A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations

PortionsofthisbookhavebeenadaptedfromTheCraftofResearch,3rdedition,byWayneC.Booth,GregoryC.Colomb,andJosephM.Williams, 1995,2003,

2008byTheUniversityofChicago;andTheChicagoManualofStyle,16thedition, 2010byTheUniversityofChicago.

TheUniversityofChicagoPress,Chicago60637

TheUniversityofChicagoPress,Ltd.,London

2007,2013byTheUniversityofChicago

Allrightsreserved.Published2013.

PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica

2221201918171615141312345

ISBN-13:978-0-226-81637-1(cloth)

ISBN-13:978-0-226-81638-8(paper)

ISBN-13:978-0-226-81639-5(e-book)

LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData

Turabian,KateL.

Amanualforwritersofresearchpapers,theses,anddissertations:ChicagoStyleforstudentsandresearchers/KateL.Turabian;revisedbyWayneC.Booth,

GregoryG.Colomb,JosephM.Williams,andtheUniversityofChicagoPresseditorialstaff. Eighthedition.

pagescm. (Chicagoguidestowriting,editing,andpublishing)

2008byTheUniversityofChicago;andTheChicagoManualofStyle,16thedition, 2010byTheUniversityofChicago titlepageverso.

Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.

ISBN978-0-226-81637-1(cloth:alkalinepaper) ISBN978-0-226-81638-8(paperback:alkalinepaper) ISBN978-0-226-81639-5(e-book)I.Dissertations,

Academic-Handbooks,manuals,etc.2.Academicwriting-Handbooks,manuals,etc.I.Booth,WayneC.II.Colomb,GregoryG.III.Williams,JosephM.IV.Title.V.

Series:Chicagoguidestowriting,editing,andpublishing.

LB2369.TS2013

808.06 6378 dc23

2012036981

ThispapermeetstherequirementsofANSI/NISOZ39.48-1992(PermanenceofPaper).

AManualforWritersofResearchPapers,Theses,and

Dissertations

ChicagoStyleforStudentsandResearchers

KateL.Turabian

8thEdition

Revisedby

WayneC.Booth,GregoryG.Colomb,JosephM.Williams,andtheUniversityofChicagoPressEditorialStaff

TheUniversityofChicagoPress

ChicagoandLondon

OnWriting,Editing,andPublishing

JacquesBarzun

TellingAboutSociety

HowardS.Becker

TricksoftheTrade

HowardS.Becker

WritingforSocialScientists

HowardS.Becker

WhatEditorsWant

PhilippaJ.BensonandSusanC.Silver

Permissions,ASurvivalGuide

SusanM.Bielstein

TheCraftofTranslation

JohnBiguenetandRainerSchulte,editors

TheCraftofResearch

WayneC.Booth,GregoryG.Colomb,andJosephM.Williams

TheDramaticWriterʼsCompanion

WillDunne

GlossaryofTypesettingTerms

RichardEckersley,RichardAngstadt,CharlesM.Ellerston,RichardHendel,NaomiB.Pascal,andAnitaWalkerScott

WritingEthnographicFieldnotes

RobertM.Emerson,RachelI.Fretz,andLindaL.Shaw

LegalWritinginPlainEnglish

BryanA.Garner

FromDissertationtoBook

WilliamGermano

GettingItPublished

WilliamGermano

TheCraftofScientificCommunication

JosephE.HarmonandAlanG.Gross

Storycraft

JackHart

APoetʼsGuidetoPoetry

MaryKinzie

TheChicagoGuidetoCollaborativeEthnography

LukeEricLassiter

HowtoWriteaBAThesis

CharlesLipson

CiteRight

CharlesLipson

TheChicagoGuidetoWritingaboutMultivariateAnalysis

JaneE.Miller

TheChicagoGuidetoWritingaboutNumbers

JaneE.Miller

MappingItOut

MarkMonmonier

TheChicagoGuidetoCommunicatingScience

ScottL.Montgomery

IndexingBooks

NancyC.Mulvany

DevelopmentalEditing

ScottNorton

GettingintoPrint

WalterW.Powell

TheSubversiveCopyEditor

CarolFisherSaller

AManualforWritersofResearchPapers,Theses,andDissertations

KateL.Turabian

StudentʼsGuideforWritingCollegePapers

KateL.Turabian

TalesoftheField

JohnVanMaanen

Style

JosephM.Williams

AHandbookofBiologicalIllustration

FrancesW.Zweifel

Contents

ANotetoStudents

Preface
PartI ResearchandWriting:FromPlanningtoProduction

WayneC.Booth,GregoryG.Colomb,andJosephM.Williams
OverviewofPartI
1 WhatResearchIsandHowResearchersThinkaboutIt

1.1HowResearchersThinkaboutTheirAims

1.2ThreeKindsofQuestionsThatResearchersAsk
2 MovingfromaTopictoaQuestiontoaWorkingHypothesis

2.1FindaQuestioninYourTopic

2.2ProposeSomeWorkingAnswers

2.3BuildaStoryboardtoPlanandGuideYourWork

2.4OrganizeaWritingSupportGroup
3 FindingUsefulSources

3.1UnderstandtheKindsofSourcesReadersExpectYoutoUse

3.2RecordYourSourcesFully,Accurately,andAppropriately

3.3SearchforSourcesSystematically

3.4EvaluateSourcesforRelevanceandReliability

3.5LookbeyondtheUsualKindsofReferences
4 EngagingSources

4.1ReadGenerouslytoUnderstand,ThenCriticallytoEngageandEvaluate

4.2TakeNotesSystematically

4.3TakeUsefulNotes

4.4WriteasYouRead

4.5ReviewYourProgress

4.6ManageMomentsofNormalPanic
5 PlanningYourArgument

5.1WhataResearchArgumentIsandIsNot

5.2BuildYourArgumentaroundAnswerstoReaders Questions

5.3TurnYourWorkingHypothesisintoaClaim

5.4AssembletheElementsofYourArgument

5.5DistinguishArgumentsBasedonEvidencefromArgumentsBasedonWarrants

5.6AssembleanArgument
6 PlanningaFirstDraft

6.1AvoidUnhelpfulPlans

6.2CreateaPlanThatMeetsYourReaders Needs

6.3FileAwayLeftovers
7 DraftingYourReport

7.1DraftintheWayThatFeelsMostComfortable

7.2DevelopProductiveDraftingHabits

7.3UseYourKeyTermstoKeepYourselfonTrack

7.4Quote,Paraphrase,andSummarizeAppropriately

7.5IntegrateQuotationsintoYourText

7.6UseFootnotesandEndnotesJudiciously
6


7.7InterpretComplexorDetailedEvidenceBeforeYouOfferIt

7.8BeOpentoSurprises

7.9GuardagainstInadvertentPlagiarism

7.10GuardagainstInappropriateAssistance

7.11WorkThroughChronicProcrastinationandWriter sBlock
8 PresentingEvidenceinTablesandFigures

8.1ChooseVerbalorVisualRepresentations

8.2ChoosetheMostEffectiveGraphic

8.3DesignTablesandFigures

8.4CommunicateDataEthically
9 RevisingYourDraft

9.1CheckforBlindSpotsinYourArgument

9.2CheckYourIntroduction,Conclusion,andClaim

9.3MakeSuretheBodyofYourReportIsCoherent

9.4CheckYourParagraphs

9.5LetYourDraftCool,ThenParaphraseIt
10 WritingYourFinalIntroductionandConclusion

10.1DraftYourFinalIntroduction

10.2DraftYourFinalConclusion

10.3WriteYourTitleLast
11 RevisingSentences

11.1FocusontheFirstSevenorEightWordsofaSentence

11.2DiagnoseWhatYouRead

11.3ChoosetheRightWord

11.4PolishItUp

11.5GiveItUpandPrintItOut
12 LearningfromYourReturnedPaper

12.1FindGeneralPrinciplesinSpecificComments

12.2TalktoYourInstructor
13 PresentingResearchinAlternativeForums

13.1PlanYourOralPresentation

13.2DesignYourPresentationtoBeListenedTo

13.3PlanYourPosterPresentation

13.4PlanYourConferenceProposal
14 OntheSpiritofResearch
PartII SourceCitation
15 GeneralIntroductiontoCitationPractices

15.1ReasonsforCitingYourSources

15.2TheRequirementsofCitation

15.3TwoCitationStyles

15.4ElectronicSources

15.5PreparationofCitations

15.6CitationManagementSoftware
16 Notes-BibliographyStyle:TheBasicForm

16.1BasicPatterns

16.2Bibliographies

16.3Notes
7


16.4ShortFormsforNotes
17 Notes-BibliographyStyle:CitingSpecificTypesofSources

17.1Books

17.2JournalArticles

17.3MagazineArticles

17.4NewspaperArticles

17.5AdditionalTypesofPublishedSources

17.6UnpublishedSources

17.7Websites,Blogs,SocialNetworks,andDiscussionGroups

17.8SourcesintheVisualandPerformingArts

17.9PublicDocuments

17.10OneSourceQuotedinAnother
18 Author-DateStyle:TheBasicForm

18.1BasicPatterns

18.2ReferenceLists

18.3ParentheticalCitations
19 Author-DateStyle:CitingSpecificTypesofSources

19.1Books

19.2JournalArticles

19.3MagazineArticles

19.4NewspaperArticles

19.5AdditionalTypesofPublishedSources

19.6UnpublishedSources

19.7Websites,Blogs,SocialNetworks,andDiscussionGroups

19.8SourcesintheVisualandPerformingArts

19.9PublicDocuments

19.10OneSourceQuotedinAnother
PartIII Style
20 Spelling

20.1Plurals

20.2Possessives

20.3CompoundsandWordsFormedwithPrefixes

20.4LineBreaks
21 Punctuation

21.1Periods

21.2Commas

21.3Semicolons

21.4Colons

21.5QuestionMarks

21.6ExclamationPoints

21.7HyphensandDashes

21.8ParenthesesandBrackets

21.9Slashes

21.10QuotationMarks

21.11Apostrophes

21.12MultiplePunctuationMarks
22 Names,SpecialTerms,andTitlesofWorks

22.1Names
8


22.2SpecialTerms

22.3TitlesofWorks
23 Numbers

23.1WordsorNumerals?

23.2PluralsandPunctuation

23.3DateSystems

23.4NumbersUsedoutsidetheText
24 Abbreviations

24.1GeneralPrinciples

24.2NamesandTitles

24.3GeographicalTerms

24.4TimeandDates

24.5UnitsofMeasure

24.6TheBibleandOtherSacredWorks

24.7AbbreviationsinCitationsandOtherScholarlyContexts
25 Quotations

25.1QuotingAccuratelyandAvoidingPlagiarism

25.2IncorporatingQuotationsintoYourText

25.3ModifyingQuotations
26 TablesandFigures

26.1GeneralIssues

26.2Tables

26.3Figures
 Appendix:PaperFormatandSubmission

A.1GeneralFormatRequirements

A.2FormatRequirementsforSpecificElements

A.3FilePreparationandSubmissionRequirements

Bibliography

Authors

Index
9

ANotetoStudents

AManualforWritersofResearchPapers,Theses,andDissertationshashelpedgenerationsofstudentssuccessfullyresearch,write,

andsubmitpapersinvirtuallyallacademicdisciplines.Mostcommonlyknownas Turabian, inhonoroftheoriginalauthor,this

bookistheauthoritativestudentresourceon Chicagostyle.

PartIcoverseverystepoftheresearchandwritingprocessandprovidespracticaladvicetohelpyouformulatetheright

questions,readcritically,andbuildarguments.Italsoshowsyouhowtodraftandreviseyourpaperstostrengthenbothyour

argumentsandyourwriting.Part2offersacomprehensiveguidetoChicago stwomethodsofsourcecitation,beginningwithhelpful

informationongeneralcitationpracticesinchapter15.Inthehumanitiesandmostsocialsciences,youwilllikelyusethenotes-

bibliographystyledetailedinchapters16and17;inthenaturalandphysicalsciencesandsomesocialsciences,youwillmorelikely

usetheauthor-date(alsocalledparentheticalcitations-referencelist)styledescribedinchapters18and19.Part3coversChicago s

recommendededitorialstyle,whichwillhelpyoubringconsistencytoyourwritinginmatterssuchaspunctuation,capitalization,

andabbreviations;thissectionalsoincludesguidanceonincorporatingquotationsintoyourwritingandonproperlypresenting

tablesandfigures.Theappendixpresentsformattingandsubmissionrequirementsforthesesanddissertationsthatmanyacademic

institutionsuseasamodel,butbesuretofollowanylocalguidelinesprovidedbyyourinstitution.

Preface

Studentswritingresearchpapers,theses,anddissertationsintoday scollegesanduniversitiesinhabitaworldfilledwithelectronic

technologiesthatwereunimaginedin1937 theyeardissertationsecretaryKateL.Turabianfirstassembledabookletofguidelines

forstudentwritersattheUniversityofChicago.Theavailabilityofword-processingsoftwareandnewdigitalsourceshaschangedthe

waystudentsconductresearchandwriteuptheresults.Butthesetechnologieshavenotalteredthebasictaskofthestudentwriter:

doingwell-designedresearchandpresentingitclearlyandaccurately,whilefollowingacceptedacademicstandardsforcitation,

style,andformat.

Turabian s1937bookletreflectedguidelinesfoundinAManualofStyle,tenthedition analreadyclassicresourceforwriters

andeditorspublishedbytheUniversityofChicagoPress.ThePressbegandistributingTurabian sbookletin1947andfirstpublished

theworkinbookformin1955,underthetitleAManualforWritersofTermPapers,Theses,andDissertations.Turabianrevisedthe

worktwicemore,updatingittomeetstudents needsandtoreflectthelatestrecommendationsoftheManualofStyle.Overtime,

Turabian sbookhasbecomeastandardreferenceforstudentsofalllevelsatuniversitiesandcollegesacrossthecountry.Turabian

diedin1987atageninety-four,afewmonthsafterpublicationofthefifthedition.Forthatedition,aswellasthesixth(1996)and

seventh(2007),membersofthePresseditorialstaffcarriedouttherevisions.Fortheseventhedition,WayneC.Booth,GregoryG.

Colomb,andJosephM.WilliamsexpandedthefocusofthebookbyaddingextensivenewmaterialadaptedfromtheirbookThe

CraftofResearch,nowinitsthirdedition(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2008).Amongthenewtopicscoveredwerethe

natureofresearch,findingandengagingsources,takingnotes,developinganargument,draftingandrevising,andpresenting

evidenceintablesandfigures.

Forthisneweighthedition,partIoffersupdatedcoverageonfindingandusingthemanytypesofdigitalsourcesthathave

becomeavailableinrecentyears.Part2offersacomprehensiveguidetothetwoChicagostylesofsourcecitation thenotes-

bibliographyformatusedwidelyinthehumanitiesandmostsocialsciencesandtheauthor-dateformatfavoredinmanyofthe

sciencesandsomesocialsciences.Inadditiontomakingthetwocitationsystemsmoreconsistentstylistically,thiseditionoffers

manyexamplesforcitingnewtypesofdigitalsourcesnotpreviouslycovered.Part3addressesmattersofspelling,punctuation,

abbreviation,andtreatmentofnumbers,names,specialterms,andtitlesofworks.Thefinaltwochaptersinthissectiontreatthe

mechanicsofusingquotationsandgraphics(tablesandfigures),topicsthatarediscussedfromarhetoricalperspectiveinpartI.

Bothparts2and3havebeenupdatedforthiseditioninaccordancewiththesixteentheditionofTheChicagoManualofStyle

(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2010),orCMOS.TherecommendationsinthismanualinsomeinstancesdivergefromCMOS

insmallways,tobettersuittherequirementsofacademicpapersasopposedtopublishedworks.

Theappendixpresentsguidelinesforpaperformatandsubmissionthathavebecometheprimaryauthorityfordissertation

officesthroughouttheUnitedStates.Asrevised,theseguidelinesnowreflecttheincreasingtrendtowardelectronicsubmissionof

papers.ThisappendixisintendedprimarilyforstudentswritingPhDdissertationsandmaster sandundergraduatetheses,butthe

sectionsonformatrequirementsandelectronicfilepreparationwillalsoaidthosewritingclasspapers.Anextensivebibliography,

organizedbysubjectarea,listscurrentsourcesforresearchandstyleissuesspecifictovariousdisciplines.

Theguidelinesinthismanualofferpracticalsolutionstoawiderangeofissuesencounteredbystudentwriters,buttheymaybe

supplemented orevenoverruled bytheconventionsofspecificdisciplinesorthepreferencesofparticularinstitutionsor

departments.Allofthechaptersonstyleandformatremindstudentstoreviewtherequirementsoftheiruniversity,department,or

instructor,whichtakeprecedenceovertheguidelinespresentedhere.

Updatingabookthathasbeenusedbymillionsofstudentsoverseventy-fiveyearsisnosmalltask,andmanypeopleparticipated

inpreparingtheeighthedition.GregColombinitiatedtherevision,andhisdeathduringthelatterstagesoftheeffortwasagreat

loss.Overtheyears,manyPressstaffmemberscametoknowGregwellandtotreasuretheirrelationshipwithhim.Hewillbe

missed.GregwastheremainingmemberoftheremarkabletrioofauthorsthatalsoincludedWayneBoothandJoeWilliams.

Althoughtheyaregonefromus,theirworkwillcontinuetocarrythefirm,encouragingguidancethathasbeenthehallmarkof

Turabian smanual.Theonevoicethattheysoartfullymeldedoutoftheirthreewillalwaysanimatethiswork.

JonD Errico,Greg slongtimefriendandcolleagueattheUniversityofVirginia,completedtheworkonpartIthatGreghad

begunforthisedition.RussellDavidHarper,theprincipalreviserofthesixteentheditionofTheChicagoManualofStyle,produced

theinitialdraftsoftheremainingmanuscript.WithinthePress,theprojectwasdeveloped,inpartandinwhole,undertheguidance

ofJennyGavacs,MaryE.Laur,DavidMorrow,andPaulSchellinger.

Theappendixbenefitedfromthegenerousadviceofexpertsfromarangeofcolleges,universities,andinstitutions:Matthew

BootsofIndianaUniversity;GinnyBorstoftheUniversityofColorado Boulder;PhilippaCarteroftheUniversityofPittsburgh;

MelissaGomisoftheUniversityofMichigan;PeggyHarrelloftheUniversityofSouthernIndiana;ElenaHsuoftheUniversityof

Wisconsin Madison;JerettLemonttoftheUniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley;GailMacMillanoftheVirginiaPolytechnicInstitute

andStateUniversity;AustinMcleanofProQuest/UMI;ColleenMullarkeyoftheUniversityofChicago;BobPenmanofthe

UniversityofTexasatAustin;LauraRymanofJamesMadisonUniversity;TimWatsonoftheOhioStateUniversity;andMark

ZulaufoftheUniversityofIllinoisatUrbana-Champaign.AteamoflibrariansfromtheRegensteinLibraryattheUniversityof

Chicagoprovidedguidancefortheextensivebibliography:ScottLandvatter,CatherineMardikes,NancySpiegel,SarahG.Wenzel,

andChristopherWinters.

TurningthemanuscriptintoabookrequiredtheeffortsofanotherteamatthePress.RuthGoringeditedthemanuscript,Rosina

Busseproofreadthepages,andMaryE.Laurpreparedtheindex.MichaelBrehmprovidedthedesign,whileDavidO Connor

supervisedtheproduction.LizFischer,EllenGibson,andCarolKasperbroughtthefinalproducttomarket.

