
them as the subject of a sentence they have a singular verb:
---The news from the Middle East seems very encouraging.
Other words like this include means (= 'method' or 'money'); some academic
disciplines, e.g. economics, linguistics, mathematics, phonetics, politics, statistics,
physics; some sports, e.g. gymnastics, athletics; and some diseases, e.g. diabetes,
measles, rabies. However, compare:
---Politics is popular at this university.
---Statistics was always my worst subject.
---Economics has only recently been recognized as a scientific study.
General use
---Her politics are bordering on the fascist. (= political beliefs)
---Statisticsare able to prove anything you want them to. (= numerical information)
---The economics behind their policies are unreasonable. (= the financial system)
TOEFL: Singular and Plural Expressions of Noncount Nouns. Remember that the following singular
and plural expressions are idiomatic:
A piece of advice
A piece of bread
A piece of equipment
A piece of furniture
A piece of information
A piece of jewelry
A piece of luggage
A piece of mail
A piece of music
A piece of news
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A piece of toast
A loaf of bread
A slice of bread
An ear of corn
A bar of soap
A bolt of lightning
A clap of thunder
A gust of wind
A pair of pants…+ singular verb
---A pair of pants is in the drawer.
---The pants are in the drawer.
Two pieces of advice
Two pieces of bread
Two pieces of equipment
Two pieces of furniture
Two pieces of information
Two pieces of jewelry
Two pieces of luggage
Two pieces of mail
Two pieces of music
Two pieces of news
Two pieces of toast
Two loaves of bread
Two slices of bread
Two ears of corn
Two bars of soap
Two bolts of lightning
Two claps of thunder
Two gusts of wind
Avoid using the noncount noun without the singular or plural idiom to express a singular or plural.
---A mail travels faster when the zip code is indicated on the envelope.
---A piece of mail travels faster when the zip code is indicated on the envelope.
---There is a limit of two carry-on luggages for each passenger.
---There is a limit of two pieces of carry-on luggage for each passenger.
---Each furniture in this display is on sale for half price.
---Each piece of furniture in this display is on sale for half price.
---I'd like a steak, a salad, and a corn's ear with butter.
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---I'd like a steak, a salad, and an ear of corn with butter.
---The Engineering Department purchased a new equipment to simulate conditions in outer space.
---The Engineering Department purchased a new piece of equipment to simulate conditions in
outer space.
---s.
(A) corns
(B) ear of corn
(C) corn ears
(D) corn's ears
---A few tiles on Skylab were the only equipments that failed to perform well in outer space.
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Possessive Forms of Nouns
Modern English is a hybrid of two languages: Old English (Anglo-Saxon) and French. Reflecting this
mixed heritage, Modern English has two ways of forming the possessive: the Old English way, which
uses an inflectional ending (’s and s’), and an of possessive that is a kind of loan-translation of the
French way of forming the possessive. Here is an example of each:
Inflectional possessive: Shakespeare’s plays
of possessive: the plays of Shakespeare
Inflectional Possessives
It is essentially a historical accident that the regular plural and the possessive inflections are
pronounced exactly alike, with the same sibilant sounds. Up until the sixteenth century, the plural
and the possessives were also spelled alike: -s. During the sixteenth century, however, the
apostrophe began to be used for the possessive ending to distinguish it from the plural ending. For
example:
Singular Possessive
Boy
Girl
Friend
The use of the apostrophe after the -s to signal the possessive use of a plural noun did not become
widely accepted until the nineteenth century:
Plural Plural Possessive
Boys
Girls
Friends
While it is correct to call -s’ -’s
possessi
become plural by changing their vowel rather than by adding a plural -s. For example:
Singular Plural
Noun Possessive Noun Possessive
Man men men
Woman women
Child children
As you can see, -’s is used with these plural possessive nouns, not -s’. Using the -s’ with these nouns
would mean (incorrectly, of course) that the /s/ is what makes these nouns plural. What actually
makes them plural is the change in their vowels.
A much better way to think of plurals and possessive is as follows:
Plural Only Possessive Only Both Plural and Possessive
-s -’s -s’
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This analysis will help ensure that you will always use the right form. Mercifully, the spelling of the
possessive forms is regular (though there are a few exceptions for proper nouns, which are discussed
later in this section). Here are some examples using words that form their plurals in different ways.
WORDS ENDING IN A CONSONANT + Y
Singular Plural
Noun Possessive Noun Possessive
Baby babies
Family families
WORDS ENDING IN O
Singular Plural
Noun Possessive Noun Possessive
Ego egos
Memo memos
Hero heroes
Volcano volcanoes
Notice that in the last two examples, the singular possessive and the plural forms are spelled
differently.
WORDS ENDING IN F
Singular Plural
Noun Possessive Noun Possessive
Thief thieves
Wolf wolves
The possessives of some proper nouns ending in a sibilant sound are often spelled with just an
apostrophe. For example:
In Jesus’ name (this spelling is conventional)
Ramses’ tomb
Charles Dickens’ novels
Kansas’ main city
The Meaning of the Inflectional Possessive: As its name would suggest, the possessive is most
commonly used to show ownership or possession.
For example:
Ralph’s car
My family’s house
However, the possessive is used in many other meanings, the two most important being
relationships and measurement:
Relationships
Ralph’s neighbor (Ralph does not own his neighbor.)
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My family’s doctor (The family does not own the doctor.)
Measurement
Time: an hour’s delay; a week’s postponement; two years’ duration
Value: the euro’s value; the dollar’s decline; five dollars’ worth
of Possessive
While the inflectional possessive and the of possessive mean the same thing, they are not always
interchangeable. For example:
Inflectional possessive: Sarah’s taxi
of possessive: X the taxi of Sarah
Inflectional possessive: X a soup’s bowl
of possessive: a bowl of soup
Let us use the term possessive noun to refer to both (a) nouns that can have infl
be Sarah. In the second example, the possessive noun would be soup.
Here is a general rule that will help you decide which form of the possessive noun to use:
If the possessive noun is animate, use the inflectional possessive.
If the possessive noun is inanimate, use the of possessive.
Here are some examples with animate possessive nouns:
Inflectional of Possessive
X? The hat of the gentleman
X the dish of the cat
X the house of our family
Here are some examples with inanimate possessive nouns:
of Possessive Inflectional
A map of Australia X?
A glass of water X
The back of the room X
As with most broad generalizations, the rule about possessives is overly black-and-white.
The first part, which says that animate nouns require the inflectional possessive, does seem to hold
true. The real problem is with the second part, which says that inanimate nouns use only the of
possessive.
We can (but do not have to) use the inflectional possessive with the following types of inanimate
nouns:
Inanimate possessive nouns that are a product of human creation. For example:
Inflectional of Possessive
the growth of the economy
the success of the performance
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the rules of the game
Natural phenomena. For example:
Inflectional of Possessive
the damage of the storm
the surge of the tide
the glare of the sun
the climate of the earth
Possessive nouns that express location or time. For example:
Inflectional of Possessive
the population of the city
the bank of the river
the profits of this year
the lesson of today
When the inflectional and of possessive forms are both grammatical, there are still stylistic
differences between them.
In general, the inflectional forms are somewhat less formal, and the of possessive forms are more
formal. For example, if you were writing a report, you would probably choose the population of the
city rather than the city’s population as the title of a section.
Everything else being equal, the inflectional possessive implies shared or previous knowledge, while
the of possessive does not. For example, compare the following:
Inflectional:
of possessive:
of
possessive sentence
Double Possessive:
We use a special form of the possessive when the possessive noun is a personal pronoun or an
animate noun. This construction is sometimes called a double possessive or double genitive. The
pronoun or animate noun is itself used in the possessive form.
If the possessive is a pronoun, the pronoun must be in the possessive pronoun form (as opposed to
the possessive adjective form). For example, compare the following possessive nouns:
In object form: X He is a friend of me.
In possessive adjective form: X He is a friend of my.
In possessive pronoun form: He is a friend of mine.
If the possessive noun is an animate noun (most commonly a proper noun), we have the
option of using the possessive form or not. For example:
He is a friend of Sam.
He is a friend of Sam’s.
He was a contemporary of Mozart.
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He was a contemporary of Mozart’s.
It is a policy of the company.
It is a policy of the company’s.
Formation of Nouns: Nouns take characteristic inflectional endings to form plurals and
possessives:
Singular: Bell, cargo, city, fiesta, knife
Plural: Bells, cargoes, cities, fiestas, knives
Possessive: Bell's, cargo's, city's, fiesta's, knife's
They also have characteristic derivational endings:
White + ness = whiteness
Natural + ist = naturalist
Play + er = player
Music + ian = musician
Nouns Derived from Verbs
Store -age storage
Accept -ance acceptance
insist -ence insistence
agree -ment agreement
authorize -sion/-tion authorization
Nouns Derived from Adjectives
Convenient -ce convenience
Redundant -cy redundancy
opposite -tion opposition
soft -ness softness
durable -ty durability
Common noun making suffixes:
-ary secretary
-ry dentistry
-ity simplicity
-an Iranian
republican
vegetarian
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-cy infancy
-ist chemist
-ism heroism
-ure mixture
-tude solitude
attitude
-ice justice
service
-dom kingdom
freedom
-ling duckling late developer/bloomer
-hood boyhood= childhood
womanhood
---The novel deals with a teenage girl's journey towards womanhood.
---Brigitte Bardot was the dominant image of womanhood in French cinema during the 1960s.
-ship friendship
-or actor
-er teacher
-ess princess
actress
lioness
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Compound Nouns
Formation
Words can be combined to form compound nouns. These are very common, and new combinations
are invented almost daily. They normally have two parts. The second part identifies the object or
person in question (man, friend, tank, table, room). The first part tells us what kind of object or
person it is, or what its purpose is (police, boy, water, dining, and bed):
What type / what purpose what or who
Police man, Boy friend, Water tank, Dining table, Bed room
The two parts may be written in a number of ways:
1. As one word.
Example: Policeman, boyfriend
2. As two words joined with a hyphen.
Example: Dining-table
3. As two separate words.
Example: Fish tank
There are no clear rules about this - so write the common compounds that you know well as one
word, and the others as two words.
The two parts may be:
1. Noun + noun
Bedroom, Water tank, Motorcycle, Printer cartridge
2. Noun + verb
Rainfall, Haircut, Train-spotting = the hobby of observing trains and recording locomotive numbers
3. Noun + adverb
Hanger-on, Passer-by
4. Verb + noun
Washing machine, Driving license, Swimming pool
5. Verb + adverb
Lookout, Take-off, Drawback
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6. Adjective + noun
Greenhouse, Software, Redhead -> green house
7. Adjective + verb
Dry-cleaning, Public speaking
8. Adverb + noun
Onlooker, Bystander
9. Adverb + verb
Output, Overthrow, Upturn, Input
Many common compound nouns are formed from phrasal verbs (verb+ adverb or adverb +
verb).
Examples: breakdown, outbreak, outcome, cutback, drive-in, drop-out, feedback, flyover, hold-up,
hangover, outlay, outlet, inlet, makeup, output, set-back, stand-in, takeaway, walkover.
Tests:
1- The police ............ a noteworthy investigation into the causes of the last attempts to
assassinate the P.M.
a. is conducting
b. have been conducted
c. are conducting
d. was conducting
e. has been conducting
2- Mumps ............ a disease with painful swelling in the neck.
a. are
b. have been
c. were
d. is
e. will be
3- Did you hear the news that ...........today on BBC at 8 o'clock? It was really devastating for me.
a. have broadcast
b. were broadcast
c. will be broadcast
d. was broadcast
e. has broadcast
4- The estimated number of children born annually with major congenital malformations
............... to be 3 million.
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a. are reported
b. have been announced
c. will declare
d. are to report
e. has been reported
5- The number of payphones ............ from less than 500 to nearly 7000 covering virtually all
urban, rural and market centers in the last two months.
a. have increased
b. will increase
c. was increasing
d. has increased
e. are increasing
6- When the military ..............control in a country, democracy can not be mentioned any longer.
a. is taking
b. have taken
c. are taken
d. was taking
e. has taken
7- Phonetics ........... the study of speech sounds and their production.
a. are
b. has been
c. is
d. was
e. have been
8- We are really happy to hear that the acoustics of the hall we are going to hold our conference
in ...............excellent.
a. has been
b. were
c. is
d. have been
e. is to be
Tests: Peterson's Success
1. The male mandril baboon is one of the most colorful of all mammal.
A B C D
2. Zoonoses are diseases that can be transmitted to humans beings by animals.
A B C D
3. Many championship automobiles and motorcycle races take place in Daytona
A B C D
Beach, Florida.
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4. The Newberry Award is granted every years to the authors of outstanding books
A B C
for children.
D
5. The major source of air pollution vary from city to city.
A B C D
6. Around 75 percents of the earth's surface is covered by water.
A B C D
7. All college and universities get their funds from a variety of sources.
A B C D
8. Russell Cave in northeastern Alabama was the home of cliff-dwelling Indians
A B
thousand of years ago.
C D
9. The Federalist Papers are a 500-pages collection of eighteenth century
A B
newspaper articles written to support the Constitution.
C D
10. The mathematician and astronomer David Rittenhouse was one of the first
A B
man of science in the American colonies.
C D
11. Insurance underwriter insure people against many types of risks.
A B C D
12. The electric toaster was one of the earliest appliance to be developed for the
A B C
kitchen.
D
13. Tornadoes can pick up objects as heavy as automobiles and carry them for
A B
hundreds of foot.
C D
14. Many kinds of vegetables are growth in California's Imperial Valley.
A B C D
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15. Few of the doctors practicing in the thirteen North American colonies had
A B
formal training in the field of medicines.
C D
16. The pine tree is probably the more important lumber tree in
A B C D
the world.
17. Lactose, a sugar present in milk, is one of simple sugars used
A B C D
in food preparations for infants.
1. mammals
2. human
3. automobile
4. year
5. sources
6. percent
7. all colleges
8. thousands
9. 500-page
10. men
11. underwriters
12. appliances
13. feet
14. grown
15. medicine
16. most
17. the
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Verbs:
Verbs name an action or describe a state of being. Every sentence must have a verb. There are three
basic types of verbs: 1. action verbs, 2. linking verbs, and 3. helping verbs.
1. Action Verbs
Action verbs tell what the subject does. The action can be visible (jump, cry, laugh) or mental (think,
learn, study).
---The cat broke Louise's china.
---Louise considered buying a new china cabinet.
---Harold drove all the way to Toronto. (Drove shows action)
---Harold slept all the way to Toronto. (Slept shows action)
An action verb can be transitive or intransitive. Transitive verbs need a direct object.
---The boss dropped the ball.
---The workers picked it up.
Intransitive verbs do not need a direct object.
---Who called?
---The temperature fell over night.
Quick Tip
To determine if a verb is transitive, ask yourself "Who?" or "What?" after the verb. If you can find an
answer in the sentence, the verb is transitive.
2. Linking Verbs
Linking verbs join the subject and the predicate. They do not show action. Instead, they help the
words at the end of the sentence name or describe the subject.
The following verbs are true linking verbs: any form of the verb 'be' [am, is, are, was, were,
has been, are being, might have been, etc.], become, and seem. These true linking verbs are always
linking verbs.
Then you have a list of verbs with multiple personalities: appear, feel, grow, look, prove,
remain, smell, sound, taste, and turn. Sometimes these verbs are linking verbs; sometimes they are
action verbs. Their function in every individual sentence determines what you call them.
---Harold seemed happy in Toronto. (Seemed shows state of being)
---Harold was happy in Toronto. (Was shows state of being)
---Kaila is a shopaholic.
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---After drinking the old milk, Vladimir turned green.
3. Helping Verbs
Helping verbs are added to another verb to make the meaning clearer. Helping verbs include any
form of to be, do, does, did, have, has, had, shall, should, will, would, can, could, may, might, must.
Verb phrases are made up of one main verb and one or more helping verbs.
---They will run before dawn.
---They have not yet found a smooth track.
All verbs, whether regular or irregular, have five forms [often called principal parts]. These
forms are the infinitive, simple present, simple past, past participle, and present participle.