TheUniversityofChicagoPressEditorialStaff

PartI

 

Research

and

Writing

FromPlanning

toProduction

WayneC.Booth,

GregoryG.Colomb,

&JosephM.Williams



OverviewofPartI

Weknowhowchallengedyoucanfeelwhenyoustartasubstantialresearchproject,whetherit saPhDdissertation,aBAor

master sthesis,orjustalongclasspaper.Butyoucanhandleanyprojectifyoubreakitintoitsparts,thenworkonthemonestepat

atime.Thispartshowsyouhowtodothat.

Wefirstdiscusstheaimsofresearchandwhatreaderswillexpectofanyresearchreport.Thenwefocusonhowtofindaresearch

questionwhoseanswerisworthyourtimeandyourreaders attention;howtofindanduseinformationfromsourcestobackup

youranswer;andthenhowtoplan,draft,andreviseyourreportsoyourreaderswillseethatyouranswerisbasedonsound

reasoningandreliableevidence.

Severalthemesrunthroughthispart.

■Youcan tplungeintoaprojectblindly;youmustplanit,thenkeepthewholeprocessinmindasyoutakeeachstep.Sothinkbig,

butbreaktheprocessdownintosmallgoalsthatyoucanmeetoneatatime.

■Yourbestresearchwillbeginwithaquestionthatyouwanttoanswer.Butyoumustthenimaginereadersaskingaquestionof

theirown:Sowhatifyoudon tanswerit?WhyshouldIcare?

■Fromtheoutset,youshouldtrytowriteeveryday,notjusttotakenotesonyoursourcesbuttoclarifywhatyouthinkofthem.You

shouldalsowritedownyourowndevelopingideastogetthemoutofthecozywarmthofyourheadintothecoldlightofday,

whereyoucanseeiftheystillmakesense.Youprobablywon tusemuchofthiswritinginyourfinaldraft,butitisessential

preparationforit.

■Nomatterhowcarefullyyoudoyourresearch,readerswilljudgeitbyhowwellyoureportit,soyoumustknowwhattheywilllook

forinaclearlywrittenreportthatearnstheirrespect.

Ifyou reanadvancedresearcher,skimchapters1 4.Youwillseetheremuchthat sfamiliar;butifyou realsoteaching,itmay

helpyouexplainwhatyouknowtoyourstudentsmoreeffectively.Manyexperiencedresearchersreportthatchapters5 12have

helpedthemnotonlytoexplaintoothershowtoconductresearchandreportit,butalsotodraftandrevisetheirownreportsmore

quicklyandeffectively.

Ifyou rejuststartingyourcareerinresearch,you llfindeverychapterofpart1useful.Skimitallforanoverviewoftheprocess;

thenasyouworkthroughyourproject,rereadchaptersrelevanttoyourimmediatetask.

Youmayfeelthatthestepsdescribedherearetoomanytoremember,butyoucanmanagethemifyoutakethemoneatatime,

andasyoudomoreresearch,they llbecomehabitsofmind.Don tthink,however,thatyoumustfollowthesestepsinexactlythe

orderwepresentthem.Researchersregularlythinkaheadtofuturestepsastheyworkthroughearlieronesandrevisitearliersteps

astheydealwithalaterone.(Thatexplainswhywesooftenreferyouaheadtoanticipatealaterstageintheprocessandbackto

revisitanearlierone.)Andeventhemostsystematicresearcherhasunexpectedinsightsthatsendheroffinanewdirection.Work

fromaplan,butbereadytodepartfromit,eventodiscarditforanewone.

Ifyou reaverynewresearcher,youmayalsothinkthatsomematterswediscussarebeyondyourimmediateneeds.Weknow

thataten-pageclasspaperdiffersfromaPhDdissertation.Butbothrequireakindofthinkingthateventhenewestresearchercan

startpracticing.Youbeginyourjourneytowardfullcompetencewhenyounotonlyknowwhatliesaheadbutcanalsostartpracticing

theskillsthatexperiencedresearchersbegantolearnwhentheywerewhereyouarenow.

Nobookcanprepareyouforeveryaspectofeveryresearchproject.Andthisonewon thelpyouwiththespecificmethodologies

infieldssuchaspsychology,economics,andphilosophy,muchlessphysics,chemistry,andbiology.Nordoesittellyouhowtoadapt

whatyoulearnaboutacademicresearchtobusinessorprofessionalsettings.

Butitdoesprovideanoverviewoftheprocessesandhabitsofmindthatunderlieallresearch,whereverit sdone,andofthe

plansyoumustmaketoassembleareport,draftit,andreviseit.Withthatknowledgeandhelpfromyourteachers,you llcometo

feelincontrolofyourprojects,notintimidatedbythem,andeventuallyyou lllearntomanageeventhemostcomplexprojectson

yourown,inboththeacademicandtheprofessionalworlds.

Thefirststepinlearningtheskillsofsoundresearchistounderstandhowexperiencedresearchersthinkaboutitsaims.

1WhatResearchIsandHowResearchersThinkaboutIt

1.1HowResearchersThinkaboutTheirAims

1.2ThreeKindsofQuestionsThatResearchersAsk

1.2.1ConceptualQuestions:WhatShouldWeThink?

1.2.2PracticalQuestions:WhatShouldWeDo?

1.2.3AppliedQuestions:WhatMustWeUnderstandBeforeWeKnowWhattoDo?

1.2.4ChoosingtheRightKindofQuestion

1.2.5TheSpecialChallengeofConceptualQuestions:AnsweringSoWhat?

Youdoresearcheverytimeyouaskaquestionandlookforfactstoanswerit,whetherthequestionisassimpleasfindingaplumber

orasprofoundasdiscoveringtheoriginoflife.Whenonlyyoucareabouttheanswerorwhenothersneedjustaquickreportofit,

youprobablywon twriteitout.Butyoumustreportyourresearchinwritingwhenotherswillacceptyourclaimsonlyafterthey

studyhowyoureachedthem.Infact,reportsofresearchtellusmostofwhatwecanreliablybelieveaboutourworld thatonce

thereweredinosaurs,thatgermscausedisease,eventhattheearthisround.

Youmaythinkyourreportwilladdlittletotheworld sknowledge.Maybeso.Butdonewell,itwilladdalottoyoursandtoyour

abilitytodothenextreport.Youmayalsothinkthatyourfutureliesnotinscholarlyresearchbutinbusinessoraprofession.But

researchisasimportantoutsidetheacademyasin,andinmostwaysitisthesame.Soasyoupracticethecraftofacademicresearch

now,youprepareyourselftodoresearchthatonedaywillbeimportantatleasttothoseyouworkwith,perhapstousall.

Asyoulearntodoyourownresearch,youalsolearntouse andjudge thatofothers.Ineveryprofession,researchersmust

readandevaluatereportsbeforetheymakeadecision,ajobyou lldobetteronlyafteryou velearnedhowotherswilljudgeyours.

Thisbookfocusesonresearchintheacademicworld,buteverydaywereadorhearaboutresearchthatcanaffectourlives.Before

webelievethosereports,though,wemustthinkaboutthemcriticallytodeterminewhethertheyarebasedonevidenceand

reasoningthatwecantrust.

Tobesure,wecanreachgoodconclusionsinwaysotherthanthroughreasonsandevidence:wecanrelyontraditionand

authorityoronintuition,spiritualinsight,evenonourmostvisceralemotions.Butwhenwetrytoexplaintoothersnotjustwhywe

believeourclaimsbutwhytheyshouldtoo,wemustdomorethanjuststateanopinionanddescribeourfeelings.

Thatishowaresearchreportdiffersfromotherkindsofpersuasivewriting:itmustrestonsharedfactsthatreadersacceptas

truthsindependentofyourfeelingsandbeliefs.Theymustbeabletofollowyourreasoningfromevidencethattheyaccepttothe

claimyoudrawfromit.Yoursuccessasaresearcherthusdependsnotjustonhowwellyougatherandanalyzedatabutonhow

clearlyyoureportyourreasoningsothatyourreaderscantestandjudgeitbeforemakingyourclaimspartoftheirknowledgeand

understanding.

1.1HowResearchersThinkaboutTheirAims

Allresearchersgatherfactsandinformation,whatwe recallingdata.Butdependingontheiraimsandexperience,theyusethose

dataindifferentways.Someresearchersgatherdataonatopic storiesabouttheBattleoftheAlamo,forexample justtosatisfya

personalinterest(orateacher sassignment).

Mostresearchers,however,wantustoknowmorethanjustfacts.Sotheydon tlookforjustanydataonatopic;theylookfor

specificdatathattheycanuseasevidencetotestandsupportananswertoaquestionthattheirtopicinspiredthemtoask,suchas

whyhastheAlamostorybecomeanationallegend?

Experiencedresearchers,however,knowthattheymustdomorethanconvinceusthattheiranswerissound.Theymustalso

showuswhytheirquestionwasworthasking,howitsanswerhelpsusunderstandsomebiggerissueinanewway.Ifwecanfigure

outwhytheAlamostoryhasbecomeanationallegend,wemightthenansweralargerquestion:howhaveregionalmythsshapedour

nationalcharacter?

Youcanjudgehowcloselyyourthinkingtracksthatofanexperiencedresearcherbydescribingyourprojectinasentencelike

this:

1.IamworkingonthetopicX(storiesabouttheBattleoftheAlamo)

2.becauseIwanttofindoutY(whyitsstorybecameanationallegend)

3.sothatIcanhelpothersunderstandZ(howsuchregionalmythshaveshapedournationalcharacter).

Thatsentenceisworthacloselook,becauseitdescribesnotjusttheprogressofyourresearchbutyourpersonalgrowthasa

researcher.

1. Iamworkingonthetopic ResearchersoftenbeginwithasimpletopicliketheBattleoftheAlamo,perhapsbecauseitwas

assigned,becausesomethingaboutitpuzzlesthem,orbecauseitmerelysparksaninterest.Butinexperiencedresearcherstoo

oftenstopthere,leavingthemselveswithnothingbutatopictoguidetheirwork.Theymounduphundredsofnotesbuthaveno

waytodecidewhatdatatokeepandwhattodiscard.Whenitcomestimetowrite,theydumpeverythingintoareportthatreads

likeagrabbagofrandomfacts.Ifthosefactsarenewtoreaderswhohappentobeinterestedinthetopic,theymightreadthe

report.Buteventhosereaderswillwanttoknowwhatthosefactsaddupto.

2. becauseIwanttofindouthoworwhy Moreexperiencedresearchersusuallybeginnotwithjustatopicbutwitharesearch

question,suchasWhyhasthestoryoftheAlamobecomeanationallegend?Andtheyknowthatreaderswillthinktheirfactsadd

uptosomethingonlywhenthosefactsserveasevidencetosupportitsanswer.Indeed,onlywithaquestioncanaresearcher

knowwhichfactstolookforandwhichtokeep notjustthosethatsupportananswerbutalsothosethattestorevendiscreditit.

Whenhethinkshehasenoughevidencetosupporthisanswerandcanrespondtodatathatseemtocontradictit,hewritesa

reportfirsttotesthisownthinking,thentosharehisanswerwithotherssothattheycantestittoo.

3. sothatIcanhelpothersunderstand Themostsuccessfulresearchers,however,realizethatreaderswanttoknownotonly

thatananswerissoundbutwhythequestionwasworthasking.Sotheyanticipatethatreaderswillaskaquestionoftheirown:

Sowhat?WhyshouldIcarewhytheAlamostoryhasbecomealegend?ThatSowhat?canvexeventhemostexperienced

researcher,buteveryresearchermusttrytoansweritbeforeit sasked:Ifwecanfindthatout,wemightbetterunderstandthe

biggerquestionofhowsuchstoriesshapeournationalcharacter.

Butashrewdresearcherdoesn tstopthere.Sheanticipatesherreaders askingSowhat?againbylookingforanother,stilllarger

answer:Andifwecanunderstandwhathasshapedournationalcharacter,wemightunderstandbetterwhoweAmericansthinkwe

are.Andbeforeyouask,whenweknowthat,wemightbetterunderstandwhyothersintheworldjudgeusastheydo.Themost

successfulresearchersknowthatreaderscareaboutaquestiononlywhentheythinkthatitsanswermightencouragethemtosaynot

Sowhat?butThat sworthknowing!

Inshort,notallquestionsareequallygood.WemightaskhowmanycatssleptintheAlamothenightbeforethebattle,butso

whatifwefindout?Itishardtoseehowananswerwouldhelpusthinkaboutanylargerissueworthunderstanding,soit sa

questionthat sprobablynotworthasking(thoughaswe llsee,wecouldbewrongaboutthat).

1.2ThreeKindsofQuestionsThatResearchersAsk

Experiencedresearchersalsoknowthatdifferentreadersexpectthemtoaskandanswerdifferentkindsofquestions.Themost

commonquestionsinacademicworkareconceptual.Theonesmostcommonintheprofessionsarepractical.

1.2.1ConceptualQuestions:WhatShouldWeThink?

AquestionisconceptualwhenyouranswertoSowhat?doesn ttellreaderswhattodobuthelpsthemunderstandsomeissue:

1.IamworkingonthetopicX

2.becauseIwanttofindouthow/why/whetherY(Sowhatifyoudo?)

3.sothatIcanhelpothersunderstandhow/why/whetherZ.

Ifyouwereexplainingyourresearch,theconversationmightgolikethis:

Iʼmworkingonthetopicofriskevaluation.

Why?

BecauseIwanttofindouthowordinarypeopleevaluatetheriskthattheywillbehurtbyterrorism.

Sowhatifyoudo?

OnceIdo,wemightbetterunderstandthebiggerquestionofhowemotionalandrationalfactorsinteracttoinfluencetheway

ordinarythinkersthinkaboutrisk.

Researchersinthehumanitiesandthesocialandnaturalsciencesworkmostlyonconceptualquestions,suchasHowdid

Shakespeare spoliticalenvironmentinfluencehisplays?WhatcausedtheextinctionofmostlargeNorthAmericanmammals?What

arecometsmadeof?Theanswerstothosequestionsdon ttellushowtochangetheworld,buttheydohelpusunderstanditbetter.

Tobesure,theanswertoaconceptualquestionoftenturnsouttobeunexpectedlyrelevanttosolvingapracticalproblem.And

beforewecansolveanyimportantpracticalproblem,weusuallymustdoconceptualresearchtounderstanditbetter.Butinmostof

theacademicworld,theprimaryaimofmostresearchersisonlytoimproveourunderstanding.

1.2.2PracticalQuestions:WhatShouldWeDo?

Youposeadifferentkindofquestion callitapracticalone whenyouranswertoSowhat?tellsreaderswhattodotochangeorfix

sometrouble-someoratleastimprovablesituation:

1.IamworkingonthetopicX

2.becauseIwanttofindoutY(Sowhatifyoudo?)

3.sothatIcantellreaderswhattodotofix/improveZ.

Youwouldexplainyourworkonapracticalquestionlikethis:

Iʼmworkingonthetopicofcommunicatingriskeffectively.

Why?

BecauseIwanttofindoutwhatpsychologicalfactorscauseordinaryAmericanstoexaggeratetheirpersonalriskfromaterrorist

attack.

Sowhatifyoudo?

ThenIcantellthegovernmenthowtocounteractthosefactorswhentheycommunicatewiththepublicabouttherealriskof

terrorism.

Practicalquestionsaremostcommonoutsidetheacademicworld,especiallyinbusiness.Inacademicfieldssuchashealthcare

andengineering,researcherssometimesaskpracticalquestions,butmoreoftentheyaskathirdkindofquestionthat sneither

purelypracticalnorpurelyconceptual:callitanappliedresearchquestion.

1.2.3AppliedQuestions:WhatMustWeUnderstandBeforeWeKnowWhattoDo?

Oftenweknowwemustdosomethingtosolveapracticalproblem,butbeforewecanknowwhatthatis,wemustdoresearchto

understandtheproblembetter.Wecancallthatkindofresearchapplied.Withthismiddlekindofquestion,thethirdstepraisesa

questionwhoseanswerisnotthesolutiontoapracticalproblembutonlyasteptowardit.

IwanttofindouthowAmericanshavechangedtheirdailylivesinresponsetotheterroristattackson9/11.

Sowhatifyoudo?

ThenwecanunderstandthepsychologicalfactorsthatcauseordinaryAmericanstoexaggeratetheirpersonalriskfromaterrorist

attack.

Sowhatifyoudo?

Thenwecanunderstandhowtoreducetheeffectsofthosepsychologicalfactors.

Sowhatifyoudo?

Thenperhapsthegovernmentcanusethatinformationtocommunicatemoreeffectivelytherealriskfromterrorism.

Appliedquestionsarecommoninacademicfieldssuchasbusiness,engineering,andmedicineandincompaniesandgovernment

agenciesthatdoresearchtounderstandwhatmustbeknownbeforetheycansolveaproblem.

1.2.4ChoosingtheRightKindofQuestion

Somenewresearchersdislikepurelyconceptualresearchquestionsbecausetheythinkthey retoo theoretical orirrelevanttothe

real world.Sotheytrytocobbleanimplausiblepracticaluseontoaconceptualanswer:Whenweknowhowraceshapedthe

politicalimpactoftheAlamostories,wecanunderstandhowracismhasbeenusedtofosterpatriotismandtherebyeliminateracist

appealstopatriotisminrelationtoconflictsintheMiddleEast.

Thatimpulseisunderstandable.Butunlessyou vebeenassignedanappliedorpracticalproblem,resistit.Youareunlikelyto

solveanysignificantpracticalprobleminaclasspaper,andinanycase,mostoftheacademicworldseesitsmissionnotasfixingthe

problemsoftheworlddirectlybutasunderstandingthembetter(whichmayormaynothelpfixthem).

1.2.5TheSpecialChallengeofConceptualQuestions:AnsweringSoWhat?

Withmostpracticalquestions,wedon thavetoanswerSowhat?becausethebenefitisusuallyobvious.Evenmostappliedquestions

implythepracticalbenefitsoftheiranswers:fewreaderswouldquestionwhyaresearcheristryingtounderstandwhatcauses

Alzheimer s.Withconceptualquestions,however,theanswertoSowhat?isoftennotobviousatall,eventoanexperienced

researcher:SowhatifShakespearehadLadyMacbethdieoffstageratherthanon?Sowhatifsomeculturesusemasksintheir

religiousritualsandothersdon t?Whyisitimportanttoknowthat?

Foraresearchpaperinanintroductorycourse,yourinstructormaybesatisfiedwithanyplausibleanswertoSowhat?Soifearly

inyourresearchcareeryoufindyourselfstrugglingwiththatquestion,don ttakeitasasignoffailure,muchlessasevidencethat

you renotreadytodothework.Infact,youmightnotdiscovertheanswertoSowhat?untilyou vedraftedyourreport,maybenot

evenuntilyou vefinishedit.Andeventhen,maybetheanswerwillmatteronlytoyou.

Butifyourprojectisathesisordissertation,it snotjustanadvisorthatyouhavetosatisfy.Youranswermustalsosatisfythose

inyourfield(representedbyyouradvisor),whowilljudgeyourworknotjustbythequalityofyouranswerbutbythesignificanceof

yourquestion.Experiencedresearchersknowthatsomereaders,perhapsmany,willreadtheirreportandthink,Idon tagree.They

acceptthatasaninevitablepartofsharingresearchonsignificantissues.Whattheycan tacceptisIdon tcare.

Soashardasitwillbe,themoreoftenyouimagineothersaskingSowhat?andthemoreoftenyoutrytoanswerit,ifonlytoyour

ownsatisfaction,themoreconfidentyoucanbethateventuallyyou lllearntosucceedateveryexperiencedresearcher stoughest

task toconvinceyourreadersthatyourreportisworththeirtime.(Inchapter10wediscusshowtowriteanintroductionthat

motivatesyourreadersatleasttostartreadingyourreport.)

2MovingfromaTopictoaQuestiontoaWorkingHypothesis
2.1FindaQuestioninYourTopic
2.1.1SearchYourInterests
2.1.2MakeYourTopicManageable
2.1.3QuestionYourTopic
2.1.4EvaluateYourQuestions
2.2ProposeSomeWorkingAnswers
2.2.1DecideonaWorkingHypothesis
2.2.2BewaretheRisksinaWorkingHypothesis
2.2.3IfYouCanʼtFindanAnswer,ArgueforYourQuestion
2.3BuildaStoryboardtoPlanandGuideYourWork
2.3.1StateYourQuestionandWorkingHypotheses
2.3.2StateYourReasons
2.3.3SketchintheKindofEvidenceYouShouldLookFor
2.3.4LookattheWhole
2.4OrganizeaWritingSupportGroup
Aresearchprojectismorethancollectingdata.YoustartitbeforeyoulogontotheInternetorheadforthelibrary,andyoucontinue
itlongafteryouhaveallthedatayouthinkyouneed.Inthatprocess,youfacecountlessspecifictasks,buttheyallaimatjustfive
generalgoals.Youmustdothefollowing:
■Askaquestionworthanswering.
■Findananswerthatyoucansupportwithgoodreasons.
■Findreliableevidencetosupportyourreasons.
■Draftareportthatmakesagoodcaseforyouranswer.
■Revisethatdraftuntilreaderswillthinkyoumetthefirstfourgoals.
Youmightevenpostthosefivegoalsinyourworkspace.
Researchprojectswouldbeeasyifyoucouldmarchstraightthroughthosesteps.Butasyou vediscovered(orsoonwill),research
anditsreportingareneverstraightforward.Asyoudoonetask,you llhavetolookaheadtoothersorrevisitanearlierone.You ll
changetopicsasyouread,searchformoredataasyoudraft,perhapsevendiscoveranewquestionasyourevise.Researchis
looping,messy,andunpredictable.Butit smanageableifyouhaveaplan,evenwhenyouknowyou lldepartfromit.
2.1FindaQuestioninYourTopic
Researchersbeginprojectsindifferentways.Manyexperiencedonesbeginwithaquestionthatothersintheirfieldwanttoanswer:
WhatcausedtheextinctionofmostlargeNorthAmericanmammals?Othersbeginwithjustavagueintellectualitchthattheyhave
toscratch.Theymightnotknowwhatpuzzlesthemaboutgiantslothsandmastodons,butthey rewillingtospendtimefindingout
whethertheycantranslatetheiritchintoaquestionworthanswering.
Theyknow,moreover,thatthebestresearchquestionisnotonewhoseanswerotherswanttoknowjustforitsownsake;itisone
thathelpsthemunderstandsomelargerissue(Sowhat?again).Forexample,ifweknewwhyNorthAmericanslothsdisappeared,
wemightbeabletoansweralargerquestionthatpuzzlesmanyhistoricalanthropologists:DidearlyNativeAmericanslivein
harmonywithnature,assomebelieve,ordidtheyhuntitslargestcreaturestoextinction?(Andifweknewthat,thenwemightalso
understand )
Thentherearethosequestionsthatjustpopintoaresearcher smindwithnohintofwherethey lllead,sometimesaboutmatters
soseeminglytrivialthatonlytheresearcherthinksthey reworthanswering:Whydoesacoffeespilldryupintheformofaring?
Suchaquestionmightleadnowhere,butyoucan tknowthatuntilyouseeitsanswer.Infact,thescientistpuzzledbycoffeerings
madediscoveriesaboutthebehavioroffluidsthatothersinhisfieldthoughtimportant andthatpaintmanufacturersfound
valuable.SowhoknowswhereyoumightgowithaquestionlikeHowmanycatssleptintheAlamothenightbeforethebattle?You
can tknowuntilyougetthere.
Infact,aresearcher smostvaluableabilityistheknackofbeingpuzzledbyordinarythings:liketheshapeofcoffeerings;orwhy
ShakespearehasLadyMacbethdieoffstageratherthanon;orwhyyoureyebrowsdon tgrowaslongasthehaironyourhead.
Cultivatetheabilitytoseewhat soddinthecommonplaceandyou llneverlackforresearchprojects,aseitherastudentora
professional.
Ifyouhaveatopic,skipto2.1.3tofindquestionsinit.Ifyoualreadyhaveaquestionortwo,skipto2.1.4totestthembythe
19

criterialistedthere.Ifyou restilllookingforatopic,here saplantohelpyousearchforone.

2.1.1SearchYourInterests

Ifyoucanpickanytopicappropriatetoyourfield,askthesequestions:

■Whattopicsdoyoualreadyknowsomethingabout?Youcanlearnmore.

■Whatwouldyouliketoknowmoreabout?Aplace?Aperson?Atime?Anobject?Anidea?Aprocess?

■CanyoufindadiscussionlistontheInternetaboutissuesthatinterestyou?

■Haveyoutakenpositionsonanyissuesinyourfieldindebateswithothersbutfoundthatyoucouldn tbackupyourviewswith

goodreasonsandevidence?

■Whatissuesdopeopleoutsideyourfieldmisunderstand?

■Whattopicisyourinstructorworkingon?Wouldshelikeyoutoexploreapartofit?Don tbetooshytoask.

■Doesyourlibraryhaverichresourcesinsomefield?Askyourinstructororalibrarian.

■Whatothercourseswillyoutakeinyourfieldoroutofit?Findatext-bookandskimitforstudyquestions.

■Ifyouhaveajobinmind,whatkindofresearchreportmighthelpyougetit?Employersoftenaskforsamplesofanapplicant s

work.

Youcanalsoconsultprintsourcesforideas:

■SkimthetopicsinspecializedindexesinyourfieldsuchasPhilosopher sIndex,GeographicalAbstracts,Women sStudies

Abstracts,andsoon(inthebibliography,seeitemsincategory2inyourfield).

■Skimajournalthatreviewstheyear sworkinyourfield(inthebibliography,seeitemsincategory2inyourfield).

Academicresearchismeanttobeshared,buttheunderstandingitbringsmayalsobevaluabletoyouinthefuture.Sothink

ahead:lookforaprojectthatmighthelpyouayearfromnow.Keepinmind,though,thatyoumaybeinforalongrelationshipwith

yourtopic,sobesureitinterestsyouenoughtogetyouthroughtheinevitablerockystretches.

2.1.2MakeYourTopicManageable

Ifyoupickatopicwhosenamesoundslikeanencyclopediaentry bridges,birds,masks you llfindsomanysourcesthatyoucould

spendalifetimereadingthem.Youmustcarveoutofyourtopicamanageablepiece.Youcanstartbeforeyouheadtothelibraryby

limitingyourtopictoreflectaspecialinterestinit:Whatisitabout,say,masksthatmadeyouchoosethem?Whatparticularaspect

oftheminterestsorpuzzlesyou?Thinkaboutyourtopicinacontextthatyouknowsomethingabout,thenaddwordsandphrasesto

reflectthatknowledge:

masksinreligiousceremonies

masksassymbolsinHopireligiousceremonies

mudheadmasksassymbolsofskyspiritsinHopifertilityceremonies

Youmightnotbeabletofocusyourtopicuntilafteryoustartreadingaboutit.Thattakestime,sostartearly(youcandomuchof

thispreliminaryworkonline):

■Beginwithanoverviewofyourtopicinageneralencyclopedia(inthebibliographyseeitemsincategory2inthegeneralsources);

thenreadaboutitinaspecializedone(seeitemsincategory2inyourfield).

■Skimasurveyofyourtopic(encyclopediaentriesusuallyciteafew).

■Skimsubheadsunderyourtopicinanannualbibliographyinyourfield(inthebibliography,seeitemsincategory4inyourfield).

Thatwillalsogiveyouastartonareadinglist.

■SearchtheInternetforthetopic(butevaluatethereliabilityofwhatyoufind;see3.4.3).

Especiallyusefularetopicsthatsparkdebate:FisherclaimsthatHalloweenmasksrevealchildren sarchetypalfears,butdothey?

Evenifyoucan tresolvethedebate,youcanlearnhowsuchdebatesareconducted(formoreonthis,see3.1.2).

2.1.3QuestionYourTopic

Dothisnotjustonce,earlyon,butthroughoutyourproject.Askquestionsasyouread,especiallyhowandwhy(seealso4.1.1 4.1.2).

Trythefollowingkindsofquestions(thecategoriesarelooseandoverlap,sodon tworryaboutkeepingthemdistinct).

1.Askhowthetopicfitsintoalargercontext(historical,social,cultural,geographic,functional,economic,andsoon):

■Howdoesyourtopicfitintoalargerstory?Whatcamebeforemasks?Howdidmaskscomeintobeing?Why?Whatchanges

havetheycausedinotherpartsoftheirsocialorgeographicsetting?Howandwhydidthathappen?Whyhavemasksbecomea

partofHalloween?HowandwhyhavemaskshelpedmakeHalloweenthebiggestAmericanholidayafterChristmas?

■Howisyourtopicafunctioningpartofalargersystem?Howdomasksreflectthevaluesofspecificsocietiesandcultures?

WhatrolesdomasksplayinHopidances?Inscarymovies?Inmasqueradeparties?Forwhatpurposesaremasksusedother

thandisguise?Howhastheboomingmarketforkachinamasksinfluencedtraditionaldesigns?

■Howdoesyourtopiccomparetoandcontrastwithothertopicslikeit?HowdomasksinNativeAmericanceremoniesdiffer

fromthoseinAfrica?WhatdoHalloweenmaskshavetodowithMardiGrasmasks?Howaremasksandcosmeticsurgery

alike?

2.Askquestionsaboutthenatureofthethingitself,asanindependententity:

■Howhasyourtopicchangedthroughtime?Why?Whatisitsfuture?HowhaveHalloweenmaskschanged?Why?Howhave

NativeAmericanmaskschanged?Why?

■Howdothepartsofyourtopicfittogetherasasystem?WhatpartsofamaskaremostsignificantinHopiceremonies?Why?

Whydosomemaskscoveronlytheeyes?Whydosofewmaskscoverjustthebottomhalfoftheface?

■Howmanydifferentcategoriesofyourtopicarethere?WhatarethedifferentkindsofHalloweenmasks?Whatarethe

differentqualitiesofmasks?WhatarethedifferentfunctionsofHalloweenmasks?

3.Turnpositivequestionsintoanegativeones:WhyhavemasksnotbecomeapartofChristmas?HowdoNativeAmericanmasks

notdifferfromthoseinAfrica?Whatpartsofmasksaretypicallynotsignificantinreligiousceremonies?

4.Askspeculativequestions:WhyaremaskscommoninAfricanreligionsbutnotinWesternones?Whyarechildrenmore

comfortablewearingHalloweenmasksthanaremostadults?Whydon thuntersincamouflagewearmasks?

5.AskWhatif?questions:howwouldthingsbedifferentifyourtopicneverexisted,disappeared,orwereputintoanewcontext?

Whatifnooneeverworemasksexceptforsafetyreasons?Whatifeveryoneworemasksinpublic?WhatifmoviesandTVwere

likeGreekplaysandalltheactorsworemasks?Whatifitwerecustomarytowearmasksonblinddates?Inmarriageceremonies?

Atfunerals?

6.Askquestionsthatreflectdisagreementswithasource:ifasourcemakesaclaimyouthinkisweaklysupportedorevenwrong,

makethatdisagreementaquestion(seealso4.1.2).Martinezclaimsthatcarnivalmasksuniquelyallowwearerstoescapesocial

norms.ButIthinkreligiousmasksalsoallowwearerstoescapefromthematerialrealmtothespiritual.Istherealargerpattern

ofallmaskscreatingasenseofalternativeformsofsocialorspirituallife?

7.Askquestionsthatbuildonagreement:ifasourceoffersaclaimyouthinkispersuasive,askquestionsthatextenditsreach(see

also4.1.1).Eliasshowsthatmaskedballsbecamepopularineighteenth-centuryLondoninresponsetoanxietyaboutsocial

mobility.IsthesameanxietyresponsibleforsimilardevelopmentsinotherEuropeancapitals?Youcanalsoaskaquestionthat

supportsthesameclaimwithadditionalevidence.Eliassupportshisclaimaboutmaskedballsentirelywithpublishedsources.Is

italsosupportedbyevidencefromunpublishedsourcessuchaslettersanddiaries?

8.Askquestionsanalogoustothosethatothershaveaskedaboutsimilartopics.SmithanalyzedtheBattleofGettysburgfroman

economicpointofview.WhatwouldaneconomicanalysisoftheBattleoftheAlamoturnup?

9.Lookforquestionsthatotherresearchersposebutdon tanswer.Manyjournalarticlesendwithaparagraphortwoaboutopen

questions,ideasformoreresearch,andsoon.Youmightnotbeabletodoalltheresearchtheysuggest,butyoumightcarveouta

pieceofit.

10.FindanInternetdiscussionlistonyourtopic,then lurk, justreadingtheexchangestounderstandthekindsofquestionsthose

onthelistdiscuss.Ifyoucan tfindalistusingasearchengine,askateacherorvisitthewebsiteofprofessionalorganizationsin

yourfield.Lookforquestionsthatsparkyourinterest.Youcanevenaskaquestionofthelist,solongasitisveryspecificand

narrowlyfocused,butwaituntilyouseewhetherquestionsfromstudentsarewelcomed.

2.1.4EvaluateYourQuestions

Notallanswersareequallyuseful,soevaluateyourquestionsandscrapthosethatareunlikelytoyieldinterestinganswers.

Reconsiderwhenthefollowingistrue.

1.Youcananswerthequestiontooeasily.

■Youcanlookitup:WhatmasksareusedinNavajodances?

■Youcansummarizeasource:WhatdoesFishersayaboutmasksandfears?

2.Youcan tfindgoodevidencetosupporttheanswer.

■Norelevantfactsexist:AreMayanmasksmodeledonspacealiens?

■Thequestionisbasedonpreferenceortaste:AreBalineseorMayanmasksmorebeautiful?

■Youmustreadtoomanysources:Howaremasksmade?Youdon twanttoplowthroughcountlessreportstofindthebest

evidence(thisusuallyresultsfromaquestionthat stoobroad).

■Youcan tgetthesourcesthatyourreadersthinkarecrucial.Inevenmoderatelyadvancedprojects,you llbeexpectedtowork

withthebestsourcesavailable;forathesisanddissertation,they reessential.Ifyoucan tobtainthosesources,findanother

question.

3.Youcan tplausiblydisprovetheanswer.

■Theanswerseemsself-evidentbecausetheevidenceoverwhelminglyfavorsoneanswer.HowimportantaremasksinInuit

culture?Theanswerisobvious:Very.Ifyoucan timaginedisprovingaclaim,thenprovingitispointless.(Ontheotherhand,

world-classreputationshavebeenwonbythosewhoquestionedaclaimthatseemedself-evidentlytrue forinstance,thatthe

suncircledtheearth anddaredtodisproveit.)

Don trejectaquestionbecauseyouthinksomeonemustalreadyhaveaskedit.Untilyouknow,pursueitsanswerasifyouasked

first.Evenifsomeonehasansweredit,youmightcomeupwithabetteransweroratleastonewithanewslant.Infact,inthe

humanitiesandsocialsciencesthebestquestionsusuallyhavemorethanonegoodanswer.Youcanalsoorganizeyourproject

aroundcomparingandcontrastingcompetinganswersandsupportingthebestone(see6.2.5).

Thepointistofindaquestionthatyouwanttoanswer.Toomanystudents,bothgraduateandundergraduate,thinkthattheaim

ofeducationistomemorizesettledanswerstosomeoneelse squestions.Itisnot.Itistolearntofindyourownanswerstoyourown

questions.Todothat,youmustlearntowonderaboutthings,toletthempuzzleyou particularlythingsthatseemmost

commonplace.

2.2ProposeSomeWorkingAnswers

Beforeyougetdeepintoyourproject,tryonemorestep.Itisonethatsomebeginnersresistbutthatexperiencedresearchersusually

attempt.Onceyouhaveaquestion,imaginesomeplausibleanswers,nomatterhowsketchyorspeculative.Atthisstage,don tworry

whetherthey reright.Thatcomeslater.

Forexample,supposeyouask,Whydosomereligionsusemasksinceremonieswhileothersdon t?Youmightspeculate,

Maybecultureswithmanyspiritsneedmaskstodistinguishthem.

Maybemasksarecommoninculturesthatmixreligionandmedicine.

MaybereligionsoriginatingintheMiddleEastwereinfluencedbytheJewishprohibitionagainstidolatry.

Evenageneralanswercansuggestsomethingworthstudying:

Maybeithastodowiththeroleofmasksinnonreligiousareasofaculture.

Trytoimagineatleastoneplausibleanswer,nomatterhowtentativeorspeculative.Ifafterlotsofresearchyoucan tconfirmit,

youcanorganizeyourreportaroundwhythatanswerseemedreasonableatthetimebutturnedouttobewrongandsoisn tworth

thetimeofotherresearchers.Thatinitselfcanbeavaluablecontributiontotheconversationonyourtopic.(See10.1.1 10.1.2for

howtouseanapparentlygoodideathatturnsouttobewrong.)

Infact,lookfortwoorthreeplausibleanswers.Evenifyoupreferone,youcanimproveitbytestingitagainsttheothers,andin

anyevent,youcan tshowthatananswerisrightifyoucan talsoshowwhyothersarewrong.Evenearlyintheproject,writeout

youranswersasclearlyandasfullyasyoucan.Itistooeasytothinkthatyouhaveaclearideawhenyoudon t.Puttingafoggyidea

intowordsisthebestwaytoclarifyit,ortodiscoverthatyoucan t.

2.2.1DecideonaWorkingHypothesis

Ifoneanswerseemspromising,callityourworkinghypothesisanduseittoguideyourresearch.Youcan,ofcourse,lookfor

evidencewithnomorethanaquestiontoguideyou,becauseanyquestionlimitsthenumberofplausibleanswers.Buteventhemost

tentativeworkinghypothesishelpsyoutothinkahead,especiallyaboutthekindofevidencethatyou llneedtosupportit.Willyou

neednumbers?quotations?observations?images?historicalfacts?Moreimportant,whatkindofevidencewoulddisproveyour

hypothesis?Answerthosequestionsandyouknowthekindofdatatowatchforandtokeep.Infact,untilyouhaveahypothesis,you

can tknowwhetheranydatayoucollectarerelevanttoanyquestionworthasking.