Infinitive
Simple Present
Simple Past
Past Participle
Present Participle
To laugh
laugh(s)
laughed
laughed
laughing
To start
start(s)
started
started
starting
To wash
wash(es)
washed
washed
washing
To wink
wink(s)
winked
winked
winking
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Irregular verbs:
Verbs, the three parts of which, are the same:
broadcast broadcast broadcast
-> Multicast/anycast/unicast
cost cost cost
cut cut cut
forecast forecast forecast
hit hit hit
hurt hurt hurt
let let let
put put put
read read read
set set set
upset upset upset
shut shut shut
spread spread spread
The verbs whose past and past participle are the same:
Bend bent bent
Bleed bled bled
Bring brought brought
Build built built
Buy bought bought
Burn burnt, burned burnt, burned
Catch caught caught
Dream dreamt, dreamed dreamt, dreamed
Dig dug dug
Feed fed fed
Feel felt felt
Fight fought fought
Find found found
Forget forgot forgotten
Get got got
Hang hung, hanged hung, hanged
Have had had
Hold held held
Keep kept kept
Lay laid laid
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Lead led led
Lean leaned, leant leaned, leant
Learn learned, learnt learned, learnt
Leave left left
Lend lent lent
Light lit lit
Lose lost lost
Make made made
Mean meant meant
Meet met met
Misunderstand misunderstood misunderstood
Pay paid paid
Sell sold sold
Send sent sent
Sleep slept slept
Smell smelled, smelt smelled, smelt
Spell spelt, spelled spelt, spelled
Spend spent spent
Say said said
Shine shone shone
Shoot shot shot
Sit sat sat
Stand stood stood
Stick stuck stuck
Think thought thought
Teach taught taught
Tell told told
Understand understood understood
Win won won
The verbs whose three parts are different:
Arise arose arisen
Bear bore borne
Become became become
Break broke broken
Choose chose chosen
Come came come
Do did done
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Draw drew drawn
Drive drove driven
Fly flew flown
Go went gone
Grow grew grown
Know knew known
Overcome overcame overcome
Ride rode ridden
Rise rose risen
Ring rang rung
Sing sang sung
Steal stole stolen
Tear tore torn
Wake woke woken
Wear wore worn
Write wrote written
Valency:
The number of arguments that a verb takes is called its valency or valence. Verbs can be classified
according to their valency:
Intransitive (valency = 1): the verb only has a subject. For example:
---"He runs",
---"It falls",
---The stone moved.
Transitive (valency = 2): the verb has a subject and a direct object. For example:
---"She eats fish",
---"We hunt rabbits",
---John moved the stone.
Ditransitive (valency = 3): the verb has a subject, a direct object and an indirect or secondary
object. For example:
---"I gave her a book."
---"She sent me flowers."
---She was given a book.
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---John gave Bill the book.
Some verbs are followed by two objects. Usually the first object is a person (or group of
people) and the second object is a thing:
---Can you bring me (= object 1) some milk (= object 2) from the shops?
---I made him (= object 1) a cup of coffee. (= object 2)
With many verbs that can have two objects, we can reverse the order of the objects if
we put for or to before object 1 (this is then called a prepositional object). Compare:
---They built us a new house.
---They built a new house for us.
---Can you give me that bandage?
---Can you give that bandage to me?
We often use this pattern if we want to focus particular attention on the
object after for/to. We also use it if object 1 is a lot longer than object 2:
---Jasmin taught music to a large number of children at the school, {not Jasmin taught a
large number of children at the school music.)
---Judith booked theatre tickets for all the students who were doing her Shakespeare
course.
(Not Judith booked all the students who were doing her Shakespeare course theatre
tickets.)
We use for + object with verbs such as book, build, buy, catch, choose,
cook, fetch, find, make, order, pour, save.
We use to + object with verbs such as award, give, hand, lend, offer, owe, pass, show,
teach, tell, throw, play, post.
With some other verbs we can use either to or for, including bring, leave, pay, read,
send, sing, take, write. Sometimes there is very little difference in meaning:
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---He played the piece of music to (or for) me.
---Can you sing that song again to (or for) us.
Often, however, there is a difference. Compare:
---I took some apples to my sister.
---Ann didn't have time to take her library books back, so I took them for her.
«A few other verbs that are followed by two objects cannot have their
objects reversed with for/to:
---We all envied him his lifestyle, (but not we all envied his lifestyle for/to him.)
Other verbs like this include allow, ask, cost, deny, forgive, guarantee, permit, refuse.
Some verbs can only have a second object if this is a prepositional object with to:
---They explained the procedure.
---They explained me the procedure.
You cannot say 'explain me, him, her, etc.'
---Can you explain the situation to me?
---Can you explain me the situation?
---I'll explain you why I like it.
---They explained the procedure to me.
---The suspect confessed his crime.
---The suspect confessed the police his crime.
---The suspect confessed his crime to the police.
Other verbs like this include admit, announce, demonstrate, describe, introduce,
mention, point out, prove, report, say, suggest.
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The verbs collect, mend and raise can only have a second object if this is a prepositional
object with for:
---He raised a lot of money for charity. (not He raised charity a lot of money.)
TOEFL: Agreement: Modified Subject and Verb
In all patterns, there must be agreement of subject and verb.
Avoid using a verb that agrees with the modifier of a subject instead of with the subject
itself.
---His knowledge of languages and international relations aid him in his work.
---His knowledge of languages and international relations aids him in his work.
---The facilities at the new research library, including an excellent microfilm file, is among the
best in the country.
---The facilities at the new research library, including an excellent microfilm file, are among the
best in the country.
---The production of different kinds of artificial materials are essential to the conservation of our
natural resources.
---The production of different kinds of artificial materials is essential to the conservation of our
natural resources.
---Since the shipment of supplies for our experiments were delayed, we will have to reschedule
our work.
---Since the shipment of supplies for our experiments was delayed, we will have to reschedule
our work.
---A selection of these were published last year.
---A selection of these was published last year.
Tests:
(A) it makes up the organs
(B) make up the organs
(C) they make up the organs
(D) makes up the organs
The Zoning Improvement Plan, better known as zip codes, enable postal clerks to speed the routing
of an ever-increasing volume of mail.
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TOEFL: One of
1. One of + + singular verb
---One of my books is missing.
2. The only one of + + wh + singular verb
---He is the only one of those men who likes to drive fast.
3. One of + + + plural verb
He is one of those men who like to drive fast
One of the many plural verb
He is one of the many students who are depressed
…
TOEFL: Agreement-Subject with Appositive and Verb
Remember that there must be agreement of subject and verb. An appositive is a word or phrase
that follows a noun and defines it. An appositive usually has a comma before it and a comma after
it.
In all patterns, avoid using a verb that agrees with words in the appositive after a subject
instead of with the subject itself.
---The books, an English dictionary and a chemistry text, was on the shelf yesterday.
---The books, an English dictionary and a chemistry text, were on the shelf yesterday.
---Three swimmers from our team, Paul, Ed, and Jim, is in competition for medals.
---Three swimmers from our team, Paul, Ed, and Jim, are in competition for medals.
---Several pets, two dogs and a cat, needs to be taken care of while we are gone.
---Several pets, two dogs and a cat, need to be taken care of while we are gone.
---State University, the largest of the state-supported schools, have more than 50,000 students
on main campus.
---State University, the largest of the state-supported schools, has more than 50,000 students on
main campus.
Tests:
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(A) were a little winged child
(B) representing as a little winged child
(C) was represented as a little winged child
(D) a little winged child
Columbus, Ohio, the capital of the state, are not only the largest city in Ohio but also a typical
metropolitan area, often used in market research.
TOEFL: Verbs that Require an Infinitive in the Complement
Agree decide hesitate need refuse
Appear demand hope offer seem
Arrange deserve intend plan tend
Ask expect learn prepare hearten
Claim fail manage pretend wait
Consent forget mean promise want
Avoid using an -ing form after the verbs listed. Avoid using a verb word after want.
---He wanted speak with Mr. Brown.
---He wanted to speak with Mr. Brown.
---We demand knowing our status.
---We demand to know our status.
---I intend the inform you that we cannot approve your application.
---I intend to inform you that we cannot approve your application.
---They didn't plan buying a car.
---They didn't plan to buy a car.
---The weather tends improving in May.
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---The weather tends to improve in May.
Tests: One of the least effective ways of storing information is learning……………it.
(A) how repeat
(B) repeating
(C) to repeat
(D) repeat
Representative democracy seemed evolve simultaneously during the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries in Britain, Europe, and the United States.
TOEFL: Verbs that Require an -ing Form in the Complement
Admit enjoy recall
Appreciate finish recommend
Avoid keep regret
Complete mention risk
Consider miss stop
Delay postpone suggest
Deny practice tolerate
Discuss quit understand
Avoid using an infinitive after the verbs listed.
Forbid may be used with either an infinitive or an -ing complement, but forbid from is not
idiomatic.
---She is considering not to go.
---She is considering not going.
---We enjoyed talk with your friend.
---We enjoyed talking with your friend.
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---Hank completed the writing his thesis this summer.
---Hank completed writing his thesis this summer.
---I miss to watch the news when I am traveling.
---I miss watching the news when I am traveling.
---She mentions stop at El Paso in her letter.
---She mentions stopping at El Paso in her letter.
Tests:
(A) written
(B) write
(C) to write
(D) writing
Many people have stopped to smoke because they are afraid that it may be harmful to their
health.
TOEFL: Verb Phrases that Require an -ing Form in the Complement
Approve of do not mind keep on
Be better off forget about look forward to
Can't help get through object to
Count on insist on think about
Think of
Avoid using an infinitive after the verb phrases listed. Avoid using a verb word after look
forward to and object to.
Remember that the verb phrase BE likely does not require an -ing form but requires an
infinitive in the complement.
---She is likely knowing.
---She is likely to know.
---Let's go to the movie when you get through to study.
---Let's go to the movie when you get through studying.
---We can't help to wonder why she left.
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---We can't help wondering why she left.
---I have been looking forward to meet you.
---I have been looking forward to meeting you.
---We wouldn't mind to wait.
---We wouldn't mind waiting.
Tests:
the surrounding landscape.
(A) use
(B) to use
(C) the use
(D) using
During Jackson's administration, those who did not approve of permit common people in the
White House were shocked by the president's insistence that they be invited into the mansion.
TOEFL: Transitive and Intransitive Verbs: Lay and Lie
Remember that lay is a transitive verb; it takes a complement. Lie is an intransitive verb; it does
not take a complement.
Transitive Intransitive
Verb word Past Participle Verb word Past Participle
Lay laid laid Lie lay lain
Remember that to lay means to put, to place, or to cause to lie. To lie means to recline or to
occupy a place. The past form of the verb to lie is lay.
---The postman lays the mail on the table every day.
---The postman laid the mail on the table yesterday.
---He lies on the sofa to rest every day after work.
---He lay on the sofa to rest yesterday after work.
---Her coat was laying on the chair.
---Her coat was lying on the chair.
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---I have lain your notebook on the table by the door so that you won't forget it.
---I have laid your notebook on the table by the door so that you won't forget it.
---Key West lays off the coast of Florida.
---Key West lies off the coast of Florida.
---Why don't you lay down for awhile?
---Why don't you lie down for awhile?
---Linda always forgets where she lies her glasses.
---Linda always forgets where she lays her glasses.
---The university lies in the western section of town.
---Don't disturb Mary, she has laid down for a rest.
Tests: The geographic position of North
settlement.
(A) laying between the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans, isolating it
(B) isolating it as it laid between the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans
(C) lying between the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans, isolated it
(D) isolating it between the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans as it was layed
Melanin, a pigment that lays under the skin, is responsible for skin color, including the variations
that occur among different races.
Two word verbs
1. Seperable
2. Inseperable
---Please take your shoes off.
---Please take off your shoes.
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---Please take them off.
---Please take off them.
call up carry out
carry on find out
give up give back
pick up put away
pay back put off
put on take off
turn off look up (
turn on turn down
throw away wake up
write down
---I am looking for my bag.
---I am looking for it.
ask for
talk about
talk with/to
think about
keep on
look after
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look at
get off
look for
Get on
listen to
depend on
Pay for
succeed in
search for
wait for
---She is interested in the Math.
---Ahmad is similar to his father.
be absent from
be afraid of
be interested in
be responsible for
be similar to
be accustomed to
be sorry about
be acquainted with
be addicted to
be angry at/with
be annoyed with/by
be aware of
be associated with
be bored with/by
be capable of
be compose of
be concerned about
be connected to
be content with
be convinced of
be disappointed in/with
be dedicatedto //
be engaged in
be jealous of
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be fond of
be grateful to/for
be friendly to/with
be frightened of/by
be familiar with
be guilty of
be located in
be made of/from
be married to
be opposed to
be patient with
be pleased with
be polite to
be proud of
be related to
be relevant to
be satisfied with
be tired of/from
be worried about
be upset with
down, off, back, away, on, out, up
from, in, to, for, at, with, of
"Did he give back your money?" Y .
a. give them back b. give it back c. give back it d. give back them
money give backb
Tests:
1. "Did Reza put on his new clothes?" "
1. on them 2. on it 3. them on 4. it on
2. "Did she give back their money?" "
1. gave it 2. give it 3. give them 4. gave them
3.
1. about them 2. about it 3. them about 4. it about
4. "Are they speaking to the men?"
1. them to 2. to them 3. him to 4. to him
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5. The TV is on, and I am
1. turn off them 2.turn off it 3. turn them off 4. turn it off
6. "Does she put on her new dress?" "
1. put them on 2. puts it on 3. put it on 4. puts them on
o the party.
1. in 2. on 3. to 4. at
1. of 2. in 3. on 4. at
9.
1. after 2. for 3. on 3. out
found him.
1. at 2. like 3. for 4. after
1. about 2. at 3. for 4. of
12. "Did you take off your shoes before going to mosque?"
1. took them off 2. take it off 3. take off them 4. took it off
1. it 2. them 3. they 4. this
14.
1. the photo us 2. us to the photo 3. the photo to us 4. to us the photo
1. down it for me 2. it for me down 3. it down for me 4. down for me it
1. to 2. on 3. with 4. over
17. Pu
1. off 2. on 3. up 4. out
1. to 2. of 3. at 4. in
1. with 2. for 3. on 4. upon
20.
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1. give back 2. give it back
3. give them back 4. give back them
Let & make:
Subject + let/make + object + verb without to
---They didn't let him go out.
---They made us leave the room.
Subject + help + object + verb with/without to
finish
---She helped me my homework.
to finish
---The teacher helped the students pass their examination.
If make is in passive voice, infinitive with to is used:
---The students were made to give a lecture.
---The enemy was made to leave our country.
The modals have to, must, can, could, will, would, should, may, might are followed by
infinitive without to.
---She can speak French.
---We must obey the law.
---You should study hard to night.
---They may lose their way.
---Mary has to finish her homework.
---They will go to shop tomorrow.
After verbs of the senses feel, listen, watch, notice, hear, see both infinitive without to or Ving
are possible:
---I saw him lock the door.
---She saw him walking along the street.
---I watch the planes take off every morning.
---I noticed him reading the magazine in the library.
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After find and smell Ving is used:
---Can you smell something burning.
---I found him reading a book.
Expressing percentages:
If a percentage is used with an uncountable or a singular noun the verb is generally singular:
---90% of the land is cultivated.
If the noun is singular but represents a group of people, the verb is singular in AmE but in BrE it
may be singular or plural:
---Eighty per cent of the work force is/are against the strike.
If the noun is plural, the verb is plural:
---65% of children play computer games.
Each & Every:
The adjective EACH is always followed by a singular noun: each person; each book.
When the adjective follows a plural subject, the verb agrees with the subject:
---They each dress in different styles.
---The houses each have central heating.
When the pronoun EACH comes immediately before the verb, it always takes a singular
verb:
---Each comes (not come) from a different country.
When the pronoun is followed by an of phrase containing a plural noun or pronoun, both
singular and plural verb forms can be used. Some usage guides maintain that only the singular
verb is correct, but plural verbs occur frequently even in edited writing.
---Each of the candidates has (or have) spoken on the issue.
It is also sometimes said that the pronoun EACH must always be referred to by a singular
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pronoun, but again actual usage does not regularly observe this structure:
---Each member of our garden club had their own special interests.
In the most formal speech and writing, singular verbs and pronouns occur more
frequently than plural:
---Each member … had his own special interests.
The use of plural forms, especially plural pronouns, has been increasing in the United States,
partially because of the desire to avoid using he or his to refer to a female.
ANYONE, ANYBODY, EVERYONE, EVERYBODY, NO ONE, SOMEONE, and SOMEBODY follow the
same general patterns of pronoun agreement as EACH.
Long before the use of generic HE was condemned as sexist, the pronouns THEY, THEIR, and
THEM were used in educated speech and in all but the most formal writing to refer to indefinite
pronouns and to singular nouns of general personal reference, probably because such nouns are
often not felt to be exclusively singular:
---If anyone calls, tell them I'll be back at six.
---Everyone began looking for their books at once.
Already widespread in the language (though still rejected as ungrammatical by some), this use of
THEY, THEIR, and THEM is increasing in all but the most conservatively edited American English.
This increased use is at least partly impelled by the desire to avoid the sexist implications of HE as a
pronoun of general reference.
With these verbs, the meaning doesn't change whether a gerund or an infinitive is used:
advise / forbid / allow / like / attempt / prefer / begin / start / continue / dislike
e.g.
---They dislike to work.
---They dislike working.
---They began to make money
---They began making money
Agree to do sth:
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---He agreed to leave early tomorrow morning.