Ifyoucan timagineanyworkinghypothesis,reconsideryourquestion.Reviewyourlistofexploratoryquestionstofindonethat

youcananswer;ifyouskippedthatstep,gobackto2.1.3.Youmayevendecidetostartoverwithanewtopic.Thatcoststimeinthe

shortrun,butitmaysaveyoufromafailedproject.Ifyou reworkingonathesisordissertation,youcanwaitlongertofirmupa

hypothesiswhileyoureadandponder,butdon tgetdeeplyintoyourprojectwithoutatleasttheglimmerofapossibleanswer.

Undernocircumstancesshouldyouputoffthinkingaboutahypothesisuntilyoubegindraftingyourreportor,worse,until

you vealmostfinishedit.Youmightnotsettleonthebestanswertoyourquestionuntilyou vewrittenyourlastpage:writing,even

revising,isitselfanactofdiscovery.Justdon twaituntilthatlastpagetostartthinkingaboutsomeanswer.

2.2.2BewaretheRisksinaWorkingHypothesis

Itisabadideatosettleonafinalanswertoosoon.Butmanynewresearchersandsomeexperiencedonesareafraidtoconsiderany

workinghypothesisearlyintheirproject,evenonetheyholdlightly,becausetheyfearitmightbiastheirthinking.Thereissomerisk

ofthat,butaworkinghypothesisneednotcloseyourmindtoabetterone.Eventhemostobjectivescientistdevisesanexperimentto

testforjustafewpredictedoutcomes,oftenjustone.Infact,researcherswhodon tstateahypothesisusuallyhaveoneinmindbut

don twanttoseempubliclycommittedtoit,lestitturnoutwrong.

Aworkinghypothesisisariskonlyifitblindsyoutoabetteroneorifyoucan tgiveitupwhentheevidencesaysyoushould.So

asinallrelationships,don tfalltoohardforyourfirsthypothesis:themoreyoulikeit,thelesseasilyyou llseeitsflaws.Despitethat

risk,it sbettertostartwithaflawedhypothesisthanwithnoneatall.

2.2.3IfYouCan tFindanAnswer,ArgueforYourQuestion

Wehavefocusedonquestionssomuchthatyoumightthinkthatyourprojectfailsifyoucan tansweryours.Infact,muchimportant

researchexplainswhyaquestionnoonehasaskedshouldbe,eventhoughtheresearchercan tanswerit:Doturtlesdream?Whyis

yawningcontagiousbutbeingsleepyisn t?Orisit?Suchreportsfocusonwhythequestionisimportantandwhatagoodanswer

mightlooklike.Oryoumayfindthatsomeonehasansweredyourquestion,butincompletelyoreven,ifyou relucky,incorrectly.If

youcan tfindtherightanswer,youhelpreadersbyshowingthatawidelyacceptedoneiswrong.(See10.1.2forhowtousethisplan

inyourintroduction.)

Onlywhenyouaskquestionafterquestionwillyoudevelopthecriticalimaginationyou llneedinanyprofessionyoupursue.In
fact,asexperiencedresearchersknow,mostissueshavefew,ifany,finalanswers,becausetherearenofinalquestions.Theyknow
thatit sasimportanttoaskanewquestionasitistoansweranoldone,andthatonedaytheirnewquestionwillbecomeoldand
yieldtoanewerresearcher sstillnewerone.
Yourjobistobecomethatnewerresearcher.
2.3BuildaStoryboardtoPlanandGuideYourWork
Forashortpaper,youmightnotneedadetailedplan asketchofanoutlinemightdo.Butforalongproject,you llusuallyneed
more,especiallyforoneaslongasathesisordissertation.Thefirstplanthatcomestomindisusuallyanoutline,withitsI sandII s
andA sandB sandsoon(see23.4.2.2).Ifyoupreferanoutline,useone,especiallyifyourprojectisrelativelyshort.Theproblemis
thatanoutlinecanforceyoutospecifytoomuchtoosoonandsolockupafinalformbeforeyou vedoneyourbestthinking.
Toavoidthatrisk,manyresearchers,includingthoseoutsidetheacademicworld,planlongreportsonastoryboard.A
storyboardislikeanoutlinespreadoverseveralpages,withlotsofspaceforaddingdataandideasasyougo.Itismoreflexiblethan
anoutline:itcanhelpyouplanyoursearchforevidence,organizeyourargument,writeafirstdraft,andtestafinalone.Asopposed
tolinesinanoutline,youcanphysicallymovestoryboardpagesaroundwithouthavingtoprintanewplaneverytimeyoutryouta
neworganization.Youcanspreaditspagesacrossawall,grouprelatedpages,andputminorsectionsbelowmajoronestocreatea
picture ofyourprojectthatshowsyouataglancethedesignofthewholeandyourprogressthroughit.
2.3.1StateYourQuestionandWorkingHypotheses
Tostartastoryboard,stateatthetopofitsfirstpageyourquestionandworkinghypothesisasexactlyasyoucan.Thenaddplausible
alternativestohelpyouseemoreclearlyitslimitsandstrengths.Addnewhypothesesasyouthinkofthem,andcrossoffthoseyou
provewrong.Butsavethem,becauseyoumightbeabletouseoneoftheminyourintroduction(see10.1.1).
2.3.2StateYourReasons
Putatthetopofseparatepageseachreasonthatmightsupportyourbesthypothesis,evenifyouhaveonlyoneortwo(formoreon
reasons,see5.4.2).Imagineexplainingyourprojecttoafriend.Yousay,IwanttoshowthatAlamostorieshelpeddevelopaunique
Texanidentity,andyourfriendasks,Whydoyouthinkso?Yourreasonsarethegeneralstatementsthatyouoffertosupportyour
answer:Well,first,thestoriesdistortedfactstoemphasizewhatbecamecentraltoTexanidentity;second,thestorieswerefirstused
toshowthatTexas(andtheWildWest)wasanewkindoffrontier;third, andsoon.
Ifyoucanthinkofonlyoneortworeasons(you llusuallyneedmore),putplaceholdersatthetopsofpages:Reason3:Something
aboutAlamostoriesmakingTexansfeelspecial.Ifyouknowonlyhowyouwantareasontosupportyouranswer,statethat:Reason
4:SomethingtoshowthatAlamostoriesweremorethanjustmyth.Eachreason,ofcourse,needssupport,soforeachreason,ask
WhydoIthinkthat?WhatevidencewillIneedtoproveit?Thatwillhelpyoufocusyoursearchforevidence(see2.3.3and5.4.2).
Ifyou renewtoyourtopicorearlyinyourproject,yourreasonsmaybeonlyeducatedguessesthatyou llchange;ifyoudon t,
youmightnotbeself-criticalenough.Butalistofreasons,nomatterhowspeculative,isthebestframeworktoguideyourresearch
andfocusyourthinking,andcertainlybetterthannoreasonsatall.
2.3.3SketchintheKindofEvidenceYouShouldLookFor
Everyfieldprefersitsownkindsofevidence numbers,quotations,observations,historicalfacts,images,andsoon.Soforeach
reason,sketchthekindofevidencethatyouthinkyou llneedtosupportit.Evenimaginewhatthemostconvincingevidencewould
looklike.Ifyoucan timaginethekindofevidenceyou llneed,leavethatpartofthepageblank,thenreadsecondarysourcestofind
outthekindofevidencethatresearchersinyourfieldfavor(see3.1.2).
2.3.4LookattheWhole
Laythepagesonatableortapethemonawall.Thenstepbackandlookattheirorder.Whenyouplanafirstdraft,youmustputits
partsinsomeorder,soyoumightaswellthinkaboutonenow.Canyouseealogicinyourorder?causeandeffect?narrativetime?
relativeimportance?complexity?length?(See6.2.5formoreprinciplesoforder.)Tryoutdifferentorders.Thisstoryboardisn tyour
finalplan;it sonlyatooltoguideyourthinkingandorganizewhatyoufind.
Whenyoufillapage,trydraftingthatsection,becausewritingoutyourideascanimproveyourthinkingateverystageofyour
project.
Somedayyoumayhavetheleisuretoamblethroughsources,readingjustwhatinterestsyou.Suchrandombrowsinghasopened
upimportantlinesofresearch.Butifyourreportisdueinamonthorso,youcan twaitforlightningtostrike;youneedaplan.A
storyboardisasimpleandreliabledevicetohelpyoucreateone.
2.4OrganizeaWritingSupportGroup
Adownsideofscholarlyresearchisitsisolation.Exceptforgroupprojects,you llread,think,andwritemostlyalone.Butitdoesn t
havetobethatway,atleastnotentirely.Lookforsomeoneotherthanyourinstructororadvisorwhowilltalkwithyouaboutyour
progress,reviewyourdrafts,evenpesteryouabouthowmuchyouhavewritten.Thatmightbeagenerousfriend,butlookfirstfor
anotherwritersothatyoucancommentoneachother sideasanddrafts.
Betteryetisawritinggroupoffourorfivepeopleworkingontheirownprojectswhomeetregularlytodiscussoneanother s
work.Earlyon,starteachmeetingwithasummaryofeachperson sprojectinthatthree-partsentence:I mworkingonthetopicX,
becauseIwanttofindoutY,sothatI(andyou)canbetterunderstandZ.Asyourprojectsdevelop,startwithan elevatorstory, a
shortsummaryofyourresearchthatyoumightgivesomeoneintheelevatoronthewaytothemeeting.Itshouldincludethatthree-
partsentence,aworkinghypothesis,andthemajorreasonssupportingit(see13.4).
23

Inlaterstages,thegroupsharesoutlinesanddraftssothattheycanserveassurrogatereaderstoanticipatehowyourfinal

readerswillrespond.Ifyourgrouphasaproblemwithyourdraft,sowillyourfinalreaders.Theycanevenhelpyoubrainstorm

whenyoubogdown.Butformostwriters,awritinggroupismostvaluableforthedisciplineitimposes.Itiseasiertomeeta

schedulewhenyouknowyoumustreportyourprogresstoothers.

Writinggroupsarestandardpracticeforthosepreparingthesesordissertations.Buttherulesmaydifferforaclasspaper.Some

teachersthinkthatagrouporwritingpartnermightprovidemorehelpthanisappropriate,sobeclearwithyourinstructorabout

whatyourgroupwilldo.Ifyoudon t,shemaydecidetheassistanceyouhavereceivedisinappropriate(see7.10).

3FindingUsefulSources
3.1UnderstandtheKindsofSourcesReadersExpectYoutoUse
3.1.1ConsultPrimarySourcesforEvidence
3.1.2ReadSecondarySourcestoLearnfromOtherResearchers
3.1.3ReadTertiarySourcesforIntroductoryOverviews
3.2RecordYourSourcesFully,Accurately,andAppropriately
3.2.1DetermineYourCitationStyle
3.2.2RecordBibliographicData
3.3SearchforSourcesSystematically
3.3.1LookforSomeoneWhoKnowsSomethingaboutYourTopic
3.3.2SkimtheInternet
3.3.3TalktoReferenceLibrarians
3.3.4BrowseinYourReferenceArea
3.3.5SkimaFewSpecializedReferenceWorks
3.3.6SearchYourLibraryCatalog
3.3.7SearchGuidestoPeriodicalLiterature
3.3.8BrowsetheShelves
3.3.9ForAdvancedProjects,FollowBibliographicTrails
3.4EvaluateSourcesforRelevanceandReliability
3.4.1EvaluatetheRelevanceofSources
3.4.2EvaluatetheReliabilityofPrintSources
3.4.3EvaluatetheReliabilityofOnlineSources
3.5LookbeyondtheUsualKindsofReferences
Onceyouhaveatleastaquestionandperhapsaworkinghypothesisalongwithafewtentativereasonsforsupportingit,youcan
startlookingforthedatayou llneedtosupportyourreasonsandtestyourhypothesis.Inthischapterweexplainhowtofindthose
dataandinthenexthowtoworkwiththem.Butdon tthinkoffindingsourcesandreadingthemasseparatesteps.Onceyouhavea
promisingsource,readittofindothersources.Andasyoufillyourstoryboardwithnotes,you lldiscovergapsandnewquestions
thatonlymoresourcescanfill.Sowhilewediscussfindingandusingsourcesastwosteps,you llmoreoftendothemrepeatedlyand
simultaneously.
3.1UnderstandtheKindsofSourcesReadersExpectYoutoUse
Dependingonyourexperience,readerswillexpectyoutousedifferentlevelsofsources,calledprimary,secondary,andtertiary
(thinkfirst-,second-,andthirdhand).Thesearen tsharplydefinedcategories,buttheyroughlycharacterizehowresearchersthink
aboutmostsources.
3.1.1ConsultPrimarySourcesforEvidence
Infieldssuchasliterarystudies,thearts,andhistory,primarysourcesareoriginalworks diaries,letters,manuscripts,images,
films,filmscripts,recordings,andmusicalscorescreatedbywriters,artists,composers,andsoon.Thosesourcesprovidedata the
words,images,andsoundsthatyouuseasevidencetosupportyourreasons.Datacanalsobeobjects:coins,clothing,tools,and
otherartifactsfromtheperiodorbelongingtoapersonyou restudying.
Infieldssuchaseconomics,psychology,chemistry,andsoon,researcherstypicallycollectdatathroughobservationand
experiment.Inothers,researchersgatherevidencethroughinterviews.(Toconducteffectiveinterviews,youmustusereliable
methodsforelicitingandrecordingtheinformationyoucollect.)Insuchfields,evidenceconsistsofthedatathatresearcherscollect.
Theprimarysourcesforthosecollecteddataarethepublicationsthatfirstpublishthem,rangingfromgovernmentandcommercial
databasestoscholarlyjournals.
Experiencedresearcherslookfordatainprimarysourcesfirst.If,forexample,youwerewritingonAlamostories,you dtryto
findsourceswrittenatthetime letters,diaries,eyewitnessreports,andsoon.
3.1.2ReadSecondarySourcestoLearnfromOtherResearchers
Secondarysourcesarebooksandarticlesthatanalyzeprimarysources,usuallywrittenbyandforotherresearchers.Areportina
scholarlyjournalanalyzingAlamostorieswouldbeasecondarysourceforresearchersworkingonthosestories.Secondarysources
25

alsoincludespecializedencyclopediasanddictionariesthatofferessayswrittenbyscholarsinafield.Youusesecondarysourcesfor

threepurposes:

1.Tokeepupwithcurrentresearch.Researchersreadsecondarysourcestokeepupwiththeworkofotherresearchers,toinform

andrefinetheirthinking,andtomotivatetheirownworkbyaddingtoapublishedlineofresearch.

2.Tofindotherpointsofview.Aresearchreportisnotcompleteuntiltheresearcheracknowledgesandrespondstotheviewsof

othersandtohisreaders predictablequestionsanddisagreements.Youcanfindmostofthoseotherpointsofviewinsecondary

sources.Whatalternativestoyourideasdotheyoffer?Whatevidencedotheycitethatyoumustacknowledge?Somenew

researchersthinktheyweakentheircaseiftheymentionanyviewopposingtheirown.Thetruthistheopposite.Whenyou

acknowledgecompetingviews,youshowreadersthatyounotonlyknowthoseviewsbutcanconfidentlyrespondtothem.For

moreonthis,see5.4.3.

Moreimportant,youmustusethosecompetingviewstoimproveyourown.Youcan tunderstandwhatyouthinkuntilyou

understandwhyarationalpersonmightthinkdifferently.Soasyoulookforsources,don tlookjustforthosethatsupportyour

views.Bealertaswellforthosethatcontradictthem.

3.Tofindmodelsforyourownresearchandanalysis.Youcanusesecondarysourcestofindoutnotjustwhatothershavewritten

aboutyourtopicbuthowtheyhavewrittenaboutit,asmodelsfortheformandstyleofyourownreport.Imagineasecondary

sourceasacolleaguetalkingtoyouaboutyourtopic.Asyourespond,you dwanttosoundlikesomeonewhoknowsthefield,

andsoyou dtrytolearnhowshereasons,thelanguagesheuses,thekindsofevidencesheoffers,andthekindssherarelyor

neveruses.The conversation wouldbeinwriting,soyou devenimitatestylisticdetailssuchaswhethershewritesinlong

paragraphsorbreaksupherpageswithsubheadsandbulletpoints(commoninthesocialsciences,lesscommoninthe

humanities).

Youcanalsouseasecondarysourceasamodelforyourconceptualanalysis.If,forexample,youwereanalyzingAlamostories,

youmightstudyhowasourcetreatsCuster sLastStand.Isitsapproachpsychological,social,historical,political?Itsparticular

reasonsorevidencewillprobablybeirrelevanttoyourproject,butyoumightsupportyouranswerwiththesamekindsofdata

andreasoning,perhapsevenfollowingthesameorganization.

Soifyoucomeacrossasourcethat snotexactlyonyourtopicbuttreatsonelikeit,skimittoseehowthatresearcherthinks

abouthismaterialandpresentsit.(Youdon thavetocitethatsourceifyouuseonlyitsgenerallogic,butyoumayciteittogive

yourownapproachmoreauthority.)

Researchersusedatareportedinsecondarysourcesonlywhentheycan tfindtheminprimarysources.Thenthey recautious

aboutusingthosesecondarysources,becausesecondhandreportsofdatahaveahigherrorrate.Ifyou redoingveryadvancedwork,

checktheaccuracyofimportantquotations,facts,ornumbersfromsecondarysources.Thosewhopublishinrespectedplacesrarely

misreportdeliberately,buttheymakecarelessmistakesmoreoftenthannonexpertsthinkorexpertsadmit.

Ofcourse,ifyouwerestudyinghowtheAlamostoryhasbeenanalyzed,thensecondarysourcesofferingthoseanalyseswouldbe

yourprimarysources.

Ifyou renewtoafield,youmayfindsecondarysourceshardtoread:theyassumealotofbackgroundknowledge,andmany

aren tclearlywritten(see11.2).Ifyou reworkingonatopicnewtoyou,youmightbeginwithanoverviewinaspecialized

encyclopediaorreliabletertiarysource.

3.1.3ReadTertiarySourcesforIntroductoryOverviews

Tertiarysourcesarebasedonsecondarysources,usuallywrittenfornonspecialists.Theyincludegeneralencyclopediasand

dictionaries,aswellasnewspapersandmagazineslikeTimeandtheAtlanticMonthlyandcommercialbookswrittenforageneral

audience.Well-editedgeneralencyclopediasofferaquickoverviewofmanytopics.Beware,however,ofonlineencyclopedias,such

asWikipedia,thatrelyonanonymouscontributionsratherthanoncarefullyeditedentrieswrittenbyestablishedresearchers.

Wikipediahasprovedtoberelativelyaccurateinthesciences,butoverallitisunevenandsometimeswrong.Neverciteitasan

authoritativesource.

Besimilarlycautiousaboutusingmagazineandnewspaperarticles.Somedescriberesearchreportedinsecondarysources

reliably,butmostoversimplifyorsimplymisreportit.Youwould,ofcourse,treatsuchasourceasprimaryifyouwerestudyinghow

itdealswithatopic,suchasgenderbiasintheEncyclopediaBritannicaorhoaxesinWikipedia.

Onceyouunderstandkindsofsources,youcanbeginlookingforthem.

3.2RecordYourSourcesFully,Accurately,andAppropriately

Beforeyoulookforsources,youshouldknowhowtocitetheonesyoufind.Yourreaderswilltrustyourreportonlyiftheytrustyour

evidence,andtheywon ttrustyourevidenceiftheycan tfindyoursources.Yourfirstobligationasaresearcheristociteyour

sourcesaccuratelyandfullysothatyourreaderscanfindthem.