Agree to one's doing sth:
---He agreed to my leaving early tomorrow morning.
Mean to do sth: Intend
---I mean to get to the top of the hill before sunrise.
Mean doing sth: Involve
---My new job will mean traveling all over the world.
---Dieting also means being careful about which foods you buy.
If it + mean + verb-ing:
---My neighbor was determined to get a ticket for Saturday's game if it meant standing in line all
night.
Propose to do sth: to intend to do something
---How does he propose to deal with the situation?
---I propose to start tomorrow.
Propose doing sth: 1. to intend to do something 2. to suggest sth
1
---We still don't know how the company proposes raising the money.
2.
---He proposed dealing directly with the suppliers.
Go on doing sth: Continue doing sth
---He went on writing after a break.
Go on to do sth: Finish one action and start another
---He showed the island on the map then went on to tell about its climate.
Try to do sth: Make an effort to do sth
---He tried to solve this math problem.
Try doing sth: Examine sth to see the result
---I tried sending her flowers, writing her letters, giving her presents, but she still wouldn't speak to
me.
Stop to do sth: Stop an action and start another
---He stopped to talk to the manager.
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Stop doing sth: Stop doing sth
---He stopped talking to the manager.
Regret to say/inform/tell: Used before giving bad news
---I regret to inform you that your contract will not be renewed.
---I regret to tell you that you failed the exam.
Regret doing sth: Used when you wish you had not done sth
---He regrets telling you that you failed the exam.
Tests:
A) not tried B) had tried
C) not having tried D) not have tried
Forget/Remember doing sth: To (not) recall an action
---"I forgot locking the door" means I did lock the door, then forgot about it.
---I distinctly remember asking them to come after lunch.
---I won't forget seeing David win the gold medal as long as I live.
Forget/Remember to do sth: To (not) do an action you must do.
---I remembered to lock the door. I remembered and locked the door.
---"I forgot to lock the door" means first I forgot, so I didn't lock it.
---He remembered to lock all doors when he went on holiday, but he forgot to close the bathroom
window.
Subject + say + (that) + S + V
Subject + tell + indirect object + (that) + S +V
---He says that he will be busy tomorrow/ he tell me that....
Tell a story
a joke
a secret
a lie
the truth
(the) time
---The little boy was punished because he told his mother a lie.
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Infinitive after adjectives:
… +infinitive with to ( +object +for + )adj. + is/was+ It
---It is easy to learn English.
---It is easy for me to learn English.
… +infinitive with to +object +of +adj. +to be +It
---It is nice of you to help my brother.
It's time:
---It's time to buy a new car.
---It's time to finish the class.
It's time + for (noun or object pron.) + infinitive with to +…
---It's time for her to go to bed.
---It's time for Amir to wake up.
It's time + subject + simple past + …
---It's time she went to bed.
---It's time we went home.
It's time + infinitive with to + …
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---It's time you washed those trousers.
---I (would) appreciate it if you informed me about the procedure.
Tests:
1. wandering 2. wandered 3. wanders 4. to wander
1. take 2. to take 3. take 4. they take
1. opening 2. opened 3. open 4. opens
1. to help 2. help 3. helping 4. we help
dio on Friday morning.
1. listen 2. listening 3. listened 4. to listen
1. enter 2. entered 3. enters 4. to enter
lking loudly.
1. stop 2. stopped 3. stopping 4. to stop
1. be seen 2. have seen 3. seeing 4. see
house.
1. clean 2. cleans 3. cleaning 4. to clean
1. to paint 2. paint 3. painting 4. painted
11. I don't want to go to the
1. consider 2. had better 3. prefer 4. would rather
1. gave 2. give 3. to give 4. was giving
13. I saw a s
1. going 2. to go 3. was going 4. went
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1. use 2. used 3. using 4. to use
1. attack 2. attacked 3. attacking 4. to attack
1. rang 2. rung 3. ringing 4. to ring
1. being 2. tobe 3. be 4. been
1. did 2. done 3. doing 4. to do
1. to think 2. think 3. thinking 4. thought
1. burn 2. burnt 3. burning 4. to burn
1. go 2. going 3. to go 4. went
1. to wash 2. washing 3. wash 4. washed
23.
1. studies 2. studying 3. study 4. studied
1. leave 2. to leave 3. left 4. leaving
1. finishing 2. finished 3. finishes 4. to finish
1. work 2. working 3. worked 4. to work
1. lift 2. lifting 3. lifted 4. had lifted
1. watch 2. to watch 3. watching 4. watched
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1. Practicing 2. to practice 3. practice 4. practices
1. leave 2. to leave 3. left 4. leaves
hey feel tired.
1. to walk 2. walked 3. walking 4. walk
1. to buy 2. buy 3. buying 4. bought
33. Involve your audience b
1. ask 2. asked 3. to ask 4. asking
1. talking 2. to talk 3. talked 4. being talked
1. to read 2. read 3. had read 4. was read
1. read 2. to read 3. reading 4. is read
1. burns 2. to burn 3. burn 4. burning
1. studying 2. study 3. to study 4. studies
1. help 2. helping 3. to help 4. we help
1. open 2. opening 3. that I open 4. that you open
1. came 2. come 3. coming 4. to come
1. to climb 2. having climbed 3. climbed 4. climb
1. use 2. used 3. using 4. to use
1. invite 2. invited 3. inviting 4. to invite
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1. visit 2. visiting 3. to visit 4. visits
1. take 2. to take 3. taking 4. took
1. read 2. to read 3. reading 4.reads
1. won't let me to go 2. will let me go
3. will let me to go 4. won't let me go
49. The enemy was made..............the country.
1. leave 2. left 3. leaving 4. to leave
1. made 2. were made 3. are making 4. make
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Tests:
1. driving 2. drive 3. to drive 4. is driving
1. of-playing 2. of to play
3. for-play 4. for-to play
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1. do 2. does 3. doing 4. to do
4. Which item is wrong?
"?likethe film wasA: "what
a b
" that film. to watchme toB: "It was boring
c d
1. a 2. b 3. c 4. d
1. it was a difficult decision for him to make
2. a difficult decision it was to make for him
3. for him it is difficult decision to make
4. for him was a difficult decision to make
1. left 2. leave 3. to leave 4. leaving
at university.
1. learn 2. learning 3. to learn 4. learned
1. climbing 2. to climb 3. climb 4. climbed
1. do 2. does 3. doing 4. to do
1. to clean 2. cleaning 3. cleans 4. cleaned
1. to mail 2. mail 3. mailed 4. mailing
1. listen 2. to listen 3. listening 4. listened
1. asking 2. asks 3. ask 4. being asked
1. smokes 2. smoking 3. smoke 4. to smoke
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1. Climbed 2. Climb 3.Climbing 4.Climbs
1. listening 2. to listen 3. is listening 4. listen
1. destroy 2. destroying 3. to destroy 4. destroyed
ootball.
1. playing 2.played 3.play 4.to play
1. correct 2. correcting 3. corrected 4. to correct
time.
1. run 2. ran 3. running 4. to run
1. staying 2. stay 3. will stay 4. to stay
1. talk 2. talking 3. talked 4. to talk
1. finish 2. finished 3. to finish 4. finishing
1. learns 2. learn 3. learning 4. learned
25. She was
1. to seeing 2. to see 3. seeing 4. seen
1. smokes 2. smoke 3. smoking 4. is smoking
1. going 2. go 3. went 4. had gone
1. work 2. worked 3. working 4. to work
1. finish 2. finishing 3. finished 4. to finish
30. "Is it safe to swim in this part of the river?"
1. swimming 2. swim 3. swam 4. to swim
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1. stops 2. stopped 3. stop 4. to stop
lowly?
1. drive 2. to drive 3. driving 4. drove
33.
1. to study 2. studying 3. to studying 4. study
34. octors or
chemists.
1. work 2. working 3. worked 4. have worked
35. This rice tastes terrible ! We are not........... burned rice.
1. accustomed to eating 2. accustomed to eat
3. accustomed for eating 4. accustomed with eating
36.
1. see 2. sees 3. seeing 4. saw
37. I am too
1. eat 2. eating 3. to eat 4. ate
1. slapping 2. slap 3. to slap 4. slapped
39. He is too
1. to be 2. being 3. been 4. to being
1. answering 2. to answer 3. answer 4. answered
41. I look forward
1. hear 2. heard 3. be hear 4. hearing
1. smoke 2. to smoke 3. smoked 4. smoking
1. telling 2. to tell 3. tell 4. told
1. swim 2. to swim 3. swimming 4. swam
45. she
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1. seeing 2. to see 3. saw 4. see
46.
1. tell 2. to tell 3. telling 4. told
1. tell 2. to tell 3. telling 4. told
48. o travel quite a lot in this job.
1. to mention 2. mention 3. mentioned 4. mentioning
1. laugh 2. laughing 3. laughs 4. laughed
1. admire 2. to admire 3. admired 4. admiring
to gerund
for to
it's time
minding
enjoy ing
excuseing
stoping
gerund
gerund
admit ing
finishing
come ing
dislikeing
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find ing
ining
gerund
look forward toing
on
it's time
minding
be opposed toing
be accustomed to ing
stop to
feel like ing
stop Gerund
regret Gerund
rememberseeGerund
forget tellto
worthGerund
can't helpGerund
Tests: Peterson's Success
1. Medical students must to study both the theory and practice of medicine.
A B C D
1843.
(A) founding
(B) founded
(C) was founded
(D) has founded
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3. The seal, like the sea lion and the walrus, is a descendant of ancestors that
A B C
once live on the land.
D
une.
(A) fly
(B) having flown
(C) flying
(D) flew
5. The top layer of the ocean stores as much heat as does gases in the
A B C D
atmosphere.
6. A cupful of stagnant water
(A) contains
(B) to contain
(C) contain
(D) containing
1704.
(A) written
(B) writes
(C) wrote
(D) writing
8. Every one of the body's billions of cells require a constant supply of food and oxygen.
A B C D
9. In Colonial times, flax and wool required months of preparation before they
A B
could be dyed and spin into cloth.
C D
10. Although some people find bats terrifying, they are actually beneficial because they ate harmful
insects. A B C D
(A) feed
(B) feeds
(C) fed
(D) feeding
12. Chromium
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(A) using
(B) is used
(C) uses
(D) is using
13. Each of the four types of human tooth are suited for a specific purpose.
A B C D
14. The Masters, one of the most important of all golf tournaments,every year in
Augusta, Georgia since 1934.
(A) has held
(B) held
(C) is held
(D) has been held
(A) soaks
(B) is soaked
(C) to soak
(B) can soak
16. Electric milking machines have made dairy farming a much easier job than it once did.
A B C D
17. Playwright Frank Shin has often describes the lives of Chinese Americans in his
A B C
dramas.
D
(A) build
(B) are built
(C) are building
(D) built
19. Cans of paint must be shaking to mix the pigments with the medium in which
A B C
they are suspended.
D
20. The American dancer Maria Tallchief first prominent in Europe.
(A) to become
(B) become
(C) has become
(D) became
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1. a
2. b
3. d
4. d
5. c
6. c
7. c
8. b
9. d
10. d
11. a
12. b
13. b
14. d
15. c
16. d
17. b
18. a
19. a
20. d
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Adjectives:
Adjectives are words that describe nouns and pronouns. Adjectives answer the questions:
What kind? How much? Which one? How many?
For example:
What kind? ---Red rose ---Gold ring
Which one? ---The second one ---Those chocolates
How much? ---Much sugar ---Little effort
How many? ---Several chances ---Six books
MODIFIERS OF ADJECTIVES
Intensifier
adjective: very, quite, too, just, rather, fairly, pretty, so
Rather / a pretty large truck
Quite good/Pretty good
Fairly
Noun
adjective:
---Ice-cold, ---Navy blue, ---Crystal clear ---Razor-sharp, ---Sky-high
---I felt her hand and it was ice-cold.
---I'd love an ice-cold glass of water.
---His eyes had grown ice-cold.
---He is the epitome of ice-cold judgement. = dispassionate
---She was dressed in navy blue.
---She's got a razor-sharp mind.
---These animals have razor-sharp teeth.
---Sky-high trees
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---Sky-high prices
---The garbage was piled sky-high.
---The critics praised the play sky-high.
Adverb
adjective:
---Well-spoken,
---Beautifully decorated
---Some people are genetically prone to store high levels of iron.
---Recently widowed people
---Medically treated
Adjective
Prepositional phrase:
---Ready for everything,
---Enough for all…
Adjective
Infinitive:
---Good to eat,
---Ready to serve,
---Able to learn
Kinds of adjectieves:
There are five kinds of adjectives: Common adjectives, proper adjectives, compound adjectives,
articles, and indefinite adjectives.
1. Common/simple adjectives describe nouns or pronouns.
---Strong man, ---Green plant, ---Beautiful view
2. Proper adjectives are formed from proper nouns.
---
---
3. Compound adjectives are made up of more than one word.
---A far-off country = hyphenated adjective
4. Articles are a special type of adjective. There are three articles: a, an, the.
5. Indefinite adjectives don't specify the specific amount of something.
All another any both
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Each either few many
More neither most other
Several some
Derivational adjectives:
A. noun derived adjectives: "Adjectives of relation" are adjectives formed from a noun, with the
general meaning of, relating to or like (the noun)" (the precise range of meanings, and shades of
meaning, varies case by case). In English these adjectives are often constructed by adding a suffix to
the noun or noun root. A variety of suffixes may be used in this way:
-al or -ial (---Behavioural),
-ous (---Famous),
-y or ly (---A manly voice), ---Friendly relationships, ---A friendly woman
-ic (---Angelic),
-an or -ian (---Amazonian),
-ary (---Planetary),
-ile (---Infantile diseases),
-ine (---Elephantine), canine, feline, bovine, porcine, vulpine, aquiline
-ive (---Instinctive),
-ish (---Boyish),
-like (---Birdlike),
-less (---Homeless).
B. Adj derived: ---Bluish
C. Verb-derived:
-ive (---Active),
-able (---Portable)
Note: -cal/-cle Adjectives end in -cal. Nouns end in -cle.
e.g.
Critical article
Logical bicycle
Magical circle
Musical cubicle
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Nautical cuticle
Physical miracle
Practical particle
Theatrical spectacle
Tropical uncle
Whimsical vehicle
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
1 syllable
2 syllables
3 or more syllables
-
-
-
form
-base form
base form
front of the base
form
For example
For example
For example
For example
small smaller
noisy noisier
crowded more crowded
expensive more
expensive
new newer
dirty dirtier
modern more modern
majestic more
majestic
cheap cheaper
smelly smellier
complex more complex
impressive more
impressive
close closer
busy busier
useless more useless
beautiful more
beautiful
Test:
Prehistoric villagers tended to work harder, suffer from more diseases, and eat the
A B C D
poorer diet than nomadic hunters did.
1 syllable
2 syllables
3 or more syllables
-
-
-
form
-
form
the base form
front of the base
form
For example
For example
For example
For example
small the smallest
noisy the noisiest
crowded the most
crowded
expensive the
most expensive
new the newest
dirty the dirtiest
modern the most
modern
majestic the
most majestic
cheap the cheapest
smelly the smelliest
complex the most
complex
impressive the
most impressive
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close the closest
busy the busiest
useless the most useless
beautiful the
most beautiful
With these adjectives both forms are correct:
---Clever cleverer/ more clever cleverest/ most clever
---Common commoner/ more common commonest/ most common
---Gentle gentler/ more gentle gentlest/ most gentle
---Happy happier/ more happy happiest/ most happy
---Narrow narrower/ more narrow narrowest/ most narrow
---Pleasant pleasanter/ more pleasant pleasantest/ most pleasant
---Shallow shallower/ more shallow shallowest/ most shallow
---Simple simpler/ more simple simplest/ most simple
---Tender tenderer/ more tender tenderest/ most tender
---Tired tireder/ more tired tiredest/ most tired
---Yellow yellower/ more yellow yellowest/ most yellow
---Handsome handsomer/more handsome handsomest/most handsome
---Polite politer/ more polite politest/most polite
---Quiet quieter quietest
---Fun funner/more fun funnest/the most fun
---Jane is politer than Mary. Jane is the politest person in her class.
---Jane is more polite than Mary. Jane is the most polite person in her class.
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Comparative Form and Superlative Form (irregular comparisons)
Positive form
Comparative form
Superlative form
Good
Better
Best
Bad / ill
Worse
Worst
Little (amount)
Less
Least
Little (size)
Smaller
Smallest
Much / many
More
Most
Far (place or time)
Further
Furthest
Far (place)
Farther
Farthest
Late (time)
Later
Latest
Late (order)
Latter
Last
Old (people and things)
Older
Oldest
Old (people)
Elder
Eldest
---Please take the farthest seat.
---Are there any further questions?
a longer way in the past or the future
---Think further back into your childhood.
---How will the company be doing ten years further on?
Comparisons can be made more exact by using slightly, considerably or significantly before the
comparative:
--- novels are considerably longer
---The new Mercedes is slightly more economical than the old model.
Some adjectives do not have a comparative or superlative meaning so they are rarely used
with -er/-est or more/less/ most/least. These include complete, equal, favorite, ideal, unique.
An exception: ---"All animals are equal but some animals are more equal than others." (George
Orwell: Animal Farm)
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It is possible to use "less" with any adjective - one, two or three syllable. In many situations,
however, it might make more sense to change the word:
e.g.
Less warm cooler
Less small bigger
Less likely more unlikely
Less expensive cheaper
Less noisy quieter
Less dangerous safer
Tests: Peterson's Success
1. Liberal arts colleges cultivate general intellectually abilities rather than technical
A B C
professional skills.
D
2. Goats are extremely destruction to natural vegetation and are often responsible for soil erosion.
A B C D
3. Wild plants were of considerable important to early settlers, and many are still
A B C
used medicinally and as foods.
D
4. One important branch of linguistics is semantics, which analysis the meaning of words.
A B C D
5. Unlike folk dancers, which are the product of a single culture, ballet is an
A B C
international art form.
D
6. The strong of a rope is directly proportional to its cross-sectional area.
A B C D
7. Black bears can move rapidly when necessary and are skillful tree-climbers for their size and
weigh. A B C
D
8. In an arboretum, trees are cultivated for scientific and educational purpose.
A B C D
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9. In most Western states, the first major industry was mining, which was gradually
A B
supplemented by ranches.
C D
10. Peach trees grow good in a variety of soil types, but do best in sandy loam.
A B C D
11. The unit of measuring called the foot was originally based on the length of the
ABC D
human foot.
12. Philosopher Theodore A. Langerman was interested in the fields of literary and
A B C
music.
D
13. A chemical react that absorbs heat is called endothermic.
A B C D
14. One characteristic of the poems of Emily Dickinson is the sharp of her images.
A B C D
15. Luther Gulick was a teacher and physician who spent much of his live promoting physical fitness.
A B C D
16. A dog should be checked regularly by a veterinarian to ensure that it remains in good healthy.
A B C D
17. Southwestern Boston is made up of Hyde Park, West Roxbury, and other pleasant
A B
residential neighbors.
C D
18. Pure nitric acid is colorless, but it acquires a yellow color when it is exposed of air.
A B C D
19. Hunting and fishing techniques were highly developed among the North American
A
Indians, particularly in regions where agriculture was less success.
B C D
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20. Science requires the careful collect and organization of data.
A B C D
Comparison of Quantity
More:
1. ---[More difficult] problems
2. ---[More] difficult [problems]
1. ---More difficult problem
1. ---More narrow rooms/screws
2. ---More narrow rooms/screws
1. ---More happy people
2. ---More happy people
1. ---More shallow rivers
2. ---More shallow rivers
1. ---More brilliant gold
2. ---More brilliant gold
1. ---More contaminated water
2. ---More contaminated water
1. ---More brave Iranians
More + 1 syllable adj / 2 syllable adj ending in er, y, ly, le, ow, ure + U/C PL nouns
1
apart from
exeptions
+
More + 2 syllable adj not ending in er, y, ly, le, ow, ure / 3 syllable adjs or more + U/C PL nouns
1
+
More + 2 syllable adj not ending in er, y, ly, le, ow, ure / 3 syllable adjs or more + C singular
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nouns
1
1
All these rules apply as long as there is no other modifier before more.
---The more contaminated water
Less:
1. ---Less brilliant gold
2. ---Less brilliant gold
1. ---Less difficult problems
1. ---Less contaminated water
2. ---Less contaminated water
1. ---A less crowded bus
1. ---Less hot water
2. ---Less hot water
1. ---Less attractive views
1
Less + adj + U nouns
1
Less + adj + C nouns
1
All these rules apply as long as there is no other modifier before less.
---The less contaminated water
1. [much+ adj] + countable nouns
---Much interesting memories
1
2. [much + adj] + uncountable nouns
[much] + adj + [uncountable nouns]
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---Much polluted air
2
---Much brilliant gold
The + Adjective = Plural Noun
---After the accident, the injured were taken to hospital.
---A nightclub used by the rich and the famous
---He looks for the lonely, the lost, and the unloved.
---The blind ---The old
---The dead ---The poor
---The deaf ---The rich
---The handicapped ---The unemployed
---The mentally ill ---The young = The youth
All these adjectives cannot be used with possessives:
---The problem ---The problems of the poor ---Poor people's problems
---The quick and the dead
Most + adj + C plural
---Most difficult questions
Most + adj + U nouns
---Most religious and racial discrimination is based on ignorance.
Modifiers + most + 2 syllable adj not ending in er, y, ly, le, ow, ure / 3 syllables adj or
more + C/U nouns
The Most difficult questions
M1
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Test:
It's a curious fact that in .......... ages and all societies, ........... numbers of people are attracted to the
gentle, not the strong, to the sufferers and not the successful.
1. every / great
2. several / some
3. all / large
4. any / very much
5. enough / plenty
TOEFL:
adjective_er
S + V + adverb_er + THAN + noun/ pronoun ** (more than)
more + adj/adv
less + adj/adv
S + V + far/much + Adj/Adv_er + than + noun/pronoun
S + V + far/much + more + Adj/Adv + than + noun/pronoun
---Harry's watch is far more expensive than mine.
---He speaks English much more rapidly than he does Spanish.
S + V + as + many/much/little/few + noun + as + noun/pronoun + Aux verb
S + V + more/fewer/less + noun + than + noun/pronoun + Aux verb
---He earns as much money as his father does.
Few
---We have made few mistakes.
---We have made fewer mistakes than we did last quarter.
---We have made the fewest mistakes of any comparable period.
Little
---It was only a little money.
---It was less money than we had expected.
---It was the least money that we have ever earned.
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Many
---It took many dollars to buy that.
---It took more dollars than we had expected.
---It took the most dollars of any transaction we have ever had.
Much
---much money.
---We have more money than they do.
---We have the most money of any company.
TOEFL: Double Comparatives
Remember that when two comparatives are used together, the first comparative expresses cause
and the second comparative expresses result. A comparative is more or less with an adjective or an
adjective with -er.
Avoid using as instead of the. Avoid using the incorrect form lesser. Avoid omitting the. Avoid
omitting er from the adjective.
The + comparative + [subject + verb], the + comparative + [subject + verb]
---The deeper you dive, the stronger the pressure is.
---The smaller the shark is, the smaller the danger is.
---The more I learn, the less I fear.
And this form can be used with adjective only:
---The bigger the better.
---The cheaper the happier.
---The more the merrier.
The following structure can be used as well.
The + comparative + the + noun, the + comparative + the + noun
* Inversion (the closer an object)
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---The deeper the water, the thinner the fish.
---The darker the water, the bigger the eyes.
---The more you study during the semester, the lesser you have to study the week before exams.
---The more you study during the semester, the less you have to study the week before exams.
---The faster we finish, the soon we can leave.
---The faster we finish, the sooner we can leave.
---The less one earns, the lesser one must pay in income taxes.
---The less one earns, the less one must pay in income taxes.
---The louder he shouted, less he convinced anyone.
---The louder he shouted, the less he convinced anyone.
---The more you practice speaking, the well you will do it.
---The more you practice speaking, the better you will do it.
---The hotter it is, the more miserable I feel.
---The more you study, the smarter you will become.
---The more (that) you study, the smarter you will become.
---The more (that) we know about it, the more we are assured.
---The shorter (it is), the better (it is).
---The longer Burma resists offer of help, the more likely it is that the disaster will
degenerate beyond anyone's control.
Test:
---It is generally true that
(A) higher the price of gold rises
(B) the price of gold rises high
(C) the higher the price of gold rises
(D) rises high the price of gold
Test:
---The higher the solar activity, the intense the auroras or polar light displays in the skies near the
Earth's geomagnetic poles.
Exercise
Complete these "the + comparative" pairs with possible results. Remember, there is no one correct
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answer.
1. The more people use public transportation such as buses
---The later she became, the faster she ran.
---The faster she
---The less work he did, the more free time he had.
---
---The more worried he was, the more cigarettes he smoked.
---
TOEFL: Illogical Comparatives
Remember that comparisons must be made with logically comparable nouns. You can't compare the
climate in the North with the South. You must compare the climate in the North with the climate in
the South.
Remember that that of and those of are used instead of repeating a noun to express a logical
comparative. An example with different from appears below.
---Football in the US is different from that in other countries.
---The rules of football are different from those of soccer.
Avoid omitting that and those. Avoid using than instead of from with different.
---The food in my country is very different than that in the United States.
---The food in my country is very different from that in the United States.
---The classes at my university are very different from State University.
---The classes at my university are very different from those at State University.
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---His appearance is different from what I have expected.
...than I have expected. (A-E)
---His drawings are as perfect as his instructor.
---His drawings are as perfect as those of his instructor.
(instructor's = instructor's drawings)
---The salary of a professor is higher than a secretary.
---The salary of a professor is higher than that of a secretary.
(that of = the salary of)
---The duties of a policeman are more dangerous than a teacher.
---The duties of a policeman are more dangerous than those of a teacher.
(those of = the duties of)
Poor: The errors in this prediction are greater than in table III.
Better: The errors in this prediction are greater than those in table III.
(A) different from those of any other person
(B) different from any other person
(C) different any other person
(D) differs from another person
---Perhaps the colonists were looking for a climate like England, when they decided to settle the
North American continent instead of the South American continent.
TOEFL/IELTS:
Not as .... as
Not so…as
---He is not as tall as his father (is).
---He is not so tall as his father (is).
S + V + (not) as + adj/ adv + as + noun/ pronoun
S + V + the same + (noun) + as + noun/ pronoun
Adjectives Nouns
Heavy, light weight
Wide, narrow width
Deep, shallow depth
Long, short length
Big, small size
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High height
---My house is as high as his.
---My house is the same height as his.
Exercise 7.23: Faulty and Incomplete Comparisons
Directions:
1. I hit the balls faster than John.
2. The train is slower than the car.
3. The trip to London is longer than New York.
4. I would have bought the green one, because it is more shorter than the red one.
5. They were all running fast, but Tom was the faster.
6. Swimming in the lake is better than the marina.
7. Running a long time is more detrimental to the shins than lifting weights.
8. I saw and liked the simpler one the more than the other type.
9. The outside was cold, but the inside was colder, also.
10. I run better than Mary.
11. She is the more fast of the entire school.
13. The boys shot the slingshots better than the girls.
14. The girls threw the ball better than the boys.
15. The man was averser to the cold than he was to the heat.EXERCISE 7.23
17. I run better than swim.
18. I read X, and I read Y, but I like X best.
19. The ankle was more swole than the arm was.
20. He will have to kick it faster at the end than he did the beginning.
21. Knowing the truth now is better than finding out.
22. Going up the front is much better than the back.
23. He reacted in a civiler manner than she did.
24. He will eat as fast as he could.
25. I went there as quickly as her.
Answers to Exercise 7.23:
Faulty and Incomplete Comparisons
Directions: Correct the sentences if there’s a problem, or write
C if correct.
1. I hit the balls faster than John did.
2. The train is slower than the car is.
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3. The trip to London is longer than the trip to New York. We do not want to compare the trip to the
city of New York.
4. I would have bought the green one, because it is shorter than the red one is.
5. They were all running fast, but Tom was the fastest.
6. Swimming in the lake is better than swimming in the marina. The comparison is to swimming in
the marina and not to the marina itself.
7. Running a long time is more detrimental to the shins than lifting weights is. Without any changes,
the sentence indicates that running is detrimental to lifting weights.
8. I saw and liked the simpler one more than the other type. (Delete the)
9. The outside was cold, but the inside was cold, also. (Delete -er)
10. I run better than Mary does.
11. She is the fastest of the entire school.
12. The rebels claimed to have killed more
government.
13. The boys shot the slingshots better than the girls did. The boys were not shooting the girls!
14. The girls threw the ball better than the boys did. The girls did not throw the boys!
15. The man was more averse to the cold than he was to the heat. (Delete -er)
worse than anything.
17. I run better than I swim.
18. I read X, and I read Y, but I like X better. Use better with the comparison of two things.
19. The ankle was more swollen than the arm was. (V3 as adj.)
20. He will have to kick it faster at the end than he did at the beginning. Without the word at, the
sentence suggests that he actually kicked the beginning.
21. Knowing the truth now is better than finding it out later.
22. Going up the front is much better than going up the back. Ensure that your comparisons are
complete.
23. He reacted in a more civil manner than she did.
24. He will eat as fast as he can.
25. I went there as quickly as she did. Use the subject case, because, most often, the entire
comparison will have a verb at the end.
Exact Similarity: The Same as and the Same
Noun + is the same as + Noun
Noun + Noun + are the same
Noun (plural) + are the same
Remember that the same as and the same have the same meaning, but the same as is used between
the two nouns compared, and the same is used after the two nouns or a plural noun.
Avoid using to and like instead of as. Avoid using the same between the two nouns compared.
---That car is almost the same like mine.
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---That car is almost the same as mine.
or
---That car and mine are almost the same.
---These cars are almost the same.
---My briefcase is exactly the same that yours.
---My briefcase is exactly the same as yours.
or
---My briefcase and yours are exactly the same.
---Although we often use "speed" and "velocity" interchangeably, in a technical sense, "speed" is not
(A) alike
(B) the same as
(C) similar
(D) as
---When two products are basically the same as, advertising can influence the public's choice.
A B C D
Adj. used after Linking Verbs Adj. usually used before nouns:
(Not usually before nouns):
---The house ablaze is next door to mine.
Afloat floating
Afraid frightened
Akin similar
Alike like, similar
Alone lone
---A lone figure was standing at the bus stop.
---He was by no means a lone person criticizing the government.
---A lone gunman
---The lone survivor of a shipwreck
Ashamed shy
Asleep sleeping
Awake waking
Waking hours/life/day/moment etc.= all the time when you are awake:
---His face haunted her every waking moment!
---She seems to spend every waking hour at the piano.
Away far away
Bleeding bloody
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1. Used to emphasize what you are saying in a slightly rude way:
---It's bloody cold out there!
---That's a bloody good idea.
---Bloody hell!
2. Bloody well: used to emphasize an angry statement or order:
---It serves you bloody well right.
3.
---His bloody nose: Bleeding.
---Bloody medical waste: Bloodstained, blood-soaked
Content satisfied
Glad happy
Ill sick
mere
Small little
Unable weak
Well healthy
TOEFL: General Similarity-Like and Alike
Remember that like and alike have the same meaning, but like is used between the two nouns
compared, and alike is used after the two nouns or a plural noun.
Noun + is like + Noun
Noun + Noun + are alike
Noun (plural) + are alike
Avoid using as instead of like. Avoid using like after the two nouns compared.
---These suits are like.
---This suit is like that suit.
or
---These suits are alike.
---I want to buy some shoes same like the ones I have on.
---I want to buy some shoes like the ones I have on.
or
---The shoes I want to buy and the shoes I have on are alike.
---Anthony and his brother don't look like.
---Anthony doesn't look like his brother.
or
---Anthony and his brother don't look alike.
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Test:
---Although they are smaller, chipmunks
(A) like to
(B) like as
(C) like
(D) alike
Test:
---The first living structures to appear on Earth thousands of years ago were alike viruses.
Noun + is similar to + Noun
Noun + Noun + are similar
Noun (plural) + are similar
---These two brothers are similar.
---She is similar to her mother.
TOEFL: Comparative Estimates-Multiple Numbers
Remember that the following are examples of multiple numbers:
Half four times
Twice five times
Three times ten times
Avoid using so instead of as after a multiple. Avoid using more than instead of as much as or as
many as. Avoid using the multiple after as much and as many.
---This one is prettier, but it costs twice more than the other one.
---This one is prettier, but it costs twice as much as the other one.
---The rent at College Apartments is only half so much as you pay here.
---The rent at College Apartments is only half as much as you pay here.
---Bob found a job that paid as much twice as he made working at the library.
---Bob found a job that paid twice as much as he made working at the library.
---The price was very reasonable; I would gladly have paid three times more than he asked.
---The price was very reasonable; I would gladly have paid three times as much as he asked.
---We didn't buy the car because they wanted as much twice as it was worth.
---We didn't buy the car because they wanted twice as much as it was worth.
---After the purchase of the Louisiana Territory,
(A) twice more land than
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(B) two times more land than
(C) twice as much land as
(D) two times much land than
---With American prices for sugar at three times as much the world price, manufacturers are
beginning to use fructose blended with pure sugar, or sucrose.