3.2.1DetermineYourCitationStyle

Mostfieldsrequireaspecificcitationstyle.Thetwomostcommononesaredescribedindetailinpart2:

■notes-bibliographystyle(orsimplybibliographystyle),usedwidelyinthehumanitiesandinsomesocialsciences(seechapters16

and17)

■author-datestyle(orparentheticalcitations-referenceliststyle),usedinmostsocialsciencesandinthenaturalsciences(see

chapters18and19)

Ifyouareuncertainwhichstyletouse,consultyourinstructor.Beforeyoustartcompilingyourlistofsources,readthegeneral

introductiontocitationsinchapter15andthen,dependingonthecitationstyleyouarerequiredtouse,readtheintroductionto

bibliographystyle(chapter16)orauthor-datestyle(chapter18).

3.2.2RecordBibliographicData

Tosavetimeandavoiderrors,recordallthecitationinformationyouwillneedwhenyoufirstfindasource.Mostofthisinformation

appearsonthetitlepageofabookorattheheadofajournalarticle.Thespecificinformationyouneeddependsonthetypeof

source,butforeachsource,recordatleastthefollowing:

■Whowroteorassembledthesource?

■author(s)

■editor(s)

■translator(s)

■Whatdataidentifythesource?

■titleandsubtitle

■titleandsubtitleofanylargerworkthatcontainsthesource(suchasacollection,journal,ornewspaper)

■pagenumbersifthesourceappearsinalargerwork

■volumenumber

■issuenumber

■editionnumber

■foronlinesources,URLanddateyouaccessedthematerial

■Whopublishedthesourceandwhen?

■publisher sname

■placeofpublication

■dateofpublication

Foryourownuse,youmightrecordLibraryofCongresscallnumbers.Youwon tincludetheminbibliographiccitations,butyou

mayfindthemhelpfulifyoumustconsultthesourceagain.

Atsomepoint,you llneedtoformatthisbibliographicinformationintoyourrequiredcitationstyle,soyoushouldrecordyour

sourcesinthatstylenow.Youcanfindtemplatesandexamplesforbibliographystyleinfigure16.1andchapter17;forauthor-date

style,refertofigure18.1andchapter19.

Asyourecordthesedata,you llbetemptedtotakeshortcuts,becauseit sboringworkandrulesaboutperiods,commas,and

parenthesescanfeellikenit-picking.Butnothinglabelsyouabeginnerfasterthancitationsthatareinappropriate,orworse,

incompleteorinaccurate.Sogetinthehabitofrecordingbibliographicdataforasourcefully,accurately,andappropriatelythe

momentyouhandleit.Therearecomputerprogramsthatautomaticallyformatcitationsforyou.Theyareusefulaids,butthey

cannotsubstituteforyourownknowledgeofpropercitationformsandmethods,andnotallofthesoftwareworksperfectly.

3.3SearchforSourcesSystematically

Asyousearchforsources,youmustbeknowledgeablysystematic,becauseifyoumissanimportantone,you lllosecredibility.

3.3.1LookforSomeoneWhoKnowsSomethingaboutYourTopic

Youmightstartbyaskingaroundtofindsomeonewhoknowssomethingaboutyourtopicandstandardreferenceworksonit:

advancedstudents,faculty,evenpeopleoutsidetheacademiccommunity.Youmightlookupyourtopicintheyellowpagesofthe

phonebook.Youwon talwaysfindsomeone,butyoumightgetlucky.

3.3.2SkimtheInternet

Beforecollege,manystudentsdoresearchonlyontheInternet,becausetheirhighschoollibrariesaresmall,becausetheyneedto

findonlyafewsources,andbecausetheirteachersaren tparticularaboutthequalityofthosesources.However,inmanyfields

importantandsignificantresearchisincreasinglyeitherpublishedorarchivedonline,soyoucanoftendousefulpreliminarywork

withascholarlysearchenginesuchasGoogleScholar.Thebestofthesenotonlywillgiveyouaroughideaofthekindsofsources

availablebutwillalsoidentifyhowmanytimesaparticularsourcehasbeencitedinotherbooksorarticlesonthetopic.(Ifyoufind

sourcesthatarecitedhundredsorthousandsoftimesbyotherwriters,youshouldfamiliarizeyourselfwiththem.)Onlinedatabases

andsearchenginesalsofrequentlytagtheirresultswithassociatedsearchkeywords.Atthisstageinyourresearch,followingthese

trailsofrelatedsearchtermscanhelpputyourresearchquestionintocontextsthatmightnototherwiseoccurtoyou.Butifyou

searchjusttheInternet,you llmissimportantsourcesthatyou llfindonlybypokingaroundinyourlibrary.Ifyourlibrarycatalogis

online,youcanstartthere(see3.3.6).Onceagain,you llworkmostefficientlyifyouhaveaplan.

3.3.3TalktoReferenceLibrarians

Ifyoudon tknowhowtofindwhatyouneed,askalibrarian.Mostcollegelibrariesoffertoursofreferenceroomsandspecial

collectionsaswellasshortseminarsonhowtosearchthecatalog,databases,andothersourcesofinformation.Ifyou reanew

researcher,seizeeveryopportunitytolearnonlinesearchtechniquesinyourfield.

Youcanalsotalktolibrarianswhospecializeinyourarea.Theywon tfindsourcesforyou,buttheywillhelpyoulookforthem.If

youhavearesearchquestion,shareit:I mlookingfordataonXbecauseIwanttofindout Ifyouhaveaworkinghypothesisand

reasons,sharethemtoo:I mlookingfordatatoshowY[yourreason]becauseIwanttoclaimZyourhypothesis].Rehearseyour

questionstoavoidwastingyourtimeandtheirs.

3.3.4BrowseinYourReferenceArea

Researchersinallfieldssharecommonvaluesandhabitsofthought,buteveryfieldhasitsownwaysofdoingthings.Tolearnabout

thewaysofyourfield,browsetheshelvesinyourlibrary sreferenceroomthatholdguidestoyourfield sparticularresearch

methods,databases,andspecialresources(inthebibliography,seeitemsincategory3inyourfield).Atleastfamiliarizeyourself

withthefollowingresources(inthebibliography,seecategory4forlistsofsourcesinyourfield;manyarealsoonline):

■abibliographyofworkspublishedeachyearinyourfield,suchasPhilosopher sIndexorEducationIndex

■summarybibliographiesofworksonaspecifictopiccollectedoverseveralyears(BibliographicIndexisabibliographyof

bibliographies)

■collectionsofabstractsthatsummarizearticlesinnewspapersandinprofessionaljournals

■reviewsoftheyear swork;lookforatitleinyourfieldbeginningwithReviewsin

■fornewfields,websitesmaintainedbyindividualsorscholarlyassociations

Ifyouknowevenalittleofthesecondaryliteratureonyourtopic,youcanbeginlookingformoresubstantivesources(skipto3.3.7-

3.3.8).Ifyoudon t,youmightstartwithsomespecializedreferenceworks.

3.3.5SkimaFewSpecializedReferenceWorks

StartbylookingupyourtopicinarelevantspecializedencyclopediaordictionarysuchastheEncyclopediaofPhilosophyorthe

ConciseOxfordDictionaryofLiteraryTerms,whereyoumayfindanoverviewofyourtopicandoftenalistofstandardprimaryand

secondarysources(inthebibliography,seeitemsincategories1and2inyourfield).

3.3.6SearchYourLibraryCatalog

SUBJECTHEADINGSINBOOKS.Assoonasyoufindonerecentbookrelevanttoyourtopic,lookitupinyourlibrary sonlinecatalogto

finditsLibraryofCongresssubjectheadings;theywillbeatthebottomoftheentry.Forexample,theonlineentryforthisbook

includesthesetwotopics:

1.Dissertations,Academic.2.Academicwriting.

Youcanclickonthesubjectheadingstofindotherbooksonthesametopics.Manyofthosesourceswillhavestillmoresubject

headingsthatcanleadyoutostillmoresources;itcanturnintoanendlesstrail.

KEYWORDS.Alsosearchyouronlinecatalogusingkeywordsfromyourquestionorworkinghypothesis Alamo,Texasindependence,

JamesBowie.Ifyoufindtoomanytitles,startwiththosepublishedinthelasttenyearsbywell-knownuniversitypresses.Fora

widerselection,searchWorldCatifyourlibrarysubscribes.Otherwise,searchtheLibraryofCongresscatalogathttp://www.loc.gov.

Ithaslinkstolargeuniversitycatalogs.Startearlyifyouexpecttogetbooksoninterlibraryloan.

ARTICLES.Ifmostsourcesonyourtopicarearticles,locatearecentoneinyourlibrary sonlinedatabases.Itsdatabaseentrywill

includealistofkeywords.Searchforthemtofindmorearticlesonyourtopic.Inmostcases,youcanjustclickonthem.Usethe

keywordstosearchthelibrarycatalogaswell.Somedatabasesalsoprovideabstractsofjournalarticlesthatyoucanskimforsearch

terms.

3.3.7SearchGuidestoPeriodicalLiterature

Ifyou vedoneresearchbefore,you reprobablyfamiliarwithannualguidessuchasReaders GuidetoPeriodicalLiterature,which

citessourcessuchasmagazinesandnewspapers.Mostspecializedfieldsalsohaveyearlyguidestosecondarysources,suchasArt

Abstracts,HistoricalAbstracts,andAbstractsinAnthropology(inthebibliography,seeitemsincategory4inyourfield).Mostare

availableonlineorinotherdigitalforms.

Allthoseresourceswilldirectyoutomoresources,butnoneofthemcansubstituteforthekindofin-librarysearchthatturnsup

anunexpectedlyusefulsource.

3.3.8BrowsetheShelves

Youmightthinkthatonlineresearchisfasterthanwalkingaroundyourlibrary.Butitcanbeslower,andifyouworkonlyonlineyou

maymisscrucialsourcesthatyou dfindonlyinthelibrary.Moreimportant,you llmissthebenefitsofserendipity achance

encounterwithasourcethatyoufindonlyinperson.

Ifyou reallowedinthestacks(whereallthebooksthatyoucancheckoutarekept),findtheshelfwithbooksonyourtopic.Then

scanthetitlesonthatshelfandtheonesabove,below,andoneitherside.Thenturnaroundandskimtitlesbehindyou;younever

know.Whenyouspotapromisingtitle,especiallyonauniversitypressbookwithanewbinding,skimitstableofcontents,thenits

indexforkeywordsrelatedtoyourquestionoritsanswer.Thenskimitsbibliographyfortitlesthatlookrelevanttoyourproject.You

candoallthatfasterwithbooksonashelfthanyoucanonline.

Ifthebooklookspromising,skimitsprefaceorintroduction.Ifitstilllookspromising,setitasideforacloserlook.Evenifit

doesn tseemrelevant,recorditsLibraryofCongresscallnumberandbibliographicdata(author,title,publisher,dateofpublication

andsoon;seepart2ofthismanualforthedetails),andinafewwordssummarizewhatthebookseemstobeabout.Amonthlater,

youmightrealizethatit smoreusefulthanyouthought.

Youcanchecktablesofcontentsformanyjournalsonline,butbrowsinginthejournalsareaofalibrarycanbemoreproductive.

Findthejournalsthathavepromisingarticles.Skimtablesofcontentsforthepriortenyears.Mostvolumesincludeayearly

summarytableofcontents.Thentakeaquicklookatthejournalsshelvednearby.Skimtheirmostrecenttablesofcontents.Youwill

besurprisedathowoftenyoufindarelevantarticlethatyouwouldhavemissedhadyoudoneyourworkentirelyonline.

Ifyouarenewtoafield,youcangetaroughimpressionoftheacademicqualityofajournalbyitslook.Ifit songlossypaper

withlotsofillustrations,evenadvertisements,itmightbemorejournalisticthanscholarly.Thosearenotinfalliblesignsof

unreliablescholarship,buttheyareworthconsidering.

3.3.9ForAdvancedProjects,FollowBibliographicTrails

Ifyou reintoadvancedwork,usethebibliographiesinyoursourcestofindnewsourcesandusetheirbibliographiesinturntofind

more.Dothis:

■Skimbibliographiesofrecentbooksonyourtopic;lookatanyworkmentionedinallormostofthem,alongwithother

publicationsbyitsauthor.

■Ifyoufindasourceuseful,skimitsindexforauthorsmentionedonfourormorepages.

■Lookforreviewsofresearchinthefirstfewparagraphsofjournalarticles.

■LookforrecentPhDdissertationsevenmarginallyrelatedtoyourtopic.Almosteverydissertationreviewsresearchinitsfirstor

secondchapter.

Newsourcesarebest,butyoumaydiscoveranoldonewithdatalongneglected.

3.4EvaluateSourcesforRelevanceandReliability

Youwillprobablyfindmoresourcesthanyoucanuse,soyoumustevaluatetheirusefulnessbyskimmingquicklyfortwocriteria:

relevanceandreliability.

3.4.1EvaluatetheRelevanceofSources

Onceyoudecideabookmightberelevant,skimitsystematically:

■Ifitsindexlistskeywordsrelatedtoyourquestionoritsanswers,skimthepagesonwhichthosewordsoccur.

■Skimitsintroduction,especiallyitslastpage,wherewritersoftenoutlinetheirtext.

■Skimitslastchapter,especiallythefirstandlastsixorsevenpages.

■Ifyouhavetime,dothesameforchaptersthatlookrelevant,especiallythoseforwhichtheindexlistsmanyofyourkeywords.

■Ifthesourceisacollectionofarticles,skimtheeditor sintroduction.

Besurethatyou relookingatabook smostrecentedition.Overtimeresearcherschangetheirviews,refiningthem,evenrejecting

earlierones.

Ifyou redoingadvancedwork,readbookreviewsofpromisingsources(seesection4ofthebibliographyofresourcesinyour

field).

Ifyoursourceisajournalarticle,dothis:

■Readitsabstract,ifany.

■Skimthelasttwoorthreeparagraphsoftheintroduction(orotheropeningsection)andallofanysectioncalled Conclusion.

■Ifthearticlehasnoseparateintroductionorconclusion,skimitsfirstandlastfewparagraphs.

■Skimthefirstparagraphortwoaftereachsubhead,ifany.

Ifyoursourceisonline,dothis:

■Ifitlookslikeaprintedarticle,followthestepsforajournalarticle.

■Skimanysectionlabeled Introduction,  Overview,  Summary, orthelike.Ifthereisnone,lookforalinklabeled Aboutthe

Site orsomethingsimilar.

■Ifthesitehasalinklabeled SiteMap or Index, followitandcheckthelist,lookingforkeywordsrelatedtoyourquestionorits

answers.Clicktoskimthosepages.

■Ifthesitehasasearchfunction,typeinkeywordsfromyourtopic.

3.4.2EvaluatetheReliabilityofPrintSources

Youcan tjudgeasourceuntilyoureadit,buttherearesignsofitsreliability:

1.Istheauthorareputablescholar?Mostpublicationsciteanauthor sacademiccredentials;youcanfindmorewithasearch

engine.Mostestablishedscholarsarereliable,butbecautiousifthetopicisacontestedsocialissuesuchasguncontrolor

abortion.Evenreputablescholarscanhaveaxestogrind,especiallyiftheirresearchissupportedbyaspecialinterestgroup.

2.Isthesourcecurrent?Manyreputablescholarswritebooksandarticlespopularizingtheresearchofothers.Butbythetimeyou

readthesetertiarysources,theymaybeoutofdate.Howfastasourcedatesvariesbysubject,socheckwithsomeonewhoknows

yourfield.Forjournalarticlesinthesocialsciences,morethantenyearsispushingthelimit.Forbooks,figurefifteenorso.

Publicationsinthehumanitieshavealongerlifespan.

3.Isthesourcepublishedbyareputablepress?Youcantrustmostuniversitypresses,especiallythoseatwell-knownschools.Before

theypublishamanuscript,theyaskexpertstoreviewit(aprocesscalledpeerreview).Youcanalsotrustsomecommercial

pressesinsomefields,suchasNortoninliterature,Ablexinsciences,orWestinthelaw.Beskepticalofacommercialbookthat

makessensationalclaims,evenifitsauthorhasaPhDafterhisname.

4.Wasthearticlepeer-reviewed?Mostscholarlyjournals,bothprintandonline,publishonlypeer-reviewedarticles.Few

commercialmagazinesusepeerreview,andfewerstillcheckanauthor sfacts.Ifareporthasn tbeenpeer-reviewed,useit

cautiously.

5.Hasthesourcereceivedgoodreviews?Ifthesourceisabookpublishedmorethanayearago,itmayhavebeenreviewedina

journalinthefield.Manyfieldshaveindexestopublishedreviewsthattellyouhowothersevaluateasource.(Seethe

bibliography.)

6.Hasthesourcebeenfrequentlycitedbyothers?Youcanroughlyestimatehowinfluentialasourceisbyhowoftenothersciteit.

Todeterminethat,consultacitationindex(inthebibliographyseesection4inyourfield).

Thosesignsdon tguaranteethatasourceisreliable,buttheyshouldgiveyoureasonableconfidenceinit.Ifyoucan tfindreliable

sources,acknowledgethelimitsoftheonesyouhave.Ofcourse,youmayfindanexcitingresearchproblemwhenyoudiscoverthata

sourcethoughttobereliableisnot.

3.4.3EvaluatetheReliabilityofOnlineSources

Evaluateonlinesourcesasyoudothoseinprint,butmorecautiously.ThenumberofreliableInternetsourcesgrowseveryday,but

theyarestillislandsinaswampofmisinformation.IfyoufinddataavailableonlyontheInternet,lookforsitesoronline

publicationswiththesesignsofreliability:

1.Thesiteissponsoredbyareputableorganization.Somesitessupportedbyindividualsarereliable;mostarenot.

2.Itisrelatedtoareliableprofessionaljournal.

3.Itsupplementsreliableprintsources.SomejournalsusetheInternettohostdiscussionsamongauthorsandreaders,toofferdata

toonewtobeinlibraries,toarchivedatanotinarticles,ortopresentillustrationstooexpensivetoprint.Manygovernmentand

academicdatabasesareonlyonline.

4.Itavoidsheatedadvocacyfororagainstacontestedsocialissue.

5.Itdoesnotmakewildclaims,attackotherresearchers,useabusivelanguage,ormakeerrorsofspelling,punctuation,and

grammar.

6.Itindicateswhenthesitewaslastupdated.Ifithasnodate,becautious.

Trustasiteonlyifscholarlyreaderswouldtrustthosewhomaintainit.Ifyoudon tknowwhomaintainsit,beskeptical.

Onlineservicesnowprovidereliableeditionsofmanyoldertexts.You llalsofindwell-editedtextsatmanyuniversitysites.It s

one-stopshopping ;youneverhavetomovefromyourchair.Onlineservicesare,however,farlesscompletethanmostuniversity

libraries,andusingthemwillteachyounothingaboutdoingresearchinareallibrary.Some-dayeverythingeverprintedwillbe

availableonline(afuturethatgivessomeresearchersmixedfeelings).Butuntilthen,surfingtheInternetcan tcompletelyreplace

prowlingthestacks.