Tests:
1. I 2. myself 3. me 4. mine
1. the furthest than 2. farther than 3. farthest 4. furthest
1. nearer 2. near 3. nearer than 4. the nearest
1. late 2. later 3. the latest 4. later than
5. Russia
1. big 2. the biggest 3. bigger than 4. as big as
1. as expensive as 2. more expensive
3. the most expensive 4. expensive
1. more expensive 2. the most expensive
3. as expensive as 4. expensive
1. happier 2. happiest 3. as happy as 4. more happier
1. careful 2. the most careful 3. as careful as 4. more careful
1. well 2. good 3. better 4. the best
1. as beautiful as 2. more beautiful 3. most beautiful 4. beautiful
12. He
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1. well 2. better 3. the best 4. good
1. clever than 2. more clever than 3. most clever 4. clever
1. better 2. good 3. best 4. well
1. the worst 2. worse 3. bad 4. worse than
1. good 2. well 3. better 4. the best
1. goodly 2. good 3. better 4. well
1. least 2. little 3. less 4. hardly
1. good 2. well 3. better 4. the best
1. kinder than 2. kind 3. the kindest 4. as kind as
1. yours 2. yours car 3. your 4. you
1. my 2. mine 3 mine book 4. me
1. mine 2. me 3. I 4. my
1. every day clearly in the class 2. in the class clearly every day
3. clearly in the class every day 4. in the class every day clearly
1. best 2. better 3. good 4. well
1. careless 2. carelessly 3. more carelessly 4. more careless
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1. light 2. lighter 3. lightest 4. the lightest
1. me 2. mine 3. my 4. myself
29. Whenever Zahra faces a difficulty, she asks me to help her.
1. as clever as 2. cleverer 3. less clever 4. the cleverest
lass.
1. the worse 2. the worst 3. bad 4. badly
1. hard 2. hardly 3. more hard 4. more harder
1. more hard 2. more harder 3. hardly 4. hard
1. bigger 2. biggest 3. the biggest 4. the bigger
1. yours 2. of you 3. of yours 4. you
2. hers 3. his
1. my 2. your 3. mine 4. her
1. of you 2. of yours 3. to yours 4. to you
1. you, him 2. yours, him
3. yours, himself 4. you, himself
1. large 2. larger 3. the large 4. the largest
1. they 2. themselves 3. them 4. theirs
1. I 2. me 3. mine 4. myself
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1. ours 2. mine 3. yours 4. theirs
1. theirs 2. their 3. they 4. themselves
1. hers 2. his 3. yours 4. theirs
1. he 2. him 3. himself
46.
1. hers 2. her 3. herself 4. she
47. nema by our uncle last night.
1. I 2. me 3. mine 4. myself
48.
1. I 2. me 3. mine 4. myself
49.
1. The biggest a person 2. The bigger a person is
3. The person the bigger 4. He is the bigger person
1. me 2. we 3. us 4. our
1. we 2. you 3. they 4. she
1. me 2. my 3. myself 4. mine
1. they 2. them 3. their 4. themselves
money to buy ourselves a pen?
1. we 2. our 3. ourselves 4. us
56. Which one is correct?
2. This is him speaking.
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3. Among us men, it was he who always acted as the interpreter.
57. Which one is correct?
1. The cake is from Jane, and the flowers are from Larry and we.
2. Among we teachers, it is Mr. Salehi who knows 4 languages.
3. He always helps my wife and I with our housework.
4. Is it they at the door again?
58. The production of ca
1. more as 2. more than that in 3. more of 4. more that
1. better than 2. better that of
3. better than that of 4. better than those of
1. larger than 2. larger than that of 3. larger that of 4. larger than those of
one of my friends
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hardly
the
respect
my sister and I
thethe
brother
my job
amongto be
between
I me
to bewe
usamongusI
me
qualificationsqualifications
audienceaudience
Tests: Peterson's Success
1. The American and Canadian political systems are like in that both are
A B C
dominated by two major parties.
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D
(A) not sweeter
(B) not as sweet as
(C) less sweeter than
(D) not sweet as
3. The period is probably the most easiest punctuation mark to use.
A B C D
4. When metal replaced wood in the construction of ships' hulls, more strong ships
A B C
could be built.
D
(A) are larger than
(B) the larger the
(C) are as large
(D) than are larger
6. Charcoal is the more commonly used cooking fuel in the world.
A B C D
7. Automobiles, airplanes, and buses use more energy per passen
(A) as do trains
(B) than trains do
(C) trains do
(D) like trains
8. Few American politicians have spoken more eloquently as William Jennings
A B C D
Bryan.
(A) the higher its
(B) its higher
(C) higher than its
(D) the highest
(A) Dissimilar
(B) Unlike
(C) Dislike
(D) Different
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11. During a depression, economic conditions are far worst than they are during a
A B C D
recession.
12. The spinal column is alike the brain in that its main functions can be classified
A B
as either sensory or motor functions.
C D
(A) saltier than that of
(B) as salty as that of
(C) saltier than
(D) so salty as
14. Fungi are the most important decomposers of forest soil, just like bacteria are
A B C
the most important decomposers of grassland soil.
D
(A) the most serious
(B) as serious
(C) more serious than
(D) as though serious
1. Alike
2. Not as sweet as
3. The easiest
4. Stronger
5. Are larger than
6. The most commonly
7. Than trains do
8. Than
9. The higher its
10. Unlike
11. Worse
12. Like
13. Saltier than
14. As
15. More serious than
Tests:
1. French governments have long believed that the economy is .......... served by intervention ............
by relying on market forces.
A) good / than
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B) well/as
C) best/like
D) good / such as
E) better/than
2. In the modern world, or course, a man's wallet and social skills probably mean.......... to a woman
than the size of his chin.
A) more
B) too much
C) a lot
D) enough
E) so much
3. Mete held two jobs in addition to going to night school; consequently, he was .......... always tired.
A) nearer
B) nearest
C) as near as
D) nearly
E) so near
4. Two natural fibers are wool and cotton; silk, a third natural fiber, is .......... of the three.
A) as expensive as
B) more expensive than
C) expensive enough
D) the most expensive
E) too much
5. The wooden crate seemed large, but I found it was ............ for a dozen bowls.
A) so small that
B) too small
C) small enough
D) as small as
E) smaller than
6. Yesterday it was ........... that most of the trees flanking on both sides of the road were blown
down.
A) windy enough
B) as windy as
C) so windy
D) very windy
E) too windy
7. Who told you to purchase these batteries? They are........... to fit the radio.
A) small enough
B) very small
C) so small that
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D) smaller that
E) too small
8. This history book contains excellent illustrations; they are clear, occasionally, .......... humorous.
A) more
B) less
C) most
D) enough
E) quite
9. There was.............. noise at the conference that the Marketing Department held that we couldn't
hear her speech.
A) very much
B) enough
C) too much
D) quite many
E) so much
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Adverbs:
An adverb can modify a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a phrase, or a clause.
---Danny speaks fluently. (Telling us more about the verb)
The form of adverbials
In English, adverbials most commonly take the form of adverbs, adverb phrases, temporal noun
phrases or prepositional phrases. Many types of adverbials (for instance reason and condition) are
often expressed by clauses).
1. ---James answered immediately. (adverb)
2. ---James answered in English. (prepositional phrase)
3. ---James answered this morning. (noun phrase)
4. ---James answered in English because he had a foreign visitor. (adverbial clause)
5. ---Here, there, fast, always
Functions of adverbs:
1. Adv + adj.: ---It's terribly cold today.
---This steak is very badly cooked.
---Well-cooked/done.
---Musically intelligent people
---The Titanic was a perfectly seaworthy passenger liner.
---In fact, recently studied seismic records indicate that a violent earthquake,
whose epicenter was on the seafloor in the region where the Mary Celeste was
sailing, occurred some days before the ship's discovery.
2. Adv + pp: ---He is madly in love with her.
3. Adv + adv: ---They are playing unusually fast.
---A microwave oven can cook even frozen food extremely quickly.
4. V + adv: ---He listens carefully.
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5.
Notes:
1. We do not usually put an adv between a verb and its object.
---I often get headaches.
---He ate greedily the chocolate cake. [Incorrect]
---He ate the chocolate cake greedily. [Correct]
---He greedily ate the chocolate cake. [Correct]
---Seeking for sports and social activities will distract students and decrease significantly their
efficiency.
2. Long adverbs do not come in mid position.
---He quickly got dressed.
---He in a hurry got dressed.
---She at once realized her mistake.
Exception
Position of Adverbs
Adverbs that modify verbs have no fixed position in the sentence:
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---Finally, we reached a decision.
---We finally reached a decision.
---We reached a decision finally.
---Slowly, the great gate descended.
---The great gate slowly descended.
---The great gate descended slowly.
Kinds of adverbs: 1. Adverbs of Place, 2. Adverbs of Time, 3. Adverbs of Certainty, 4. Adverbs of
Degree, 5. Viewpoint & Commenting Adverbs, 6. Adverbs of Manner
1. Adverbs of Place:
Adverbs of place tell us where something happens.
They are usually placed after the main verb or after the object:
1 2
Example:
1. After the main verb:
---I looked everywhere.
---I'm going home/ out/ back.
2. After the object:
---They built a house nearby.
---She took the child outside.
Adverbs expressing both movement and location:
Ahead, abroad, overseas, uphill, downhill, sideways, indoors, outdoors
Example:
---The child went indoors.
---He lived and worked abroad.
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2. Adverbs of time:
"When" adverbs are usually placed at the end of the sentence:
---Goldilocks went to the Bears' house yesterday.
---I'm going to tidy my room tomorrow.
"For how long" adverbs are usually placed at the end of the sentence:
---She stayed in the Bears' house all day.
---My mother lived in France for a year.
"How often" adverbs expressing the frequency of an action are usually placed before the main
verb but after auxiliary verbs (such as be, have, may, must):
---I often eat vegetarian food. (Before the main verb)
---He never drinks milk. (Before the main verb)
---You must always fasten your seat belt. (After the auxiliary must)
---She is never late/seasick. (After the auxiliary be)
---I have never forgotten my first puppy love. (After the auxiliary have and before the main verb
forgotten)
---To begin with, the leaders are often taught by local people about the historical and famous places
such as palaces and museums.
always, hardly ever, rarely
---Always I get up early.
---Always be careful! (Imperative sentence)
always
---History lectures sometimes aren't interesting. TPO 6 3
---They generally don't retire before midnight.
---He doesn't always leave before six o'clock.
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---My family will call me long distance sometime. Adv
---Sometimes my family calls me long distance. Adv
---Let's have lunch sometime.
---I will see him sometime.
---Sometimes I see him.
---If I were asked to look after my grandmother for some time, I would accept it. NP
---I called you some times, but only got the answering machine. NP
---Some time adverbs that connect the past to the present are often used with the present perfect.
Some other "how often" adverbs express the exact number of times an action happens and
are usually placed at the end of the sentence:
---This magazine is published monthly.
---He visits his mother once a week.
When a frequency adverb is placed at the end of a sentence it is much stronger.
Compare:
---She regularly visits France.
---She visits France regularly.
Adverbs that can be used in these two positions:
---Frequently,
---Generally,
---Normally,
---Occasionally,
---Often,
---Regularly,
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---Sometimes,
---Usually
'Yet' and 'still'
Yet is used in questions and in negative sentences, and is placed at the end of the sentence or after
not.
---Have you finished your work yet?
---No, not yet. (= simple negative answer)
---They haven't met him yet. (= simple negative statement)
---Haven't you finished your work yet?
Still expresses continuity; it is used in positive sentences and questions, and is placed before the
main verb and after auxiliary verbs (such as be, have, might, will)
---I am still hungry.
---She is still waiting for you.
---Are you still here?
---Do you still work for the BBC?
Order of Adverbs of Time
If you need to use more than one adverb of time at the end of a sentence, use them in this order:
1: 'How long'
2: 'How often'
3: 'When' (think of 'low')
Example:
1 + 2: ---I work (1) for five hours (2) every day.
2 + 3: ---The magazine was published (2) weekly (3) last year.
1 + 3: ---I was abroad (1) for two months (3) last year.
1 + 2 + 3: ---She worked in a hospital (1) for two days (2) every week (3) last year.
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3. Adverbs of Certainty:
These adverbs express how certain or sure we feel about an action or event.
Common adverbs of certainty: Certainly, definitely, probably, undoubtedly, surely
Adverbs of certainty go before the main verb but after the verb 'to be':
---He definitely left the house this morning.
---He is probably in the park.
With other auxiliary verb, these adverbs go between the auxiliary and the main verb:
---He has certainly forgotten the meeting.
---He will probably remember tomorrow.
Sometimes these adverbs can be placed at the beginning of the sentence:
---Undoubtedly, Winston Churchill was a great politician.
4. Adverbs of Degree:
Adverbs of degree tell us about the intensity or degree of an action, an adjective or another adverb.
Common adverbs of degree: Almost, nearly, quite, just, too, enough, hardly, scarcely, completely,
very, extremely.
Adverbs of degree are usually placed:
1. Before the adjective or adverb they are modifying:
e.g. ---The water was extremely cold.
2. before the main verb:
e.g.---He was just leaving.
---She has almost finished.
Examples:
---They are completely exhausted from the trip.
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---I am too tired to go out tonight.
---He hardly noticed what she was saying.
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Note:
Hardly, no sooner, scarcely
When we say that one event happened immediately after another we can use sentences with
hardly, no sooner, and scarcely:
---The meeting had hardly begun that all the lights went out.
---I had no sooner lit the barbecue than it started to rain.
We often use a past perfect in the clause with hardly, no sooner or scarcely, and a simple past in
the second clause. After hardly and scarcely the second clause begins with when or before; after no
sooner it begins with than. In a literary style, we often use the word order hardly / no sooner /
scarcely + verb + subject at the beginning of the first clause:
---Scarcely had Mrs. James stepped into the classroom when the boys began fighting.
TOEFL:
Hardly, barely, scarcely = almost no
Hardly ever, seldom, rarely = almost never
---She barely makes it to class on time.
---He scarcely attends the class.
---He rarely attends the class.
---Because of his hearing loss, he scarcely hears me when I speak.
---Do you have enough money for the tuition fee? Only barely. (Scarcely enough)
5. Viewpoint & Commenting Adverbs:
There are some adverbs and adverbial expressions which tell us about the speaker's viewpoint or
opinion about an action, or make some comment on the action.
Viewpoint
---Frankly, I think he is a liar. (= this is my frank, honest opinion)
---Theoretically, you should pay a fine. (= from a theoretical point of view but there may be another
way of looking at the situation)
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These adverbs are placed at the beginning of the sentence and are separated from the rest
of the sentence by a comma.
Some common Viewpoint adverbs: Honestly, seriously, confidentially, personally,
surprisingly, ideally, economically, officially, obviously, clearly, surely, undoubtedly.
Examples:
---Personally, I'd rather go by train.
---Surprisingly, this car is cheaper than the smaller model.
---Geographically, Britain is rather cut off from the rest of Europe.
Scientifically
+ (speaking)
/
Generally = Broadly
Financially
Economically
Politically
Theoretically
Practically
Frankly
Technically
Briefly
Roughly
Strictly
Precisely: Strictly speaking,
spiders are not insects.
Honestly
---Generally speaking (= in most situations), it's quicker on public transportation.
---Broadly speaking, the risks are as follows.
---Briefly (= Using few words), the company needs to cut its expenditure.
Commenting: These are very similar to viewpoint adverbs, and often the same words, but they go in
a different position - after the verb to be and before the main verb.
Some common Commenting adverbs:
Definitely, certainly, obviously, simply.
---She is certainly the best person for the job.
---You obviously enjoyed your meal.
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6. Adverbs of Manner:
Adverbs of manner tell us how something happens. Adverbs of manner take 9 positions. However,
they are usually placed after the main verb or after the object.
1. After the main verb (At the end of a sentence):
---She sang badly.
---He swims well.
---He ran... rapidly, slowly, quickly.
---She spoke... softly, loudly, aggressively.
---James coughed loudly to attract her attention.
2. After the object:
---He plays the flute beautifully.
---He ate the chocolate cake greedily.
3. At the beginning of a sentence to emphasize:
---Very quickly, I went into the room in order not to wake them up.
4. Before adjectives:
---It's terribly cold today.
5. Before P.P.:
---This steak is badly cooked.
6. After intensifiers:
---They are playing unusually fast.
7. Before P.P.+ N:
---The recently built bridge collapsed.
8. Between auxiliary verbs have, has, had ,and been:
---This letter has carefully been written.
9. Between to and infinitive:
---In order to fully understand the issue, you have to study hard.
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When there is more than one adverb in end position, the usual order in written English is
adverb of manner (= saying how something is done), place, and then time:
---In the accident, she was thrown violently against the door. (= manner + place)
However, if one adverb is much longer than another, then it is usually placed last:
---They left at 3.00 with a great deal of noise. (= time + manner)
If we put an adverb of place in front position we have to put the subject after the verb be:
---Next to the bookshelf was a fireplace. (not Next to the bookshelf a fireplace was.)
We can also do this with intransitive verbs used to indicate position or movement to a position,
including hang, lie, live, sit, stand; come, fly, go, march, roll, run, swim, walk:
---Beyond the houses lay open fields. (rather than ... Beyond the houses open fields lay.)
---Through the town square marched the band. [rather than ... Through the town square the band
marched.)
The adverbs daily, hourly, monthly, weekly etc. only go in end position:
---The train leaves Penn station hourly. (not hourly the train leaves...; not the train hourly leaves...)
Subject + auxiliary verb + frequency adverb + main verb + object + adverb of Manner + adverb of
Place + adverb of Time. (MPT)
---He can usually speak English well in class every day.
ADJECTIVE ADVERB
---A fast train ---It came fast.
---A short time ---He stopped short.
---An early bird ---He rose early.
---A hard worker ---He works hard.
---A close decision (careful) ---The car came close.
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A few such words have two adverb forms: quick/quickly, slow/slowly, tight/tightly, cheap/cheaply.
The difference is in the degrees of formality:
---Drive slow.
---Advance slowly.
The position of the adverb is important when there is more than one verb in a sentence. If
the adverb is placed after a clause, then it modifies the whole action described by the clause.
Notice the difference in meaning between the following pairs of sentences:
---She quickly agreed to retype the letter. (= her agreement was quick)
---She agreed to retype the letter quickly. (= the re-typing was quick)
---He quietly asked me to leave the house. (= his request was quiet)
---He asked me to leave the house quietly. (= the leaving was quiet)
Note: Position the adverb ONLY with great care. It will refer to the word nearest
to it, usually the word following. This may not be the meaning you intended. See how
crucial to the meaning the position of ‘only' can be:
1. ONLY I hit him in the eye yesterday. (No one else did.)
2. I ONLY hit him in the eye yesterday. (Did not slap him.)
3. I hit ONLY him in the eye yesterday. (I did not hit others.)
4. I hit him ONLY in the eye yesterday. (I did not hit outside the eye.)
5. I hit him in ONLY the eye yesterday. (Not other organs.)
6. I hit him in the ONLY eye yesterday. (He doesn't have another eye.)
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7. I hit him in the eye ONLY yesterday. (Not today.)
8. I hit him in the eye yesterday ONLY. (Did not wait for today.)
the first reason that dinosaurs were endotherm is that their fossils have been found in
Polar Regions, such thatsince the only endotherm animals that can live in the cold
environment.
TPO 5 18
---ONLY Sean eats fish on Fridays. (= No one else but Sean eats fish on Fridays.)
---Sean ONLY eats fish on Fridays. (= Sean does nothing else to the fish on Fridays
but eat it. He doesn't buy it, cook it, look at it, smell it . . . .)
---Sean eats ONLY fish on Fridays. (= Sean eats nothing but fish on Fridays.)
---Sean eats fish ONLY on Fridays.
---Sean eats fish on Fridays ONLY. (= Sean eats fish on this one day in the week and never on any
other.)
---We only talked about the problem yesterday. (we only talked)
---We talked only about the problem yesterday. (only about the problem)
---We talked about the problem only yesterday. (only yesterday)
Confusing Adverbs:
1. ---Sorry I didn't turn up. I clean forgot.
2. ---Dead sure/ tired/ drunk/ straight. ---He was dead sure.
3. ---You can eat free in my restaurant whenever you like.
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---You can speak freely. I won't tell anyone what you say.
Be/feel free to speak
4. ---He was justly punished for his crimes.
---He was just punished for his crimes.
---He was punished just for his crimes.
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Modals:
modal(
may might
can could
will would
must had to
shall should
ought to
s
---She can speak French.
not
---You should not speak in the class.
---He will not study.
---Can you swim?
---May I ask a question?
to
Can
---You can read this paper now.
---The doctor can see you at 4 this afternoon.
---Can you help me?
---Can you lend me some money?
Could
can
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---He could move the heavy box.
---Could you bring my glasses, please?
---Could you type this letter for me?
Shall
---Shall I open the door?
Should
---You look pale. You should see a doctor.
---A teacher should be prepared for every class.
---We should always tell the truth.
---You should be careful when you drive.
should
May
may
:
---It may rain tonight.
---He may go to Shiraz.
---May I help you?
---May I go out?
may
---I may not stay here. ()
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---I mayn't stay here. ()
Might
maymight
may
---It might rain tomorrow.
Will
---We will study Math tomorrow.
Would
will
---He said that he would teach in the school.
---Would you give me your pen?
Must
---You must be Ali's brother; you look like him.
---He must have a problem. He keeps crying.
---There is the doorbell. It must be my brother.
---I must stop smoking.
---I must see your teacher.
---You mustn't (= must not) make noise in hospital.
must
---I must get up early tomorrow. There are a lot of things I want to do.
mustshould
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---We must work to earn money.
Subject + Modal + be + Ving +…..
---Let's just knock on the door lightly. Tom may be sleeping.
---All of the lights in Amir's room are turned off. He must be sleeping.
Need
to
---I need to study hard ---I needn't study hard. ---Need you study hard?
need
Ought to
to
to
---You ought to study hard for your exam.
---Ought you to study hard for the exam?
Have to Has to
---I have to get up early tomorrow, because the train leaves at 6.
---Jim can't come out with us this evening. He has to study tonight. He has an exam tomorrow.
---They will go to London next month. They have to learn English.
---Children don't like school. They have to go to school.
to
to
have to
I, you, we, they
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has to
He, she, it
don'tdoesn't
---They have to go to school.
---They don't have to go to school.
---She has to leave now.
---She doesn't have to leave now.
doesn'thas tohave tosdoes
do does
---My friends have to work for 10 hours each day.
---Do My friends have to work for 10 hours each day?
---He has to work on Fridays.
---Does he have to work on Fridays?
Had to
have to has tomust
---We waited for the bus for a long time, but it didn't come. We had to walk home.
---We had some guests. We didn't have anything at home. We had to go shopping.
didn'thad tohave to
---They had to study hard.
---They didn't have to study hard.
---She had to borrow money.
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---She didn't have to borrow money.
didhad tohave to
---They had to find a new house.
---Did they have to find a new house?
---He had to sit on a hard chair.
---Did he have to sit on a hard chair?
Would rather
to
---Would you rather stay here or go home?
---I'd rather stay at home and rest.
would ratherwould rather
---I would rather you drove the car.
---She would rather her husband washed the dishes.
to than
---I would rather stay at home than go to the meeting.
would rather
Would rather + have + p.p.
---I would rather have gone to mosque last night.
Had better
to
---You 'd better (= had better) turn that music down before your dad gets angry.
nothad better
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---You had better not tell him the truth.
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Past Modals:
… + p.p. +have + could +Subject
---I had a lot of money and could have bought a car.
(
---He could have passed the exam.
(
… + p.p. +have + should +Subject
---She should have gone there last week.
---My friend needed my help. I didn't help him. I should have helped him.
… + p.p. +have shouldn't + +Subject
---Adam loved Mary, but he married Nancy; now he is unhappy. He shouldn't have married Nancy. He
should have married Mary.
---You shouldn't have treated him like a child.
… + p.p. +have +may/might +Subject
---I can't find my keys. I may/might have left them at home.
---It might have rained in Tehran last week.
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---Everybody was in the party except Rosa; she may not have been invited.
---It must have rained.
---John fell asleep in class.
---He must have stayed up too late last night.
or
---He must not have slept well last night.
---Jim was eating everything in the salad but the onions.
---He must not have liked the onions.
---The river is frozen, so it must have been very cold last night.
---He spent money like water. He must have had lots of money.
spend money like water(
not
NP + could/should/must/may/might + have + been + p.p.
---This picture is a masterpiece. It must have been drawn by a great artist.
Subject + must + have + p.p.+…
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---The car is not in the parking. It may/might have been stolen.
---We have many important guests today. The house should have been cleaned.
ing
Ving+ been + have + might/may/must/could + Subject
---Jack had an accident last night. He must have been driving carelessly.
Can't have + past participle
Can't have + past participle is used when we are sure that something did not happen in the past.
"He can't have been at the meeting, he's on a business trip this week."
"They can't have bought it today because the shops are closed."
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Used to/be used to: *
1. When I was a child I ... go swimming in the lake.
used to
am used to
2. I ... in front of an audience. I am a teacher.
used to speak
am used to speaking
3. As a father I ... the mess my children make every evening.
used to clean up
am used to cleaning up
4. In the army I ... at six every morning.
used to get up
am used to getting up
5. My grandmother ... 5 miles to go to church on Sundays.
used to walk
is used to walking
6. Anderlecht ... the best Belgian players. Nowadays they cannot afford that any longer.
used to attract
is used to attracting
7. I ... the paper after lunch. That's one of the things I really enjoy.
used to read
am used to reading
8. In Spain you will soon ... a siesta in the afternoon.
used to take
get used to taking
9. On holiday in Finland my wife ... a sauna every day!
used to take
is used to taking
10. After all this time, I have become quite ... this program.
used to operate
used to operating
Tests:
1. Everything outside is frozen.
1. must be 2. must have been 3. should be 4. should have been
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1. must be 2. should be 3. should have been 4. must have been
1. ought 2. might 3. should 4. would
4. "Why didn't you let her buy what she wanted?"
1. shouldn't treat 2. mustn't have treated
3. shouldn't have treated 4. mustn't treat
5. Why didn't you take the University Entrance Examination?
1. could 2. must 3. should 4. would
1. must have painted
2. must have been painted
3. should have been painted
4. should have painted
1. could stay 2. must stay
3. could have stayed 4. must have stayed
1. could 2. should 3. must 4. would
.
1. could prepare 2. could have prepared
3. must have prepared 4. must prepare
1. Should have come 2. must come
3. could have come 4. should come
1. must practice 2. must have practiced
3. should have practiced 4. should practice
t it in the classroom or somewhere else.
1. must 2. might 3. should 4. would
1. could 2. should 3. would 4. must
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14. Yesterday was sunny and suitabl
to stay at home and relax.
1. could have gone 2. should go
3. should have gone 4. could go
15. The glasses aren't in my pocket and I don't know
somewhere.
1. should leave 2. should have left 3. might have left 4. might leave
1. must have taken 2. must take 3. should take 4. should have taken
1. could have bought 2. would buy 3. should buy 4. must have bought
18. They wonder why Jane didn't come to the meeting. S
1. has to 2. might 3. should 4. would
1. could 2. should 3. would 4. must
20. George wen
1. can't break 2. mustn't have broken
3. shouldn't have broken 4. shouldn't break
her sister but she didn't.
1. would 2. must 3. might 4. could
1. would have told 2. might have told
3. must have told 4. could have told
1. could 2. might 3. should 4. would
1. couldn't meet 2. couldn't have met
3. shouldn't meet 4. shouldn't have met
1. may 2. must 3. should 4. would
26. A: "I wonder why the physics teacher didn't come to the meeting."
1. shouldn't have known 2. can't have known
3. could have known 4. might not have known
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why didn't you?
1. should have come 2. might have come
3. shouldn't have come 4. must have stayed
1. must stay 2. should say
3. would have stayed 4. must have stayed
1. must study 2. should study
3. should have studied 4. must have studied
30.
1. must drive 2. could drive
3. could have driven 4. must have driven
1. could 2. had to 3. must have 4. should have
1. must stay 2. should stay 3. must have stayed 4. should have stayed
33. A: "Did your friend, David, decide to get a job?"
B: "H
1. might have decided 2. must have decided
3. should have decided 4. could have decided
34. A: "Do you know where Ali left the car keys?"
"
1. must have left 2. should have left
3. might have left 4. would have left
1. must not have invited 2. might not be invited
3. might have not been invited 4. might not have been invited
36. A: "I'm looking for Tom. Do you know where he is?"
1. would 2. might 3. have to 4. could
37. A: "Where's Jane? I haven't seen her for a week."
1. should travel 2. might travel
3. might have traveled 4. should have traveled
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38. A: "Where is that cold air coming from?"
1. should 2. must 3. would 4. could
39. A: "Shall I buy this book for my son?"
1. would have already read 2. should have already read
3. might have already read 4. could have already read
40. A: "There's a lot of food leftover from the party, isn't there?"
1. shouldn't have made 2. couldn't have made
3. might not have made 4. wouldn't have made
1. should have bought 2. would have bought
3. could have bought 4. must have bought
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not
have
Tests:
1. had to 2. have to 3. must 4. should
1. should be 2. would be 3. can be 4. must be
3. Mrs.
1. should be 2. must be 3.can be 4. will be
1. study 2. studies 3. studied 4. studying
the traffic laws, otherwise they will have accident.
1. can 2. might 3. must 4. would
1. clean 2. to clean 3. cleaning 4. cleans
him.
1. washing 2. to wash 3. wash 4. washed
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1. can 2. must 3. ought to 4. should
1. did 2. do 3. does 4. doing
a hard chair.
1. must 2. should 3. had to 4. would
1. have to 2. have 3. to have 4. had
1. speaking 2. to speak 3. had spoken 4. speak
1. take 2. took 3. taking 4. to take
1. you'd rather 2. you had to
3. you should have 4. you'd better
few days.
1. to stay 2. staying 3. stayed 4. stay
1. study 2. to studying 3. studying 4. to study
17. "Where is your father now?"
1. could be 2. ought to be 3. must be 4. should be
1. swam 2. swim 3. swimming 4. is swimming
1. had to 2. hast to 3. must 4. should
1. could get 2. had to get
3. should have gotten 4. must have gotten
21. A:
1. use to have 2. used to have
3. was used to have 4. is used to having
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1. must rain 2. may rain 3. must be raining 4. must have rained
23. A: "Why is Milad in his room?"
1. may do 2. may be doing 3. must do 4. must be doing
24. "Do you go to Isfahan?"
1. could 2. must 3. might 4. should
must
would rather
must
to
had to to
would ratherto
had betterto
be used to ing
used toto.
must
Tests:
1. When I was younger, I ................ run five kilometers every day, but now I have to take frequent
rests when I try to do the same thing.
a. could b. should be able to c. have got to d. can e. am able to
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2. She hasn't eaten anything since yesterday. She .......... be really very hungry now!
a. can b. would c. must d. might e. needn't
3. "Why are you late?"
"I ............. my uncle to the bus terminal. There was so much traffic that it took me much longer
than it usually does."
a. had to take b. must have taken c. have got to take d. should have taken
e. should take
4. "Do you think the teacher will give us a pop quiz today?"
"He .........., but I don't really think so."
a. will b. might c. would d. should e. needs
5. "Do I have to take that Math course?"
"No, you ................."
a. haven't b. don' have c. mustn't d. ought to e. needn't
6. You ............. a two-year old child at home alone. Anything can happen.
a. didn't leave b. mustn't leave c. don't have to d. needn't leave e. need to
7. He worked hard yesterday, so he................the project.
a. could finish b. would have finished c. might finish d. was able to finish
e. can finish
8. It's only a little way to the station, so we ............ walk as well.
a. can b. will c. shouldn't d. might e. mustn't
9. Hello Mary! I cannot be sure I'll be home in time for dinner. I ..... be late, so don't wait for me.
a. may b. will c. should d. must e. should
10. "Do you think it was Ali we saw earlier?"
"It .............. but I am not sure."
a. would be b. may have been c. might be d. must have e. could be
11. When I was young, I ............... a sports magazine regularly, but I don't anymore.
a. used to buying b. used to buy c. was used to buy d. get used to buy
12. "Ali got the highest grade in the history exam."
"He ............. very hard before the exam."
a. should have studied b. ought to have studied c. must have studied d. might study
13. "I am sure she has forgotten something"
a. She must have forgotten something
b. She could have forgotten something.
c. She should have forgotten something
d. She ought to forgotten something.
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e. She might have forgotten something.
14. I don't believe it's ten o'clock.
a. It mustn't be ten o'clock.
b. It shouldn't be ten o'clock.
c. It needn't be ten o'clock.
d. It couldn't be ten o'clock.
e. It cannot be ten o'clock.
15. She apologized but it wasn't necessary.
a. She didn't need to apologize
b. She needn't have apologized.
c. She must have apologized.
d. She might have apologized.
e. She could have apologized.
16. We didn't call the police because it was unnecessary.
a. We needn't have called the police.
b. We should have called the police.
c. We could have called the police.
d. We cannot have called the police.
e. We didn't need to call the police.
17. I was wrong to say that it was your fault.
a. I mustn't have said it.
b. I mightn't have said it.
c. I shouldn't have said it.
d. I didn't need to say it.
e. I cannot have said it.
18. He cannot have passed his driving test.
a. It was impossible for him to pass his driving test.
b. He shouldn't have passed his driving test.
c. It is not possible for him to pass his driving test.
d. He mustn't have passed his driving test.
e. He mightn't have passed his driving test.