3.5LookbeyondtheUsualKindsofReferences

Ifyouarewritingaclasspaper,you llusuallyhavetofocusnarrowlyonthekindsofsourcestypicallyusedinyourfield.Butifyou

aredoinganadvancedprojectsuchasanMAthesisorPhDdissertation,findanopportunitytosearchbeyondthem.If,forexample,

youweredoingaprojectontheeconomiceffectsofagriculturalchangesonLondongrainmarketsin1600,youmightreadsome

Elizabethanplays,lookatpicturesofworking-classlife,orlookforcommentarybyreligiousfiguresonsocialbehavior.Conversely,if

youwereworkingonvisualrepresentationsofdailylifeinLondon,youmightworkuptheeconomichistoryoftheperiodandplace.

Youcan tdothisinthelimitedtimeyouhaveforshortpapers,butwhenyouhavemonthstoworkonamajorproject,trytolook

beyondthestandardkindsofreferencesrelevanttoyourquestion.Whenyoudo,youenrichnotonlyyourspecificanalysisbutyour

rangeofintellectualreferenceandyourabilitytosynthesizediversekindsofdata,acrucialcompetenceofaninquiringmind.

4EngagingSources
4.1ReadGenerouslytoUnderstand,ThenCriticallytoEngageandEvaluate
4.1.1LookforCreativeAgreement
4.1.2LookforCreativeDisagreement
4.2TakeNotesSystematically
4.2.1CreateTemplatesforNotes
4.2.2KnowWhentoSummarize,Paraphrase,orQuote
4.2.3GuardagainstInadvertentPlagiarism
4.3TakeUsefulNotes
4.3.1UseNote-TakingtoAdvanceYourThinking
4.3.2TakeNotesRelevanttoYourQuestionandWorkingHypothesis
4.3.3RecordRelevantContext
4.3.4CategorizeYourNotesforSorting
4.4WriteasYouRead
4.5ReviewYourProgress
4.5.1SearchYourNotesforanAnswer
4.5.2InventtheQuestion
4.5.3Re-sortYourNotes
4.6ManageMomentsofNormalPanic
Onceyoufindasourceworthacloselook,don treaditmechanically,justminingitfordatatorecord.Note-takingisnotclerical
work.Whenyoutakenotesonasourcethoughtfully,youengagenotjustitswordsandideasbutalsoitsimplications,consequences,
shortcomings,andnewpossibilities.Engageyoursourceasifitswriterweresittingwithyou,eagerforaconversation(it showyou
shouldimagineyourreadersengagingyou).
4.1ReadGenerouslytoUnderstand,ThenCriticallytoEngageandEvaluate
Takethetimetoreadyourmostpromisingsourcesatleasttwice,firstquicklyandgenerouslytounderstandthemontheirown
terms.Ifyoudisagreetoosoon,youcanmisunderstandorexaggerateaweakness.
Thenrereadthemslowlyandcritically,asifyouwereamiablybutpointedlyquestioningafriend;imaginehisorheranswers,
thenquestionthem.Ifyoudisagree,don tjustrejectasource:readitinwaysthatwillencourageyourownoriginalthinking.
Youprobablywon tbeabletoengageyoursourcesfullyuntilafteryou vedonesomereadinganddevelopedafewideasofyour
own.Butfromtheoutset,bealertforwaystoreadyoursourcesnotpassively,asaconsumer,butactivelyandcreatively,asan
engagedpartner.Atsomepoint,betterearlierthanlater,youmustlookforwaystogobeyondyoursources,evenwhenyouagree
withthem.
4.1.1LookforCreativeAgreement
Itisahappymomentwhenasourceconfirmsyourviews.Butifyoujustpassivelyagree,youwon tdevelopanyofyourownideas.
So,whilegenerouslyacknowledgingthescopeofyoursource sargument,trytoextendwhatyoursourceclaims:Whatnewcases
mightitcover?Whatnewinsightscanitprovide?Isthereconfirmingevidenceyoursourcehasn tconsidered?Herearesomeways
toagreecreatively.
4.1.1.1OFFERADDITIONALSUPPORT.Youhavenewevidencetosupportasource sclaim.
SmithusesanecdotalevidencetoshowthattheAlamostoryhadmythicstatusbeyondTexas,butastudyofbig-citynewspapers
offersbetterevidence.
1.Sourcesupportsaclaimwitholdevidence,butmaybeyoucanoffernewevidence.
2.Sourcesupportsaclaimwithweakevidence,butmaybeyoucanofferstrongerevidence.
4.1.1.2CONFIRMUNSUPPORTEDCLAIMS.Youcanprovesomethingthatasourcehasonlyassumedorspeculated.
Smithrecommendsvisualizationtoimprovesportsperformance,butastudyofthementalactivitiesofathletesshowswhythatis
31

goodadvice.

1.SourceonlyspeculatesthatXmightbetrue,butmaybeyoucanofferevidencetoshowthatitdefinitelyis.

2.SourceassumesthatXistrue,butmaybeyoucanproveit.

4.1.1.3APPLYACLAIMMOREWIDELY.Youcanextendapositiontonewareas.

Smithhasshownthatmedicalstudentslearnphysiologicalprocessesbetterwhentheyareexplainedwithmanymetaphorsrather

thanbyjustone.Thesameappearstobetrueforengineerslearningphysicalprocesses.

1.Sourcecorrectlyapplieshisclaimtoonesituation,butmaybeitcanapplytonewones.

2.SourceclaimsthatXistrueinaspecificsituation,butmaybeit strueingeneral.

4.1.2LookforCreativeDisagreement

Itisevenmoreimportanttonotewhenyoudisagreewithasource,becausethatmightsuggestaworkinghypothesisforyourwhole

report.(Hereagain,youmustfirstbefairtowhatyoursourceactuallyargues;avoiddevelopingahypothesisbasedonhastyor

deliberatemisinterpretationsofsources.)Soinsteadofjustnotingthatyoudisagreewithanotherwriter sviews,usethat

disagreementtoencourageyourownproductivethinking.Herearesomekindsofdisagreement(thesearen tsharplydefined

categories;manyoverlap).

4.1.2.1CONTRADICTIONSOFKIND.Asourcesayssomethingisonekindofthing,butmaybeit sanotherkind.

Smithsaysthatcertainreligiousgroupsareconsidered“cults”becauseoftheirstrangebeliefs,butthosebeliefsarenodifferentin

kindfromstandardreligions.

1.SourceclaimsthatXisakindofY(orlikeit),butmaybeit snot.

2.SourceclaimsthatXalwayshasYasoneitsfeaturesorqualities,butmaybeitdoesn t.

3.SourceclaimsthatXisnormal/good/significant/useful/moral/interesting/ ,butmaybeit snot.

(Youcanreversethoseclaimsandtheonesthatfollowtostatetheopposite:thoughasourcesaysXisnotakindofY,youcanshow

thatitis.)

4.1.2.2PART-WHOLECONTRADICTIONS.Youcanshowthatasourcemistakeshowthepartsofsomethingarerelated.

Smithhasarguedthatsportsarecrucialtoaneducatedperson,butinfactathleticshavenoplaceincollege.

1.SourceclaimsthatXisapartofY,butmaybeit snot.

2.SourceclaimsthatpartofXrelatestoanotherofitspartsinacertainway,butmaybeitdoesn t.

3.SourceclaimsthateveryXhasYasoneofitsparts,butmaybeitdoesn t.

4.1.2.3DEVELOPMENTALOFHISTORICALCONTRADICTIONS.Youcanshowthatasourcemistakestheoriginanddevelopmentofatopic.

Smitharguesthattheworldpopulationwillcontinuetorise,butitwillnot.

1.SourceclaimsthatXischanging,butmaybeit snot.

2.SourceclaimsthatXoriginatedinY,butmaybeitdidn t.

3.SourceclaimsthatXdevelopsinacertainway,butmaybeitdoesn t.

4.1.2.4EXTERNALCAUSE-EFFECTCONTRADICTIONS.Youcanshowthatasourcemistakesacausalrelationship:

Smithclaimsthatjuvenilescanbestoppedfrombecomingcriminalsby“bootcamps.”Butevidenceshowsthatitmakesthemmore

likelytobecomecriminals.

1.SourceclaimsthatXcausesY,butmaybeitdoesn t.

2.SourceclaimsthatXcausesY,butmaybetheyarebothcausedbyZ.

3.SourceclaimsthatXissufficienttocauseY,butmaybeit snot.

4.SourceclaimsthatXcausesonlyY,butmaybeitalsocausesZ.

4.1.2.5CONTRADICTIONSOFPERSPECTIVE.Mostcontradictionsdon tchangeaconceptualframework,butwhenyoucancontradicta

standardviewofthings,youurgeotherstothinkinanewway.

Smithassumesthatadvertisingisapurelyeconomicfunction,butitalsoservesasalaboratoryfornewartforms.

1.SourcediscussesXinthecontextoforfromthepointofviewofY,butmaybeanewcontextorpointofviewrevealsanewtruth

(theneworoldcontextcanbesocial,political,philosophical,historical,economic,ethical,genderspecific,etc.).

2.SourceanalyzesXusingtheory/valuesystemY,butmaybeyoucananalyzeXfromanewpointofviewandseeitinanewway.

Aswesaid,youprobablywon tbeabletoengagesourcesinthesewaysuntilafteryou vereadenoughtoformsomeviewsofyour

own.Butifyoukeepthesewaysofthinkinginmindasyoubegintoread,you llengageyoursourcessoonerandmoreproductively.

Ofcourse,onceyoudiscoverthatyoucanproductivelyagreeordisagreewithasource,youshouldaskSowhat?Sowhatifyou

canshowthatwhileSmithclaimsthateasternersdidnotembracethestoryoftheAlamoenthusiastically,infactmanydid?

4.2TakeNotesSystematically

Liketheotherstepsinaresearchproject,note-takinggoesbetterwithaplan.

4.2.1CreateTemplatesforNotes

Youwilltakenotesmorereliablyifyousetupasystemthatencouragesyoutothinkbeyondthemerecontentofyoursourcesby

analyzingandorganizingthatcontentintousefulcategories.Afewinstructorsstillrecommendtakingnotesinlonghandon3x5

cards,asinfigure4.1.Acardlikethatmayseemold-fashioned,butitprovidesatemplateforefficientnote-taking,evenifyoutake

notesonalaptop.(Startanewpageforeachgeneralideaorclaimthatyourecordfromasource.)Hereisaplanforsuchatemplate:

■Atthetopofeachnewpage,createaspaceforbibliographicdata(author,shorttitle,pagenumber).

■Createanotherspaceatthetopforkeywords(seeupperrightoffigure4.1).Thosewordswilllaterletyousortandre-sortyour

notesbysubjectmatter(formoreonkeywords,see4.3.4).

■Createdifferentplacesoneachnewpagefordifferentkindsofnotes.Youmightevenlabeltheplaces(seefig.4.1,withplacesfor

Claim,Data,andMyQs).

■Inparticular,createasectionspecificallydedicatedtoyourownresponses,agreements,disagreements,speculations,andsoon.

Thatwillencourageyoutodomorethansimplyrecordthecontentofwhatyouread.

■Whenyouquotethewordsofasource,recordtheminadistinctivecolororfontsizeandstylesothatyoucanrecognizequotations

ataglance,andenclosetheminlargequotationmarksincasethefilelosesitsformatting.

■Whenyouparaphraseapassage(see4.2.2),recordtheparaphraseinadistinctivecolororfontsothatyoucan tpossiblymistakeit

foryourownideas,andencloseitincurlybrackets(incasethefilelosesitsformatting).

Ifyoucan ttakenotesdirectlyonacomputer,makepapercopiesofthetemplate.

Figure4.1.Exampleofanotecard

4.2.2KnowWhentoSummarize,Paraphrase,orQuote

Itwouldtakeyouforevertotranscribetheexactwordsofeverysourceyoumightwanttouse,soyoumustknowwhennottoquote

buttosummarizeorparaphrase.

Summarizewhenyouneedonlythegeneralpointofapassage,section,orevenwholearticleorbook.Summaryisusefulfor

generalcontextorrelatedbutnotspecificallyrelevantdataorviews.Asummaryofasourceneverservesasgoodevidence(see5.4.2

formoreonevidence).

Paraphrasewhenyoucanrepresentwhatasourcesaysmoreclearlyorpointedlythanitdoes.Paraphrasedoesn tmeanjust

changingawordortwo.Youmustuseyourownwordsandyourownphrasingtoreplacemostofthewordsandphrasingofthe

passage(see7.9.2).Adirectquotationalwaysservesasbetterevidencethanaparaphrasedoes.

Recordexactquotationswhentheyservethesepurposes:

■Thequotedwordsconstituteevidencethatbacksupyourreasons.If,forexample,youwantedtoclaimthatpeopleindifferent

regionsrespondedtotheBattleoftheAlamodifferently,youwouldquoteexactwordsfromdifferentnewspapers.Youwould

paraphrasethemifyouneededonlytheirgeneralsentiments.

■Thewordsarefromanauthoritywhobacksupyourview.

■Theyarestrikinglyoriginal.

■Theyexpressyourideassocompellinglythatthequotationcanframetherestofyourdiscussion.

■Theystateaviewthatyoudisagreewith,andtobefairyouwanttostatethatviewexactly.

Ifyoudon trecordimportantwordsnow,youcan tquotethemlater.Socopyorphotocopymorepassagesthanyouthinkyou ll

need(formoreonphotocopying,see4.3.1).Neverabbreviateaquotationthinkingyoucanaccuratelyreconstructitlater.Youcan t.

Ifyoumisquote,youfatallyundermineyourcredibility,sodouble-checkyourquoteagainsttheoriginal.Thencheckitagain.

4.2.3GuardagainstInadvertentPlagiarism

Sloppynote-takinghascausedgriefforstudentsandprofessionalsalike,rangingfromridiculefortrivialerrorstoprofessionalexile

forinadvertentplagiarism.Toavoidthatrisk,committoheartthesetwoironrulesforrecordinginformationinnotes:

■Alwaysunambiguouslyidentifywordsandideasfromasourcesothatweeksormonthslateryoucannotpossiblymistakethemfor

yourown.Asrecommendedabove,recordquotationsandparaphraseswithquotationmarks,aswellasinafontthat

unambiguouslydistinguishesthemfromyourownideas.

■Neverparaphraseasourcesocloselythatareadercanmatchthephrasingandsenseofyourwordswiththoseinyoursource(see

7.9.2).

Infact,ratherthanretypingquotationsofmorethanafewlines,downloadorphotocopythem.Addtothetopofthedownloadedor

photocopiedpagethenameofthesourceandkeywordsforsorting.

Thisisimportant:neverassumethatyoucanusewhatyoufindonlinewithoutcitingitssource,evenifit sfreeandpublicly

available.Nothingreleasesyoufromthedutytoacknowledgeyouruseofanythingyoudidnotpersonallycreateyourself.(Formore

onplagiarism,see7.9.)

4.3TakeUsefulNotes

Readerswilljudgeyourreportnotjustbythequalityofyoursourcesandhowaccuratelyyoureportthembutalsobyhowdeeplyyou

engagethem.Todothat,youmusttakenotesinawaythatnotonlyreflectsbutencouragesagrowingunderstandingofyourproject.

4.3.1UseNote-TakingtoAdvanceYourThinking

Manyinexperiencedresearchersthinkthatnote-takingisamatterofmerelyrecordingdata.Oncetheyfindasource,theydownload

orphotocopypagesorwritedownexactlywhat sonthem.Recordingandphotocopyingcanhelpyouquoteorparaphraseaccurately,

butifthat sallyoudo,ifyoudon tengageyoursourcesactively,youwillsimplyaccumulatealotofinertdatathatarelikelytobe

equallyinertinyourreport.

Ifyouphotocopylotsoftext,annotateitinawaythatengagesyourcriticalthinking.Startbypickingoutthosesentencesthat

expresscrucialelementsinachapterorarticle(itsclaim,majorreasons,andsoon).Highlightorlabeltheminthemargin.Then

markideasordatathatyouexpecttoincludeinyourreport.(Ifyouuseahighlighter,usedifferentcolorstoindicatethesedifferent

elements.)

Thenonthebackofthephotocopiedpages,summarizewhatyou vehighlightedorsketcharesponsetoit,ormakenotesinthe

marginthathelpyouinterpretthehighlighting.Themoreyouwriteaboutasourcenow,thebetteryouwillunderstandand

rememberitlater.

4.3.2TakeNotesRelevanttoYourQuestionandWorkingHypothesis

Tomakeyournotesmostuseful,recordnotjustthefactsthatyouthinkyoucanuseasevidencebutalsodatathathelpyouexplain

thosefactsandtheirrelationshiptoyourclaim.Youcancreateanotestemplatetohelpyouremembertolookforseveraldifferent

kindsofinformation(see4.2.1).

Thefirstthreeitemsaredirectlyrelevanttoyourworkinghypothesis:

■reasonsthatsupportyourhypothesisorsuggestanewone

■evidencethatsupportsyourreasons

■viewsthatundermineorevencontradictyourhypothesis

Donotlimityournotestosupportingdata.Youwillneedtorespondtodatathatqualifyorevencontradictyourhypothesiswhen

youmakeyourcaseinsupportofit(see5.4.3).

Thesenextitemsmightnotsupportorchallengeyourhypothesis,buttheymayhelpyouexplainitscontextorsimplymakeyour

reportmorereadable:

■historicalbackgroundofyourquestionandwhatauthoritieshavesaidaboutit,particularlyearlierresearch(see6.2.2and10.1.1)

■historicalorcontemporarycontextthatexplainstheimportanceofyourquestion

■importantdefinitionsandprinciplesofanalysis

■analogies,comparisons,andanecdotesthatmightnotdirectlysupportyourhypothesisbutdoexplainorillustratecomplicated

issuesorsimplymakeyouranalysismoreinteresting

■strikinglyoriginallanguagerelevanttoyourtopic

4.3.3RecordRelevantContext

Thosewhomisreportsourcesdeliberatelyaredishonest,butanhonestresearchercanmisleadinadvertentlyifshemerelyrecords

wordsandignorestheirroleorqualifications.Toguardagainstmisleadingyourreader,followtheseguidelines:

1.Donotassumethatasourceagreeswithawriterwhenthesourcesummarizesthatwriter slineofreasoning.Quoteonlywhata

sourcebelieves,notitsaccountofsomeoneelse sbeliefs,unlessthataccountisrelevant.

2.Recordwhysourcesagree,becausewhytheyagreecanbeasimportantaswhytheydon t.Twopsychologistsmightagreethat

teenagedrinkingiscausedbysocialinfluences,butonemightcitefamilybackground,theotherpeerpressure.

3.Recordthecontextofaquotation.Whenyounoteanimportantconclusion,recordtheauthor slineofreasoning:

NotBartolli(p.123):Thewarwascaused…byZ.

ButBartolli:ThewarwascausedbyYandZ(p.123),butthemostimportantwasZ(p.123),fortworeasons:First,…(pp.124–

26);Second,…(p.126)

Evenifyoucareonlyaboutaconclusion,you lluseitmoreaccuratelyifyourecordhowawriterreachedit.

4.Recordthescopeandconfidenceofeachstatement.Donotmakeasourceseemmorecertainorexpansivethanitis.Thesecond

sentencebelowdoesn treportthefirstfairlyoraccurately.

Onestudyontheperceptionofrisk(Wilson1988)suggestsacorrelationbetweenhigh-stakesgamblingandsingle-parent

families.

Wilson(1988)sayssingle-parentfamiliescausehigh-stakesgambling.