19. A: "What's that noise?" B: "Don't worry. It .............my cat playing in the kitchen."
a. must have been b. must be c. should be d. could have been
20. Look what you have done! You have broken all my glasses. You .........more careful.
a. can have been b. must have been c. would have been
d. should have been
21. He was a good swimmer and.................swim to the riverbank when the boat sank.
a. could b. was able to c. might d. might be able to
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22. My dictionary is not in its place; someone ................ it.
a. should take b. can take c. might take d. must have taken e. ought to take
23. I .............. travel by coach to Istanbul last week because the airline pilots were on strike.
a. ought to b. need to c. had to d. am to e. should to
24. You .............. your doctor before you started dieting.
a. might consult b. have to consult c. should have consulted d. have consulted e. have
consulted
25. You ........... wear jeans or trainers at a formal gathering. It wouldn't be right.
a. needn't b. don't have to c. mightn't d. weren't able to e. mustn't
26. Our guests are supposed .......... here before eight o'clock.
a. to be b. was c. been d. being
27. "What will you do after school is over."
"I ........... work for a year, but I haven't decided yet.
a. will b. might c. should d. need
28. "Did Alper go to the movies last night?"
"Yes, but he ...................have studied at home and studied his lessons."
a. may b. should c. must d. can
29. I would rather ........... to Antalya than Istanbul for my holiday.
a. went b. gone c. going d. go
30. "Ali has pictures of Michael Jackson all over his walls."
"He ............ like the singer very much."
a. can b. will c. must d. may
31. "There was some cake in the dish, but it's gone. I wonder what happened to it?"
"I don't know. My younger sister ............ it."
a. had to eat b. ought to have eaten c. might eat d. may have eaten
32. "I am absolutely sure that the money was not stolen by Peter. Such an honest man as Peter
...........such a disgraceful thing in any way."
d. could not do
33. You shouldn't have walked about the city alone. You .................
a. might get lost b. would have gotten lost c. might have gotten lost
d. could get lost
34. The milkman looks like a snowman. It ............ heavily outside.
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a. will be snowing b. should be snowing c. may be snowing d. must be snowing
35. It's getting dark, we'd better .......... now or father will get very angry.
a. leave b. left c. will leave d. leaving
36. "The cold weather doesn't seem to bother you."
"Before I came to Ankara, I ...... live in Kars, which is one of the coldest places in Turkey."
a. would rather live b. would live c. ought to leave d. used to live
37. " ... you close the window, please?"
"Certainly."
a. Will b. May c. Shall d. Do
38. "Did you enjoy the opera?"
"It was okay, but I'd rather ............... to the cinema."
a. went b. have gone c. had gone d. go
39. If you don't want to get wet, you had better.....this umbrella with you.
a. take b. to take c. taken d. for taking
40. I know it's none of my business but I ....... wondering where he gets all his money from.
a. cannot help b. cannot bear c. cannot ask d. cannot afford
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Tag questions:
(
tag questionnot
---She studies English every day, doesn't she?
---Mary and Nancy don't get up at 7 every day, do they?
---we never go to picnic on Fridays, do we?
---I can play the violin, can't I?
---Few students attended in the class today, did they?
---He has finished his studies, hasn't she?
---Ali has to study hard, doesn't he?
,never ,seldom, hardlyfew, little, no, nobody,
---I am late, aren't I?
---I am late, am I not?
won't you
---Come in, won't you?
will/would/can/could/you?
---Give me a hand, will you?
---Open a window, would you?
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Can't you
---Shut up, can't you?
will you?
---Don't forget, will you?
let'sshall we?
---Let's have a party, shall we?
to beam, is, are, was, were
---The film wasn't very good, was it?
nothingevery thingit
---Nothing can happen, can it?
---Everything is Ok, isn't it?
: nobody, somebody, anybody, everybodythey
---Nobody found the keys, did they?
---Somebody wanted a drink, didn't they?
ought totagshould
---I ought to complain, shouldn't I?
Tests:
1. didn't 2. did 3. does 4. doesn't
2. Mehdi
1. does he 2. did he 3. doesn't he 4. doesn't Mehdi
1. have 2. haven't 3. has 4. hasn't
4. The students never go to school on Fridays,
1. didn't 2. id 3. do 4. don't
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1. aren't they 2. isn't he 3. don't they 4. doesn't he
1. doesn't she 2. aren't they 3. isn't she 4. don't they
1. needn't 2. didn't 3. wouldn't 4. couldn't
8. You'd better see a doctor if you don't feel we
1. had 2. hadn't 3. would 4. wouldn't
1. were there 2. weren't there 3. were they 4. weren't they
he?
1. does 2. doesn't 3. is 4. isn't
1. didn't he 2. did he 3. didn't they 4. did they
12. If you were rich, you would help the poor and the needy,
1. were 2. wouldn't 3. would 4. weren't
1. will 2. won't 3. can 4. aren't
1. you should 2. should you 3. you shouldn't 4. shouldn't you
1. needn't 2. don't 3. do 4. need
1. wasn't it 2. couldn't we 3. wasn't there 4. couldn't you
1. don't I 2. isn't he 3. doesn't he 4. hasn't he
1. doesn't 2. did 3. is 4. didn't
No, that was the first time.
1. hadn't 2. had 3. has 4. hasn't
20. Your
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1. did 2. didn't 3. does 4. doesn't
1. need 2. needn't 3. don't 4. do
1. did 2. didn't 3. does 4. doesn't
1. didn't 2. did 3. does4. doesn't
1. ought not 2. shouldn't3. oughtn't4. won't
1. can 2. can't 3. will 4. do
1. can 2. can't 3. will 4. do
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Causative Structure:
Have/Get + object + past participle
This structure can be used to talk about arranging for things to be done by other people. The past
participle has a passive meaning.
---I must have/get my watch repaired. (= I want my watch to be repaired.)
---If you don't get out of my house I'll have/get you arrested.
---They had/ got their apartment built.
---She had/ got her car washed.
Have + subject + infinitive without to
---I had a painter paint the room.
---He had a mechanic repair his car.
Get + subject + infinitive with to
---I got a painter to paint the room.a
---He got a mechanic to repair his car.
Tests:
1. got 2. let 3. had 4. saw
1. be examined 2. examine 3. examined 4. to examine
3. "Did you repair the tape-recorder yourself?"
1. to do 2.do 3. done 4. to have done
1. press 2. pressed 3. presses 4. to press
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1. to examine 2. examining 3. examined 4. examination
1. clean 2. cleans 3. to clean 4. cleaned
1. had, built 2. had, build 3. has, build 4. has, built
1. take 2. taken 3. taking 4. to take
1. To have cleaned it. 2. to clean it.
3. to be cleaning it 4. to have it cleaned
10. "What happened to George?"
1. break 2. broke 3. broken 4. breaking
11. A: "Can I see the photographs you took when you were on holiday?"
1. haven't had developed the film 2. haven't had the film develop
3. haven't had the film developed 4. haven't had the film to develop
1. builds 2. building 3. built 4. to build
1. must have it to clean 2. must get it clean
3. must have it cleaned 4. must get it to clean
1. repair 2. repaired 3. repairing 4. to repair
1. paint 2. to paint 3. painted 4. painting
1. shorten 2. shortened 3. be shortened 4. to have shortened
1. translate 2. translating 3. to translate 4. translated
18. Which item is wrong:
She is going to have her watch repair tomorrow.
a b c d
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19. An American literary legend, Tom Sawyer was able to get his friends paint the
A B
fence by pretending that the chore to be done was a special privilege.
C D
gotto
I took it to the cleaner's to have it cleaned.
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Phrases to Avoid Repetition:
(
---Ali studies physics. Babak studies physics.
---Ali studies physics and so does Babak.
---Andy went to the theater yesterday. Mary went to the theater yesterday.
---Andy went to the theater yesterday and so did Mary.
tooand
---Alice can speak French well. Mike can speak French well.
---Alice can speak French well and Mike can too.
---Bob has worked on the problem for 4 hours. Ben has worked on the problem for 4 hours.
---Bob has worked on the problem for 4 hours and Ben has too.
(
in Germany since 1992. haven't livedin Germany since 1992. I haven't livedThey ---
---They haven't lived in Germany since 1992 and neither have I.
get up at 7 every morning. neverget p at 7 every morning. We neverThey ---
.neither do weget up at 7 every morning and neverThey ---
soand
(and + neither/ nor(
either (and
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---She doesn't have a car. He doesn't have a car.
---She doesn't have a car, and he doesn't either.
---They seldom play football, we seldom play football.
---They seldom play football, and we don't either.
Tests:
1. neither 2. either 3. so 4. too
1. either 2. also 3. neither 4. too
1. also 2. either 3. neither 4. too
1. neither 2. so will 3. won't either 4. will too
1. so 2. too 3. also 4. nor
1. neither my father did 2. nor my father did
3. so my father 4. so did my father
7. "Fund- raising drive was a success."
1. did so 2. so did I 3. I did give too 4. I also did give
1. does either 2. doesn't either 3. did too 4. doesn't too
1. I am too 2. so do I 3. I am not either 4. neither do I
1. either 2. neither 3. so 4. too
1. nor will John be 2. nor will be John
3. nor John will be 4. John will be nor
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1. so does tea 2. neither does tea
3. tea does either 4. too does tea
1. my sister is too 2. my sister isn't either
3. neither isn't my sister 4. so is my sister
1. I do too 2. so do I 3. neither do I 4. I do either
1. we don't either 2. so we will
3. neither do we 4. neither will we
1. either 2. neither 3. so 4. too
1. so 2. too 3. either 4. neither
1. Jack does too 2. Jack doesn't either
3. neither is Jack 4. so does Jack
19. He's been prevented from watching TV before doing
1. have I 2. I have too 3. so am I 4. I'm not either
1. either 2. neither 3. too 4. so
21. She has an egg for breakfast, and s
1. has 2. does 3. is 4. had
1. do 2. does 3. did 4. had
23. We'd find a better place to
1. would 2. do 3. did 4. had
1. is 2. does 3. has 4. was
2
1. is 2. does 3. has 4. was
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Wish Clauses
---I wish I had a car.
---Mina wishes she hadn't bothered her mother.
---The teacher wishes the students would stop talking so much in the class.
If we have this structure, some points must be observed:
Subject + wish + subject…
I wish
---I wish I knew how to solve the problem.
---She wishes she had a car.
were
---I wish he were here now.
---I wish I were rich.
---Ali wishes he were young.
I wish
---I wish I had passed the exam last month.
I wish
)wouldcould
---I wish it would rain tomorrow.
wish
wish to
---I wish to have an expensive car.
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Tests:
1. had told 2. has told 3. told 4. were told
1. feels 2. felt 3. has felt 4. had felt
1. had 2. had had 3. have had 4. would have
1. showed 2. had shown 3. would show 4. has show
5. Last week a thief found the opportunity to steal my bicycle.
1. hasn't had 2. hadn't had 3. didn't have 4. couldn't have
6. My father wasn't rich enough to buy me a bicycle when I was a child.
I wish h
1. was 2. were 3. had been 4. has been
1. has lived 2. had lived 3. lived 4. lives
o buy the car the other day.
1. didn't borrow 2. wouldn't borrow
3. hasn't borrow 4. hadn't borrowed
1. told 2. had told 3. would tell 4. would have told
1. talk 2. could talk 3. would have talked 4. could have talked
some.
1. was 2. had been 3. were 4. have been
12. Ali: "Have you ever been to England?"
1. was 2. have been 3. were 4. have been
13. "Did you write the letter?"
"No, but
1. had written 2. wrote 3. have written 4. write
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1. had stayed 2. could stay 3. has stayed 4. stayed
15. Our neighbors are very friendly but I wis
1. were 2. was 3. would be 4. had been
1. understands 2. understood 3. understand 4. will understand
1. did 2. do 3. had 4. have
1. wish they were 2. wish they are
3. wish they have been 4. wished they had been
1. have 2. shall have 3. had 4. have had
1. didn't 2. doesn't 3. won't 4. wouldn't
21-
1. won't go 2. haven't gone 3. didn't go 4.don't go
22- A. "Oh! My God, I'm so sleepy."
1. leave 2. will leave 3. had left 4. could leave
23-
1. is 2. had been 3. were 4. will be
24-
1. wouldn't 2. won't 3. will not 4. would
25- "Can you play a musical instrument? "
1. can 2. could have 3. was able 4. could
26-
1. were 2. will be 3. is 4. had been
WISH CLAUSES
wish
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wishedthe other day
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Pronouns:
Pronouns take the place of nouns or noun phrases. Pronouns have three forms, as indicated:
---Although Seattle is damp, it is my favorite city.
NOMINATIVE: I, we, you, he, she, it, they
OBJECTIVE: Me, us. You, him, her, it, them
POSSESSIVE: Mine, ours, yours, his, hers, its, theirs
These pronouns appear in the following positions in sentences:
---I dislike smoking. (Nominative)
---Tell me the truth. (Objective)
---That book is mine. (Possessive)
---Is this beautiful plant yours?
---Yes, it's ours.
Reflexive pronouns add information to a sentence by pointing back to a noun or pronoun near
the beginning of the sentence. Reflexive pronouns end in -self or -selves.
---The forest itself is a shelter.
---I'd rather do it myself.
---Tricia bought herself a new car.
---All her friends enjoyed themselves riding in the beautiful car.
Demonstrative pronouns direct attention to a specific person, place, or thing. There are only
four demonstrative pronouns: this, that, these, those.
---This is my favorite movie.
---That was a fierce rain storm.
Relative pronouns introduce relative clauses and refer to some antecedent in the sentence.
The relative pronouns are who, whose, whom, which, and that.
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---Shakespeare is the writer who wrote Romeo and Juliet.
---I remember that day, which was my Dad's birthday.
---The sound of bells is a sound that I like to hear.
Subject Pronouns:
The subject pronoun is used
1. When it is used as the subject of a verb.
---They live south of the equator.
2. when the subjects of two clauses are compared.
---They are more protected against the cold than we (are).
3. after the verb to be.
---It is he who brings home the bacon.
4. after as and than.
---She is not as tired as I (am).
Object pronouns:
The object pronoun is used:
1. when it is the direct object of a verb.
---She gave him the book.
2. after propositions.
---I am afraid of her.
But
---I left after she came.
3. when the objects of two clauses are compared.
---It is easier for them than us.
Possessive Pronouns:
The possessive pronoun is used:
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1. to replace a possessive adjective and a noun.
---I do my job, and you do yours (your job).
2. after the verb to be.
---The car is mine.
3. after the proposition of when it means "one of many".
---He is a friend of mine.
---It is a habit of theirs.
4. to replace the second possessive adjective and noun when they are being compared.
---Their life seems more difficult than ours.
Reflexive pronouns:
The reflexive pronoun is used:
1. to emphasize the subject noun or pronoun it refers to and to emphasize the fact that the
subject did the action alone.
---I saw him myself.
---I myself saw him.
2. as the object of a verb when the subject and object are the same.
---They stand together to protect themselves from the cold.
3. as the object of preposition by when the subject did the action alone.
---The penguin chick is unable to get food by itself.
Don't confuse personal pronouns with contractions. Personal pronouns never have an apostrophe,
while contractions always have an apostrophe. Use this chart:
Pronoun Contraction
Yours you're (you are)
Its it's (it is)
Their they're (they are)
Whose who's (who is)
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Tests:
along with the new ones on the shelf
under the course title.
(A) its
(B) their
(C) a
(D) them
1. herself 2. himself 3. themselves 4. ourselves
1. him 2. them 3. himself 4. themselves
1. herself 2. himself 3. themselves 4. ourselves
1. herself 2. yourself 3. myself 4. himself
1. himself 2. ourselves 3. themselves 4. yourself
1. himself 2. ourselves 3. themselves 4. yourself
1. I 2. me 3. mine 4. myself
1. himself 2. themselves 3. yourself 4. yourselves
1. her 2. herself 3. hers 4. she
1. herself 2. yourself 3. yourselves 4. myself
1. her 2. hers 3. herself 4. of her
1. herself 2. themselves 3. himself 4. ourselves
1. herself 2. himself 3. themselves 4. ourselves
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1. herself 2. myself 3. yourself 4. himself
1. myself 2. ourselves 3. yourself 4.themselves
1. me 2. myself 3. yourself 4. yours
1. yourself 2. yourselves 3. himself 4. themselves
TOEFL:
Agreement: Subject and Possessive Pronouns
In all patterns, there must be agreement of subject pronoun and possessive pronouns that refer to
the subject.
Remember that it refers to a small baby. Avoid using it's instead of its as a possessive pronoun.
It's means it is.
---Those of us who are over fifty years old should get their blood pressure checked regularly.
---Those of us who are over fifty years old should get our blood pressure checked regularly.
---Our neighbors know that when they go on vacation, we will get its mail for them.