5.Recordhowasourceusesastatement.Notewhetherit sanimportantclaim,aminorpoint,aqualificationorconcession,andso

on.Suchdistinctionshelpyouavoidmistakeslikethis:

OriginalbyJones:Wecannotconcludethatoneeventcausesanotherbecausethesecondfollowsthefirst.Norcanstatistical

correlationprovecausation.Butnoonewhohasstudiedthedatadoubtsthatsmokingisacausalfactorinlungcancer.

Misleadingreport:Jonesclaims“wecannotconcludethatoneeventcausesanotherbecausethesecondfollowsthefirst.Nor

canstatisticalcorrelationprovecausation.”Therefore,statisticalevidenceisnotareliableindicatorthatsmokingcauseslung

cancer.

4.3.4CategorizeYourNotesforSorting

Finally,aconceptuallydemandingtask:asyoutakenotes,categorizethecontentofeachoneundertwoormoredifferentkeywords

(seetheupperrightcornerofthenotecardinfig.4.1).Avoidmechanicallyusingwordsonlyfromthenote:categorizethenoteby

whatitimplies,byageneralidealargerthanthespecificcontentofthenote.Ifyou veusedonlinesearchenginesinyourhuntfor

sources,youwillalreadyhavefollowedsomekeywordtrails(see3.3.2).Recordthesekeywordtagsexactlyastheyappearinthe

searchresults.Keepalistofthekeywordsyouuse,andusethesameonesforrelatednotes.Donotcreateanewkeywordforevery

newnote.

Thisstepiscrucialbecauseitforcesyoutodistillthecontentofanotedowntoawordortwo,andifyoutakenotesona

computer,thosekeywordswillletyouinstantlygrouprelatednoteswithasingleFind-command.Ifyouusemorethanonekeyword,

youcanrecombineyournotesindifferentwaystodiscovernewrelationships(especiallyimportantwhenyoufeelyouarespinning

yourwheels;see4.5.3).

4.4WriteasYouRead

We vesaidthisbefore(andwillagain):writingforcesyoutothinkhard,sodon twaittonaildownanideainyourmindbeforeyou

writeitoutonthepage.Experiencedresearchersknowthatthemoretheywrite,thesoonerandbettertheyunderstandtheirproject.

Thereisgoodevidencethatthemostsuccessfulresearcherssetafixedtimetowriteeveryday fromfifteenminutestomorethanan

hour.Theymightonlydraftaparagraphthatrespondstoasource,summarizesalineofreasoning,orspeculatesaboutanewclaim.

Buttheywritesomething,nottostartafirstdraftoftheirreportbuttosortouttheirideasandmaybediscovernewones.Ifyoumiss

yourgoals,postaschedulebyyourcomputer.

Ifyouwritesomethingthatseemspromising,addittoyourstory-board.Youwillalmostcertainlyreviseitforyourfinaldraft,

maybeevenomititentirely.Butevenifyoureuselittleofit,themoreyouwritenow,nomatterhowsketchily,themoreeasilyyou ll

draftlater.Preparatorywritinganddraftingaren twhollydifferent,butit sagoodideatothinkofthemasdistinctsteps.

Ifyou renewtoatopic,muchofthisearlywritingmaybejustsummaryandparaphrase.Whenyourereadit,youmightseefew

ofyourownideasandfeeldiscouragedatyourlackoforiginalthinking.Don tbe.Summarizingandparaphrasingarehowweall

gaincontrolovernewdata,newandcomplicatedideas,evennewwaysofthinking.Writingoutwhatwearetryingtounderstandisa

typical,probablyevennecessary,stageinjustabouteveryone slearningcurve.

4.5ReviewYourProgress

Regularlyreviewyournotesandstoryboardtoseewhereyouareandwhereyouhavetogo.Fullpagesindicatereasonswithsupport;

emptypagesindicateworktodo.Considerwhetheryourworkinghypothesisisstillplausible.Doyouhavegoodreasonssupporting

it?Goodevidencetosupportthosereasons?Canyouaddnewreasonsorevidence?

4.5.1SearchYourNotesforanAnswer

Wehaveurgedyoutofindaworkinghypothesisoratleastaquestiontoguideyourresearch.Butsomewritersstartwithaquestion

sovaguethatitevaporatesastheypursueit.Ifthathappenstoyou,searchyournotesforageneralizationthatmightbeacandidate

foraworkinghypothesis,thenworkbackwardtofindthequestionitanswers.

Lookfirstforquestions,disagreements,orpuzzlesinyoursourcesandinyourreactiontothem(see2.1.3and4.1).What

surprisesyoumightsurpriseothers.Trytostatethatsurprise:

IexpectedthefirstmythicstoriesoftheAlamotooriginateinTexas,buttheydidnʼt.Theyoriginatedin…

ThattentativehypothesissuggeststhattheAlamomythbeganasanational,notaregional,phenomenon amodestbutpromising

start.

Ifyoucan tfindahypothesisinyournotes,lookforapatternofideasthatmightleadyoutoone.Ifyougathereddatawitha

vaguequestion,youprobablysortedthemunderpredictablekeywords.Formasks,thecategoriesmightbetheirorigins(African,

Indian,Japanese, ),uses(drama,religion,carnival, ),materials(gold,feather,wood,...),andsoon.Forexample:

Egyptians—mummymasksofgoldfornobility,woodforothers.

Aztecs—masksfromgoldandjadeburiedonlyinthegravesofthenobility.

NewGuineatribes—masksforthedeadfromfeathersfromrarebirds.

ThosefactscouldsupportageneralstatementsuchasMask-makingculturesusethemostvaluablematerialsavailabletocreate

religiousmasks,especiallyforthedead.

Onceyoucangeneratetwoorthreesuchstatements,trytoformulateastilllargergeneralizationthatmightincludethemall:

Manyculturesinvestgreatmaterialandhumanresourcesincreatingmasksthatrepresenttheirdeepestvalues.

generalization

Egyptians,Aztecs,andOceanicculturesallcreatedreligiousmasksoutoftherarestandmostvaluablematerials.Althoughin

Oceanicculturesmostmalesparticipateinmask-making,boththeEgyptiansandAztecssetasidesomeoftheirmosttalented

artistsandcraftsmenformask-making.

Ifyouthinkthatsomereadersmightplausiblydisagreewiththatgeneralization,youmightbeabletoofferitasaclaimthatcorrects

theirmisunderstanding.

4.5.2InventtheQuestion

Nowcomesatrickypart.It slikereverseengineering:you vefoundtheanswertoaquestionthatyouhaven tyetasked,soyouhave

toreasonbackwardtoinventthequestionthatyournewgeneralizationanswers.Inthiscase,itmightbeWhatsignsindicatethe

significanceofmasksinthesocietiesofthosewhomakeandusethem?Asparadoxicalasitmayseem,experiencedresearchersoften

discovertheirquestionaftertheyanswerit,theproblemtheyshouldhaveposedaftertheysolveit.

4.5.3Re-sortYourNotes

Ifnoneofthathelps,tryre-sortingyournotes.Whenyoufirstselectedkeywordsforyournotes,youidentifiedgeneralconceptsthat

couldorganizenotjustyourevidencebutyourthinking.Ifyouchosekeywordsrepresentingthoseconceptscarefully,youcanre-sort

yournotesindifferentwaystogetanewslantonyourmaterial.Ifyourkeywordsnolongerseemrelevant,reviewyournotesto

createnewonesandreshuffleagain.

4.6ManageMomentsofNormalPanic

Thismaybethetimetoaddressaproblemthatafflictsevenexperiencedresearchersandatsomepointwillprobablyafflictyou.As

youshufflethroughhundredsofnotesandadozenlinesofthought,youstartfeelingthatyou renotjustspinningyourwheelsbut

spiralingdownintoablackholeofconfusion,paralyzedbywhatseemstobeanincreasinglycomplexandultimatelyunmanageable

task.

Thebadnewsisthatthere snosurewaytoavoidsuchmoments.Thegoodnewsisthatmostofushavethemandtheyusually

pass.Yourswilltooifyoukeepmovingalong,followingyourplan,takingonsmallandmanageabletasksinsteadoftryingto

confrontthecomplexityofthewholeproject.It sanotherreasontostartearly,tobreakabigprojectintoitssmalleststeps,andtoset

achievabledeadlines,suchasadailypagequotawhenyoudraft.

Manywriterstrytolearnfromtheirresearchexperiencebykeepingajournal,adiaryofwhattheydidandfound,thelinesof

thoughttheypursued,whytheyfollowedsomeandgaveuponothers.Writingisagoodwaytothinkmoreclearlyaboutyour

reading,butit salsoagoodwaytothinkmoreclearlyaboutyourthinking.

5PlanningYourArgument

5.1WhataResearchArgumentIsandIsNot

5.2BuildYourArgumentaroundAnswerstoReaders Questions

5.3TurnYourWorkingHypothesisintoaClaim

5.4AssembletheElementsofYourArgument

5.4.1StateandEvaluateYourClaim

5.4.2SupportYourClaimwithReasonsandEvidence

5.4.3AcknowledgeandRespondtoReadersʼPointsofView

5.4.4EstablishtheRelevanceofYourReasons

5.5DistinguishArgumentsBasedonEvidencefromArgumentsBasedonWarrants

5.6AssembleanArgument

Mostofuswouldratherreadthanwrite.Thereisalwaysanotherarticletoread,onemoresourcetotrackdown,justabitmoredata

togather.Butwellbeforeyou vedonealltheresearchyou dliketodo,therecomesapointwhenyoumuststartthinkingaboutthe

firstdraftofyourreport.Youmightbereadywhenyourstoryboardstartstofillupandyou resatisfiedwithhowitlooks.Youwill

knowyou rereadywhenyouthinkyoucansketchareasonablecasetosupportyourworkinghypothesis(see2.3).Ifyourstoryboard

isfullandyoustillcan tpulltogetheracasestrongenoughtoplanadraft,youmayhavetorethinkyourhypothesis,perhapseven

yourquestion.Butyoucan tbecertainwhereyoustandinthatprocessuntilyoutrytoplanthatfirstdraft.

Ifyou renotanexperiencedwriter,wesuggestplanningyourfirstdraftintwosteps:

■Sortyournotesintotheelementsofaresearchargument.

■Organizethoseelementsintoacoherentform.

Inthischapter,weexplainhowtoassembleyourargument;inthenext,howtoorganizeit.Asyougainexperience,you lllearnto

combinethosetwostepsintoone.

5.1WhataResearchArgumentIsandIsNot

Thewordargumenthasbadassociationsthesedays,partlybecauseradioandTVstagesomanyabrasiveones.Buttheargumentina

researchreportdoesn ttrytointimidateanopponentintosilenceorsubmission.Infact,there srarelyan opponent atall.Likeany

goodargument,aresearchargumentresemblesanamiableconversationinwhichyouandyourimaginedreadersreasontogetherto

solveaproblemwhosesolutiontheydon tyetfullyaccept.Thatdoesn tmeantheyopposeyourclaims(thoughtheymight).Itmeans

onlythattheywon tacceptthemuntiltheyseegoodreasonsbasedonreliableevidenceanduntilyourespondtotheirreasonable

questionsandreservations.

Inface-to-faceconversation,making(nothaving)acooperativeargumentiseasy.Youstateyourreasonsandevidencenotasa

lecturerwouldtoasilentaudiencebutasyouwouldengagetalkativefriendssittingaroundatablewithyou:youofferaclaimand

somereasonstobelieveit;theyprobefordetails,raiseobjections,oroffertheirpointsofview;yourespond,perhapswithquestions

ofyourown;andtheyaskmorequestions.Atitsbest,it sanamiablebutthoughtfulback-and-forththatdevelopsandteststhebest

casethatyouandtheycanmaketogether.

Inwriting,thatkindofcooperationisharder,becauseyouusuallywritealone(unlessyou reinawritinggroup;see2.4),andso

youmustnotonlyansweryourimaginedreaders questionsbutaskthemontheirbehalf asoftenandassharplyasrealreaders

will.Butyouraimisn tjusttothinkupcleverrhetoricalstrategiesthatwillpersuadereaderstoacceptyourclaimregardlessofhow

gooditis.Itistotestyourclaimandespeciallyitssupport,sothatwhenyousubmityourreporttoyourreaders,youofferthemthe

bestcaseyoucanmake.Inagoodresearchreport,readersheartracesofthatimaginedconversation.

Nowaswe vesaid,reasoningbasedonevidenceisn ttheonlywaytoreachasoundconclusion,sometimesnoteventhebestway.

Weoftenmakegooddecisionsbyrelyingonintuition,feelings,orspiritualinsight.Butwhenwetrytoexplainwhywebelieveour

claimsaresoundandwhyothersshouldtoo,wehavenowaytodemonstratehowwereachedthem,becausewecan tofferintuitions

orfeelingsasevidenceforreaderstoevaluate.Wecanonlysaywehadthemandaskreaderstotakeourclaimonfaith,arequestthat

thoughtfulreadersrarelygrant.

Whenyoumakearesearchargument,however,youmustlayoutyourreasonsandevidencesothatyourreaderscanconsider

them;thenyoumustimagineboththeirquestionsandyouranswers.Thatsoundsharderthanitis.

5.2BuildYourArgumentaroundAnswerstoReadersʼQuestions

Itiseasytoimaginethekindofconversationyoumusthavewithyourreaders,becauseyouhavethemeveryday:

A:Ihearyouhadahardtimelastsemester.Howdoyouthinkthisonewillgo?[Aposesaproblemintheformofaquestion.]

B:Better,Ihope.[Banswersthequestion.]

A:Whyso?[AasksforareasontobelieveBʼsanswer.]

B:Iʼmtakingcoursesinmymajor.[Boffersareason.]

A:Likewhat?[AasksforevidencetobackupBʼsreason.]

B:HistoryofArt,IntrotoDesign.[Boffersevidencetobackuphisreason.]

A:Whywilltakingcoursesinyourmajormakeadifference?[AdoesnʼtseetherelevanceofBʼsreasontohisclaimthathewilldo

better.]

B:WhenItakecoursesIʼminterestedin,Iworkharder.[Boffersageneralprinciplethatrelateshisreasontohisclaimthathewill

dobetter.]

A:Whataboutthatmathcourseyouhavetotake?[AobjectstoBʼsreason.]

B:IknowIhadtodropitlasttimeItookit,butIfoundagoodtutor.[BacknowledgesAʼsobjectionandrespondstoit.]

IfyoucanseeyourselfasAorB,you llfindnothingnewintheargumentofaresearchreport,becauseyoubuildoneoutofthe

answerstothosesamefivequestions.

■Whatisyourclaim?

■Whatreasonssupportit?

■Whatevidencesupportsthosereasons?

■Howdoyourespondtoobjectionsandalternativeviews?

■Whatprinciplemakesyourreasonsrelevanttoyourclaim?

Ifyouaskandanswerthosefivequestions,youcan tbesurethatyourreaderswillacceptyourclaim,butyoumakeitmorelikely

thatthey lltakeit andyou seriously.

5.3TurnYourWorkingHypothesisintoaClaim

Wedescribedtheearlystagesofresearchasfindingaquestionandimaginingatentativeanswer.Wecalledthatansweryour

workinghypothesis.Nowaswediscussbuildinganargumenttosupportthathypothesis,wechangeourterminologyalasttime.

Whenyouthinkyoucanwriteareportthatbacksupyourhypothesiswithgoodreasonsandevidence,you llpresentthathypothesis

asyourargument sclaim.Yourclaimisthecenterofyourargument,thepointofyourreport(someteacherscallitathesis).

5.4AssembletheElementsofYourArgument

Atthecoreofyourargumentarethreeelements:yourclaim,yourreasonsforacceptingit,andtheevidencethatsupportsthose

reasons.Tothatcoreyou lladdoneandperhapstwomoreelements:onerespondstoquestions,objections,andalternativepointsof

view;theotheranswersthosewhodonotunderstandhowyourreasonsarerelevanttoyourclaim.

5.4.1StateandEvaluateYourClaim

Startanewfirstpageofyourstoryboard(oroutline).Atthebottom,stateyourclaiminasentenceortwo.Beasspecificasyoucan,

becausethewordsinthisclaimwillhelpyouplanandexecuteyourdraft.Avoidvaguevaluewordslikeimportant,interesting,

significant,andthelike.Comparethetwofollowingclaims:

Masksplayasignificantroleinmanyreligiousceremonies.

Inculturesfrompre-ColumbianAmericatoAfricaandAsia,masksallowreligiouscelebrantstobringdeitiestolifesothatworshipers

experiencethemdirectly.

Nowjudgethesignificanceofyourclaim(Sowhat?again).Asignificantclaimdoesn tmakeareaderthinkIknowthat,butrather

Really?Howinteresting.Whatmakesyouthinkso?(Review2.1.1.)Thesenexttwoclaimsaretootrivialtojustifyreading,muchless

writing,areporttobackthemup:

ThisreportdiscussesteachingpopularlegendssuchastheBattleoftheAlamotoelementaryschoolstudents.(Sowhatifitdoes?)

TeachingournationalhistorythroughpopularlegendssuchastheBattleoftheAlamoiscommoninelementaryeducation.(Sowhat

ifitis?)

Ofcourse,whatyourreaderswillcountasinterestingdependsonwhattheyknow,andifyou reearlyinyourresearchcareer,

that ssomethingyoucan tpredict.Ifyou rewritingoneofyourfirstreports,assumethatyourmostimportantreaderisyou.Itis

enoughifyoualonethinkyouranswerissignificant,ifitmakesyouthink,Well,Ididn tknowthatwhenIstarted.If,however,you

thinkyourownclaimisvagueortrivial,you renotreadytoassembleanargumenttosupportit,becauseyouhavenoreasontomake

one.

5.4.2SupportYourClaimwithReasonsandEvidence

Itmayseemobviousthatyoumustbackupaclaimwithreasonsandevidence,butit seasytoconfusethosetwowordsbecausewe

oftenusethemasiftheymeantthesamething:

Whatreasonsdoyoubaseyourclaimon?

Whatevidencedoyoubaseyourclaimon?

Buttheymeandifferentthings:

■Wethinkuplogicalreasons,butwecollecthardevidence;wedon tcollecthardreasonsandthinkuplogicalevidence.Andwebase

reasonsonevidence;wedon tbaseevidenceonreasons.

■Areasonisabstract,andyoudon thavetociteitssource(ifyouthoughtofit).Evidenceusuallycomesfromoutsideyourmind,so

youmustalwaysciteitssource,evenifyoufounditthroughyourownobservationorexperiment;thenyoumustshowwhatyou

didtofindit.

■Reasonsneedthesupportofevidence;evidenceshouldneednosupportbeyondareferencetoareliablesource.

Theproblemisthatwhatyouthinkisatruefactandthereforehardevidence,yourreadersmightnot.Forexample,supposea

researcheroffersthisclaimandreason:

EarlyAlamostoriesreflectedvaluesalreadyintheAmericancharacter.

claim

ThestoryalmostinstantlybecamealegendofAmerican

heroicsacrifice.

reason

Tosupportthatreason,sheoffersthis hard evidence:

Soonafterthebattle,manynewspapersusedthestorytocelebrateourheroicnationalcharacter.

evidence

Ifreadersacceptthatstatementasafact,theymayacceptitasevidence.Butskepticalreaders,thekindyoushouldexpect(even

hopefor),arelikelytoaskHowsoonis soon ?Howmanyis many ?Whichpapers?Innewsstoriesoreditorials?Whatexactlydid

theysay?Howmanypapersdidn tmentionit?