---Our neighbors know that when they go on vacation, we will get their mail for them.
---A mother who works outside of the home has to prepare for emergencies when she cannot be
there to take care of your sick child.
---A mother who works outside of the home has to prepare for emergencies when she cannot be
there to take care of her sick child.
---Wine tends to lose their flavor when it has not been properly sealed.
---Wine tends to lose its flavor when it has not been properly sealed.
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---Optional equipment on a car can add several hundred dollars to it's resale value when you trade
it in.
---Optional equipment on a car can add several hundred dollars to its resale value when you trade
it in.
(A) a children
(B) our children
(C) our child
(D) their childs
Although maple trees are among the most colorful varieties in the fall, they lose its leaves sooner
than oak trees.
One can only live without water for about ten days because almost 60 percent of their body is
water.
Those of us who are over fifty years old should get their blood pressure checked regularly.
Tests: Peterson's Success
1. A beaver uses its strong front teeth to cut down trees and peel off its bark.
A B C D
2. "Sprung" wood floors, used in top quality basketball courts and dance studios, they
A B C
are the safest surfaces for indoor exercise.
D
3. Ants cannot see red light, so it is possible to observe themselves in an artificial
A B
nest without disturbing their activities.
C D
4. The glaciers in Olympia National Park are unusual because they are found at
A B
altitudes lower than these at which glaciers are usually found.
C D
5. In his novels, Sinclair Lewis drew critical portraits of Americans who thought of
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A B C
them as model citizens.
D
6. Elizabeth Peabody, founder of the first American kindergarten, she helped gain
A B
acceptance of that institution as a regular part of public education.
C D
7. Almost bacteria have strong cell walls much like those of plants.
A B C D
8. Bees collect pollen, which furnishes protein for its diet.
A B C D
9. A small business often limits their operations to a single neighborhood or a group
A B C
of neighboring communities.
D
10. A caricature is a picture in which the subject's distinctive features they are deliberately
exaggerated. A B C
D
11. The principles used in air conditioning are basically the same as those used by the
A B C
human body to cool himself.
D
12. In that age of computers, it is difficult to imagine how tedious the work of
A B C
bookkeepers and clerks must have been in the past.
D
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Prepositions:
Here are the 30 most common prepositions:
as / at / against / around / among / across / after
about / by / between / before / behind / during
for / frorn / into / in / including / like / of / on / off / over/
to / towards / through / under / upon / with / without / within
TOEFL: Remember that besides (prep./adv) means in addition to. Beside (prep.) means near.
Besides + noun/adj
---Besides our dog, we have two cats and a canary.
---Besides white, we stock green and blue.
Beside + noun
---We sat beside the teacher.
---Beside Marge, three couples are invited.
---Besides Marge, three couples are invited.
---Beside Domino's, four other pizza places deliver.
---Besides Domino's, four other pizza places deliver.
---To lead a well-balanced life, one needs to have other interests beside studying.
---To lead a well-balanced life, one needs to have other interests besides studying.
---Beside taxi service, there isn't any public transportation in town.
---Besides taxi service, there isn't any public transportation in town.
---Janice has lots of friends beside her roommate.
---Janice has lots of friends besides her roommate.
---…………..a mayor, many city governments employ a city manager.
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(A) Beside
(B) Besides
(C) And
(D) Also
---To receive a degree from an American university, one must take many courses beside those in
one's major field.
Because of and Because
Remember that because of is a prepositional phrase. It introduces a noun or a noun phrase.
Because is a conjunction. It introduces a clause with a subject and a verb.
Avoid using because of before a subject and verb. Avoid using because before a noun which is
not followed by a verb.
---Classes will be canceled tomorrow because a national holiday.
---Classes will be canceled tomorrow because it is a national holiday.
or
---Classes will be canceled tomorrow because of a national holiday.
---She was absent because of her cold was worse.
---She was absent because her cold was worse.
or
---She was absent because of her cold.
---John's family is very happy because his being awarded a scholarship.
---John's family is very happy because he has been awarded a scholarship.
or
---John's family is very happy because of his being awarded a scholarship.
---She didn't buy it because of the price was too high.
---She didn't buy it because the price was too high.
or
---She didn't buy it because of the price.
---It was difficult to see the road clearly because the rain.
---It was difficult to see the road clearly because it was raining.
or
---It was difficult to see the road clearly because of the rain.
trees need more careful planning than any other crop does.
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(A) Because the time and area involved
(B) For the time and area involving
(C) Because of the time and area involved
(D) As a cause of the time and area involved
---Many roads and railroads were built in the 1880s because of the industrial cities needed a network
to link them with sources of supply.
Despite /In spite of:
---Despite his physical handicap, he has become a successful businessman.
---Jane will be admitted to the university in spite of her bad grades.
TOEFL:
Accede to
According to
Approve of
Ashamed of
Bored with
Capable of
Compete with
Composed of
Concerned with
Conscious of
Depend on
Effects on
Equal to
Except for
From now on
From time to time
Frown on
Glance at, through
Incapable of
In conflict
Inferior to
In the habit of
In the near future
Knowledge of
Near; next to
Of the opinion
On top of
Opposite
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Prior to
Regard to
Related to
Respect for
Responsible for
Similar to
Since
Until
With regard to
A
Act on ability to do according to
Account for ask for as far as is known
At least at one time a cluster of
A great deal a number of a minimum of
B
Bare of belong to begin doing
Begin to benefit from be able to
Be adopted to be associated with be appreciated for
Be based on be beneficial to be capable of
Be characterized by be composed of be concerned with
Be considered to be be credited with doing be dedicated to doing
Be depend on be derived from be destined to
Be divided into be engaged in be equal to
Be expose to be familiar with be famous for
Be filled with be forced to do be found in
Be full of be inclined to be involved in
Be known as be known for be made from
Be made of be noted for be obtained from
Be originated from be rich in be related to
Be resistant to be subjected to be supposed to
Be similar to be suited for be typical of
Be valuable for be viewed as be woven from
Break away from bring about
By means of
C
coincide with
Consist of contrary to contribute to
Comment on come into contact with
Come from come into contract with
Carry out
D
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Date back to deal with dedicate to doing
Demand for depend on deter sb. from doing
Devote to differ from
Do no harm to do/deal with due to + n.
E
Excel in/at
F
Feed on focus attention on
G
Give off give way to give up doing
Grant sb. sth.
I
Interest in interfere with in addition to
In connection with in danger of in history
In nature in honor of in comparison with
In relation to in response to in spite of
In the future
j
L
Lead to live in look for
M
Make up meet one's goal mingle with
N
Native to no more than not more than
O
On account of = because of
P
Participate in pay for permit sb. to do
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R
rank first among refer to
ely on regardless of rest on
result from run for
S
Settle down sever as
specialize in doing
ing spread to start doing
Start to strive to substitute for
Succeed in doing
T
Take place take charge of tend to
think of
---The ratio of men to women at the conference was ten to one/10:1.
Together with to a great extent transform...into..
U
Use up
V
Vary in
W
Warn sb. of sth.
---Excepting for the Gulf Coast region, most of the nation will have very pleasant weather tonight
and tomorrow.
---Except for the Gulf Coast region, most of the nation will have very pleasant weather tonight and
tomorrow.
---In recent years, educators have become more concerned of bilingualism.
---In recent years, educators have become more concerned with bilingualism.
---He always does what he pleases, without regard of the rules and regulations.
---He always does what he pleases, without regard to the rules and regulations.
---The bank opposite over the university isn't open on Saturdays.
---The bank opposite the university isn't open on Saturdays.
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---The customs of other countries are not inferior with those of our own country.
---The customs of other countries are not inferior to those of our own country.
Tests: insulin, it was not possible to treat diabetes.
(A) Prior to the
(B) Prior
(C) The prior
(D) To prior
The price of gold depends in several factors, including supply and demand in relation to the value of
the dollar.
At
In
On
PRECISE TIME
MONTHS, YEARS, CENTURIES and LONG
PERIODS
DAYS and DATES
at 3 o'clock
in May
on Sunday
at 10.30am
in summer
on Tuesdays
at noon
in the summer
on 6 March
at dinnertime
in 1990
on 25 Dec. 2010
at bedtime
in the 1990s
on Christmas Day
at sunrise
in the next century
on Independence Day
at sunset
in the Ice Age
on my birthday
at the moment
in the past/future
on New Year's Eve
Look at these examples:
---I have a meeting at 9 am.
---The shop closes at midnight.
---Jane went home at lunchtime.
---In England, it often snows in December.
---Do you think we will go to Jupiter in the future?
---There should be a lot of progress in the next century.
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---Do you work on Mondays?
---Her birthday is on 20 November.
---Where will you be on New Year's Day?
Notice the use of the preposition of time at in the following standard expressions:
Expression
Example
at night
The stars shine at night.
at the weekend
I don't usually work at the weekend.
at Christmas/Easter
I stay with my family at Christmas.
at the same time
We finished the test at the same time.
at present
He's not home at present. Try later.
Notice the use of the prepositions of time in and on in these common expressions:
In
On
in the morning
on Tuesday morning
in the mornings
on Saturday mornings
in the afternoon(s)
on Sunday afternoons
in the evening(s)
on Monday evening
When we say last, next, every, this we do not also use at, in, on.
---I went to London last June. (not in last June)
---He's coming back next Tuesday. (not on next Tuesday)
---I go home every Easter. (not at every Easter)
---We'll call you this evening. (not in this evening)
AT
-
at midnight, at night, at 4:30, at six
-
at sixteen = at the age of sixteen
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at the new year, at Christmas
at the moment, at the end, at last, at war, at first
-
---The plane stops for an hour at Frankfurt .
---It's very hot at the center of the Earth.
---He is a student at Oxford.
at a party, at a lecture, at a concert
at
---Are you still at the same address ?
at
---She lives at 73 Albert street.
IN
in the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening.
in July, in May, in March
---She came in a taxi.
in 2 weeks, in 3 hours, in 2 months
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in time, in the past time, in the beginning
---I don't think he is in his office.
---Let's go for a walk in the woods.
ON
on Sunday, on Monday, on
on July 10
th
, on Christmas day.
---She lives on Bahar street.
---The book is on the table.
---There is a picture on the wall.
---His house is on the way form Azadi to Enghlab.
---There is no room on the bus . Let's get off.
---He is arriving on the 3.15 train .
---We are booked on flight 604 .
---It took five days to cross the Atlantic on the Queen Elizabeth.
---The map is on page 32.
---I opened the book at page 32.
in/ at church . at home/ work
in the sky. in the rain
in/ at school/ college in a picture
on farm in bed/ hospital/ prison
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BY
---He was standing by the fire.
By the end of the meal ,everybody was drunk.
)
---I killed the spider by hitting.
---I got where I am by hard work.
bywith with
---I killed the spider with a shoe.
on
by
---The are coming on bus.
---They went to Tabriz by bus
for :
---My father was in hospital for six weeks.
between, among
among
---She was crying among the jungle.
between:
---Andy usually sits between Sara and Mary.
above, over
---The water came up above / over our knees.
---Can you see the helicopter above / over the place.
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above
---We have got a little house above the lake. (not over the lake )
over
---He put on a coat over his pajamas.
over / across
---The plane was flying over/ across Denmark.
above
---The temperature is above zero.
---The summit of Everest is about 8000 meters above the sea level.
over
---You have to be over 18 to see this film.
---The police said she was driving at over 110 mph.
---There were over 100,000 people at the festival.
:to
---He went to Mashhad.
under:
---There is a book under the table.
provide
Provide something for somebody
Provide somebody with something
---The school provides different books for the students.
---The school provides the students with different books.
Tests:
1. in 2. on 3. at 4. to
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1. in, at 2. at, in 3. on, in 4. at, on
1. into 2. in 3. among 4. through
1. in 2. on 3. at 4. to
1. in 2. at 3. during 4. on
1. at 2. in 3. on
1. over 2. with 3. by 4. at
1. before 2. during 3. since 4. for
1. for, in 2. at, on 3. after, at 4. for, at
10. Which of the following sentences is correct?
1. the pencil in the table is red new
2. the red pencil is new on the bench
3. the red pencil on the desk is new
4. the pencil is red new under the desk
1. the photo us 2. us to the photo
3. the photo to us 4. to us the photo
1. by a 2. with 3. with a 4. by
riend.
1. of 2. for 3. from 4. to
1. over 2. across 3. above 4. on
1. some questions to them 2. them some questions
3. some questions form them 4. some questions of them
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1. down it for me 2. it for me down
3. it down for me 4. down for me it
17. The classes at my university are different
1. than that at 2. from those at 3. from 4. than those at
1. to 2. on 3. with 4. over
n this weather.
1. off 2. on 3. up 4. out
1. by 2. for 3. from 4. to
1. at 2. on 3. up 4. out
22. There'll be a TV tonight.
1. at 2. in 3. on 4. over
1. from 2. from out 3. out 4. of
1. explain it to me 2. explain me it
3. explain it for me 4. explain for me it
1. to 2. of 3. at 4. in
1. with 2. for 3. on 4. upon
27. The teacher explaine
1. at 2. for 3. to 4. with
1. after 2. for 3. on 4. out
1. in 2. at 3. on 4. of
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1. in, at, in 2. on, at, in 3. at, in, on 4. in, in, at
1968.
1. on 2. in 3. of 4. from
32. The event took place
1. in 2. at 3. on 4. to
1. up 2. away 3. on 4. at
1. on, on 2. at, on 3. on, at 4. at, in
1. during 2. while 3. for 4. when
1. until 2. while 3. after 4. during
37. Mr. Alavi l
1. still 2. yet 3. already 4. anymore
43. Imagine yourself.......... some clear stream.......... mountains in the background.
1. in/back 2. in/in 3. beside/with 4. besides/with
44. The largest dictionaries include the histories of words.......... the meanings.
1. due to 2. besides 3. although 4. so
t then fell in 1996.
1. raised 2. rose 3. have risen 4. have raised
46. Before the vaccination campaign of the ministry was introduced, the infant mortality rate
1. risen 2. raised 3 rose 4. raise
47. ......... many significant developments overseas last year was an agreement permitting English and
Spanish companies to manufacture computers in the Netherlands.
1. In spite of 2. Including 3. Among 4. Between
1. between 2. among 3. in 4. on
49. The original oil painting looks ............. the reproduction.
1. alike 2. like 3. likes 4. similar
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50.
1. similar to 2. similar 3. alike 4. likes
51. Choose the incorrect word.
---When two products are basically the same as, advertising can influence the public's choice.
a b c d
52. Choose the correct sentence.
1. The choice is between a vanilla, chocolate, and strawberry ice cream cone.
2. Profits are divided among the footballers and the company.
3. The property was divided equally among his son and daughter.
4. The work is distributed among the secretary and the receptionist.
1. help for the poor 2. the poor with help
3. the help with the poor 4. 1 & 2
1
Tests: Peterson's Success
flowering plant is covered by a dense protective coat.
(A) On each
(B) Each
(C) Each of
(D) That each
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(A) a device is used
(B) that a device
(C) with a device
(D) the use of a device
3. Water polo is a game in which is played in the water by two teams, each with seven players.
A B C D
were some 300 bicycle factories in the United States which produced over
a million bicycles.
(A) In
(B) Because in
(C) It was in
(D) That in
(A) though the
(B) in the
(C) the
(D) of the
6. Many of radio stations began broadcasting baseball games during the 1920s.
A B C D
masses is from west to east.
(A) Across
(B) To cross
(C) They cross
(D) It's across
8. The economy of Maine is based to a great extent in its forests, which cover 80
A B C
percent of its surface area.
D
9. The removal of waste materials is essential to all forms of live.
A B C D
(A) with age
(B) it gets older
(C) as older
(D) by age
11. John Diefenbeiker, Prime Minister of Canada during 1957 to 1963, is given much
A B C
of the credit for the adoption of the Canadian Bill of Rights.
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D
12. A substance that is harmless to a person who has no allergies can cause mild to serious
reactions in a
(A) has
(B) which having
(C) can have
(D) with
13. The first stage on the manufacturing of all types of clothing is the cutting of the
material. A B C D
14. All of the wheat grown throughout the world belongs one of fourteen species.
A B C D
15. In 1886 a number of national unions formed the American Federation of Labor
(A) Samuel Gompers was its leader
(B) under the leadership of Samuel Gompers
(C) which, under Samuel Gompers' leadership
(D) Samuel Gompers led it
instruments.
(A) are examples
(B) for example
(C) are examples of
(D) as examples of
17. There are approximately 600 different species of trees native of the continental
A B C D
United States.
but a necessity.
(A) Where some
(B) In some
(C) Some
(D) There are some
19. Waterwheels, which appeared on the fourth century B.C., were probably the first
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A B C
machines not powered by humans or animals.
D
20. Since centuries, Southwestern Indian tribes have valued turquoise and have used
A B C
it in jewelry.
D