Tobesure,readersmayacceptaclaimbasedonlyonareason,ifthatreasonseemsself-evidentlytrueorisfromatrusted

authority:

Weareallcreatedequal,

reason

sonoonehasanaturalrighttogovernus.

claim

Infact,instructorsinintroductorycoursesoftenacceptreasonssupportedonlybywhatauthoritativesourcessay:WilsonsaysX

aboutreligiousmasks,YangsaysY,SchmidtsaysZ.Butinadvancedwork,readersexpectmore.Theywantevidencedrawnnotfrom

asecondarysourcebutfromprimarysourcesoryourownobservation.

Reviewyourstoryboard:Canyousupporteachreasonwithwhatyourreaderswillthinkisevidenceoftherightkind,quantity,

andqualityandisappropriatetotheirfield?Mightyourreadersthinkthatwhatyouofferasevidenceneedsmoresupport?Ora

bettersource?Ifso,youmustfindmoredataoracknowledgethelimitsofwhatyouhave.

Yourclaim,reasons,andevidencemakeupthecoreofyourargument,butitneedsatleastonemoreelement,maybetwo.

5.4.3AcknowledgeandRespondtoReaders PointsofView

Youmaywishitweren tso,butyourbestreaderswillbethemostcritical;they llreadfairlybutnotaccepteverythingyouwriteat

facevalue.Theywillthinkofquestions,raiseobjections,andimaginealternatives.Inconversationyoucanrespondtoquestionsas

othersaskthem.Butinwritingyoumustnotonlyanswerthosequestionsbutaskthem.Ifyoudon t,you llseemnottoknowor,

worse,nottocareaboutyourreaders views.

Readersraisetwokindsofquestions;trytoimagineandrespondtoboth.

1.Thefirstkindofquestionpointstoproblemsinsideyourargument,usuallyitsevidence.Imagineareadermakinganyofthese

criticisms,thenconstructaminiargumentinresponse:

■Yourevidenceisfromanunreliableorout-of-datesource.

■Itisinaccurate.

■Itisinsufficient.

■Itdoesn tfairlyrepresentalltheevidenceavailable.

■Itisthewrongkindofevidenceforourfield.

■Itisirrelevant,becauseitdoesnotcountasevidence.

Thenimaginethesekindsofreservationsaboutyourreasonsandhowyouwouldanswerthem:

■Yourreasonsareinconsistentorcontradictory.

■Theyaretooweakortoofewtosupportyourclaim.

■Theyareirrelevanttoyourclaim(wediscussthismatterin5.4.4).

2.Thesecondkindofquestionraisesproblemsfromoutsideyourargument.Thosewhoseetheworlddifferentlyarelikelytodefine

termsdifferently,reasondifferently,evenofferevidencethatyouthinkisirrelevant.Ifyouandyourreadersseetheworld

differently,youmustacknowledgeandrespondtotheseissuesaswell.Donottreatthesedifferingpointsofviewsimplyas

objections.Youwilllosereadersifyouarguethatyourviewisrightandtheirsiswrong.Instead,acknowledgethedifferences,

thencomparethemsothatreaderscanunderstandyourargumentonitsownterms.Theystillmightnotagree,butyou llshow

themthatyouunderstandandrespecttheirviews;theyarethenmorelikelytotrytounderstandandrespectyours.

Ifyou reanewresearcher,you llfindthesequestionshardtoimaginebecauseyoumightnotknowhowyourreaders views

differfromyourown.Evenso,trytothinkofsomeplausiblequestionsandobjections;it simportanttogetintothehabitofasking

yourselfWhatcouldcastdoubtonmyclaim?Butifyou rewritingathesisordissertation,youmustknowtheissuesthatothersin

yourfieldarelikelytoraise.Sohoweverexperiencedyouare,practiceimaginingandrespondingtosignificantobjectionsand

alternativearguments.Evenifyoujustgothroughthemotions,you llcultivateahabitofmindthatyourreaderswillrespectand

thatmaykeepyoufromjumpingtoquestionableconclusions.

Addthoseacknowledgmentsandresponsestoyourstoryboardwhereyouthinkreaderswillraisethem.

5.4.4EstablishtheRelevanceofYourReasons

Evenexperiencedresearchersfindthislastelementofargumenthardtograsp,hardertouse,andevenhardertoexplain.Itiscalled

awarrant.Youaddawarranttoyourargumentwhenyouthinkareadermightrejectyourclaimnotbecauseareasonsupportingitis

factuallywrongorisbasedoninsufficientevidence,butbecauseit sirrelevantandsodoesn tcountasareasonatall.

Forexample,imaginearesearcherwritesthisclaim.

TheAlamostoriesspreadquickly

claim

becausein1836thiscountrywasnʼtyetaconfidentplayerontheworldstage.

reason

Imaginethatshesuspectsthatherreaderswilllikelyobject,It struethattheAlamostoriesspreadquicklyandthatin1836this

countrywasn taconfidentplayerontheworldstage.ButIdon tseehownotbeingconfidentisrelevanttothestory sspreading

quickly.Thewritercan trespondsimplybyofferingmoreevidencethatthiscountrywasnotaconfidentplayerontheworldstageor

thatthestoriesinfactspreadquickly:herreaderalreadyacceptsbothastrue.Instead,shehastoexplaintherelevanceofthatreason

whyitstruthsupportsthetruthofherclaim.Todothat,sheneedsawarrant.

5.4.4.1HOWAWARRANTWORKSINCASUALCONVERSATION.Supposeyoumakethislittleargumenttoanewfriendfromafarawayland:

Itʼs5°belowzero

reason

soyoushouldwearahat.

claim

Tomostofus,thereasonseemsobviouslytosupporttheclaimandsoneedsnoexplanationofitsrelevance.Butsupposeyourfriend

asksthisoddquestion:

Sowhatifitis5°below?WhydoesthatmeanIshouldwearahat?

Thatquestionchallengesnotthetruthofthereason(itis5 below)butitsrelevancetotheclaim(youshouldwearahat).Youmight

thinkitoddthatanyonewouldaskthatquestion,butyoucouldanswerwithageneralprinciple:

Well,whenitʼscold,peopleshoulddresswarmly.

Thatsentenceisawarrant.Itstatesageneralprinciplebasedonourexperienceintheworld:whenacertaingeneralcondition

exists(it scold),we rejustifiedinsayingthatacertaingeneralconsequenceregularlyfollows(peopleshoulddresswarmly).We

thinkthatthegeneralwarrantjustifiesourspecificclaimthatourfriendshouldwearahatonthebasisofourspecificreasonthatit s

5 below,becausewe rereasoningaccordingtothisprincipleoflogic:ifageneralconditionanditsconsequencearetrue,then

specificinstancesofitmustalsobetrue.

Inmoredetail,itworkslikethis(warning:whatfollowsmaysoundlikealessoninLogic101):

■Inthewarrant,thegeneralconditionisit scold.Itregularlyleadsustodrawageneralconsequence:peopleshoulddresswarmly.

Westatethatasatrueandgeneralprinciple,Whenit scold,peopleshoulddresswarmly.

■Thespecificreason,it s5 below,isavalidinstanceofthegeneralconditionit scold.

■Thespecificclaim,youshouldwearahat,isavalidinstanceofthegeneralconsequence,peopleshoulddresswarmly.

■Sincethegeneralprinciplestatedinthewarrantistrueandthereasonandclaimarevalidinstancesofit,we re warranted to

assertastrueandvalidtheclaimwearahat.

Butnowsupposesixmonthslateryouvisityourfriendandhesaysthis:

Itʼsabove80°tonight,

reason

sowearalong-sleevedshirt.

claim

Thatmightbaffleyou:Howcouldthereason(it sabove80 )berelevanttotheclaim(wearalong-sleevedshirt)?Youmightimagine

thisgeneralprincipleasawarrant:

Whenitʼsawarmnight,peopleshoulddresswarmly.

Butthatisn ttrue.Andifyouthinkthewarrantisn ttrue,you lldenythatthereasonsupportstheclaim,becauseit sirrelevanttoit.

Butsupposeyourfriendaddsthis:

Aroundhere,whenitʼsawarmnight,youshouldprotectyourarmsfrominsectbites.

Nowtheargumentwouldmakesense,butonlyifyoubelieveallthis:

■Thewarrantistrue(whenit sawarmnight,youshouldprotectyourarmsfrominsectbites).

■Thereasonistrue(it sabove80 tonight).

■Thereasonisavalidinstanceofthegeneralcondition(80 isavalidinstanceofbeingwarm).

■Theclaimisavalidinstanceofthegeneralconsequence(wearingalong-sleevedshirtisavalidinstanceofprotectingyourarms

frominsectbites).

■Nounstatedlimitationsorexceptionsapply(acoldsnapdidn tkillallinsectsthenightbefore,thepersoncan tuseinsectrepellent

instead,andsoon).

Ifyoubelieveallthat,thenyoushouldaccepttheargumentthatwhenit s8o atnight,it sagoodideatowearalong-sleevedshirt,

atleastatthattimeandplace.

Weallknowcountlesssuchprinciples,andwelearnmoreeveryday.Ifwedidn t,wecouldn tmakeourwaythroughourdaily

lives.Infact,weexpressourfolkwisdomintheformofwarrants,butwecallthemproverbs:Whenthecat saway,themicewillplay.

Outofsight,outofmind.Coldhands,warmheart.

5.4.4.2HOWAWARRANTWORKSINANACADEMICARGUMENT.Hereisamorescholarlyexample,butitworksinthesameway:

Encyclopediasmustnothavebeenwidelyownedinearlynineteenth-centuryAmerica,

claim

becausewillsrarelymentioned

them.

reason

Assumethereasonistrue:thereislotsofevidencethatencyclopediaswereinfactrarelymentionedinearlynineteenth-century

wills.Evenso,areadermightwonderwhythatstatementisrelevanttotheclaim:Youmayberightthatmostsuchwillsdidn t

mentionencyclopedias,butsowhat?Idon tseehowthatisrelevanttoyourclaimthatfewpeopleownedone.Ifawriterexpectsthat

question,hemustanticipateitbyofferingawarrant,ageneralprinciplethatshowshowhisreasonisrelevanttohisclaim.

Thatwarrantmightbestatedlikethis:

Whenavaluedobjectwasnʼtmentionedinearlynineteenth-centurywills,itusuallywasnʼtpartoftheestate.

warrant

Willsatthattime

rarelymentionedencyclopedias,

reason

sofewpeoplemusthaveownedone.

claim

Wewouldaccepttheclaimassoundifandonlyifwebelievethefollowing:

■Thewarrantistrue.

■Thereasonisbothtrueandavalidinstanceofthegeneralconditionofthewarrant(encyclopediaswereinstancesofvalued

objects).

■Theclaimisavalidinstanceofthegeneralconsequenceofthewarrant(notowninganencyclopediaisavalidinstanceof

somethingvaluablenotbeingpartofanestate).

Andiftheresearcherfearedthatareadermightdoubtanyofthoseconditions,shewouldhavetomakeanargumentsupportingit.

Butthat snottheendoftheproblem:isthewarranttruealwaysandwithoutexception?Readersmightwonderwhetherinsome

partsofthecountrywillsmentionedonlylandandbuildings,orwhetherfewpeoplemadewillsinthefirstplace.Ifthewriter

thoughtthatreadersmightwonderaboutsuchqualifications,shewouldhavetomakeyetanotherargumentshowingthatthose

exceptionsdon tapply.

Nowyoucanseewhywesorarelysettleargumentsaboutcomplexissues:evenwhenweagreeontheevidence,wecanstill

disagreeoverhowtoreasonaboutit.

5.4.4.3TESTINGTHERELEVANCEOFAREASONTOACLAIM.Totesttherelevanceofareasontoaclaim,constructawarrantthatbridges

them.First,statethereasonandclaim,inthatorder.Here stheoriginalreasonandclaimfromthebeginningofthissection:

In1836,thiscountrywasnʼtaconfidentplayerontheworldstage,

reason

sotheAlamostoriesspreadquickly.

claim

Nowconstructageneralprinciplethatincludesthatreasonandclaim.Warrantscomeinallsortsofforms,butthemost

convenientistheWhen-thenpattern.Thiswarrant covers thereasonandclaim.

Whenacountrylacksconfidenceinitsglobalstature,itquicklyembracesstoriesofheroicmilitaryevents.

Wecanformallyrepresentthoserelationshipsasinfigure5.1.

Figure5.1.Argumentstructure

Toacceptthatclaim,readersmustacceptthefollowing:

■Thewarrantistrue.

■Thespecificreasonistrue.

■Thespecificreasonisavalidinstanceofthegeneralconditionsideofthewarrant.

■Thespecificclaimisavalidinstanceofthegeneralconsequencesideofthewarrant.

■Nolimitingconditionskeepthewarrantfromapplying.

Ifthewriterthoughtthatreadersmightdenythetruthofthatwarrantorreason,shewouldhavetomakeanargumentsupportingit.

Ifshethoughttheymightthinkthereasonorclaimwasn tavalidinstanceofthewarrant,she dhavetomakeyetanotherargument

thatitwas.

Asyougainexperience,you lllearntocheckargumentsinyourhead,butuntilthenyoumighttrytosketchoutwarrantsforyour

mostdebatablereasons.Afteryoutestawarrant,addittoyourstoryboardwhereyouthinkreaderswillneedit.Ifyouneedto

supportawarrantwithanargument,outlineitthere.

5.4.4.4WHYWARRANTSAREESPECIALLYDIFFICULTFORRESEARCHERSNEWTOAFIELD.Ifyou renewinafield,youmayfindwarrants

difficultforthesereasons:

■Advancedresearchersrarelyspellouttheirprinciplesofreasoningbecausetheyknowtheircolleaguestakethemforgranted.New

researchersmustfigurethemoutontheirown.(It slikehearingsomeonesay Wearalong-sleevedshirtbecauseit sabove8o

tonight. )

■Warrantstypicallyhaveexceptionsthatexpertsalsotakeforgrantedandthereforerarelystate,forcingnewresearcherstofigure

themoutaswell.

■Expertsalsoknowwhennottostateanobviouswarrantoritslimitations,onemorethingnewresearchersmustlearnontheir

own.Forexample,ifanexpertwroteIt searlyJune,sowecanexpectthatwe llsoonpaymoreforgasoline,hewouldn tstatethe

obviouswarrant:Whensummerapproaches,gaspricesrise.

Ifyouofferawell-knownbutrarelystatedwarrant,you llseemcondescendingornaive.Butifyoufailtostateonethatreadersneed,

you llseemillogical.Thetrickislearningwhenreadersneedoneandwhentheydon t.Thattakestimeandfamiliaritywiththe

conventionsofyourfield.

Sodon tbedismayedifwarrantsseemconfusing;they redifficultevenforexperiencedwriters.Butknowingaboutthemshould

encourageyoutoaskthiscrucialquestion:inadditiontothetruthofyourreasonsandevidence,willyourreadersseetheirrelevance

toyourclaim?Iftheymightnot,youmustmakeanargumentdemonstratingit.

5.5DistinguishArgumentsBasedonEvidencefromArgumentsBasedonWarrants

Finally,it simportanttonotethattherearetwokindsofargumentsthatreadersjudgeindifferentways:

■Oneinfersaclaimfromareasonandwarrant.Theclaiminthatkindofargumentisbelievedtobecertainlytrue.

■Theotherbasesaclaimonreasonsbasedonevidence.Theclaiminthatkindofargumentisconsideredtobeprobablytrue.

Asparadoxicalasitmayseem,researchersputmorefaithinthesecondkindofargument,thekindbasedonevidence,thaninthe

first.

Thisargumentpresentsaclaimbasedonareasonbasedonevidence:

Needle-exchangeprogramscontributetoincreaseddrugusage.

claim

Whentheirparticipantsrealizethattheycanavoidtheriskof

diseasefrominfectedneedles,theyfeelencouragedtousemoredrugs.

reason

Astudyofthosewhoparticipatedinonesuch

programreportedthat34%oftheparticipantsincreasedtheiruseofdrugsfrom1.7to2.1timesaweekbecausetheysaid

theyfeltprotectedfromneedle-transmitteddiseases.

evidence

Ifweconsidertheevidencetobebothsoundandsufficient(wemightnot),thentheclaimseemsreasonable,thoughbynomeans

certain,becausesomeonemightfindnewandbetterevidencethatcontradictstheevidenceofferedhere.

Thisnextargumentmakesthesameclaimbasedonthesamereason,buttheclaimissupportednotbyevidencebutbylogic.The

claimmustbetrueifthewarrantandreasonaretrueandifthereasonandclaimarevalidinstancesofthewarrant:

Needle-exchangeprogramscontributetoincreaseddrugusage.

claim

Whenparticipantsrealizethattheycanavoidtheriskof

diseasefrominfectedneedles,theyfeelencouragedtousemoredrugs.

reason

Whenevertheconsequencesofriskybehaviorare

reduced,peopleengageinitmoreoften.

warrant

Butwehavetobelievethatthewarrantisalwaystrueinallcaseseverywhere,aclaimthatmostofuswould orshould deny.Few

ofusdriverecklesslybecausecarshaveseatbeltsandcollapsiblesteeringcolumns.

Allargumentsrelyonwarrants,butreadersofaresearchargumentaremorelikelytotrustaclaimwhenit snotinferredfroma

principlebutratherbasedonevidence,becausenomatterhowplausiblegeneralprinciplesseem,theyhavetoomanyexceptions,

qualifications,andlimitations.Thosewhomakeclaimsbasedonwhattheythinkareunassailableprinciplestoooftenmissthose

complications,becausetheyareconvincedthattheirprinciplesmustberightregardlessofevidencetothecontrary,andiftheir

principlesareright,soaretheirinferences.Suchargumentsaremoreideologicalthanfactual.Sosupportyourclaimswithasmuch

strongevidenceasyoucan,evenwhenyouthinkyouhavethepoweroflogiconyourside.Addawarranttonaildownaninference,

butbasetheinferenceonevidenceaswell.

5.6AssembleanArgument

Hereisasmallargumentthatfitstogetherallfiveparts:

TVaimedatchildrencanaidtheirintellectualdevelopment,butthatcontributionhasbeenoffsetbyafactorthatcoulddamagetheir

emotionaldevelopment—toomuchviolence.

claim

Parentsagreethatexampleisanimportantinfluenceonachildʼsdevelopment.

Thatʼswhyparentstelltheirchildrenstoriesaboutheroes.Itseemsplausible,then,thatwhenchildrenseedegradingbehavior,they

willbeaffectedbyitaswell.Inasingleday,childrenseecountlessexamplesofviolence.

reason

Everyday,theaveragechild

watchesalmostfourhoursofTVandseesabouttwelveactsofviolence(Smith1992).

evidence

Tarnovhasshownthatchildrendonʼt

confusecartoonviolencewithreallife(2003).

acknowledgmentofalternativepointofview

Butthatmaymakechildrenmorevulnerableto

violenceinothershows.Iftheyonlydistinguishbetweencartoonsandpeople,theymaythinkrealactorsengagedingraphic

violencerepresentreallife.

response

WecannotignorethepossibilitythatTVviolenceencouragesthedevelopmentofviolent

adults.

claimrestated

Mostofthoseelementscouldbeexpandedtofillmanyparagraphs.

Argumentsindifferentfieldslookdifferent,buttheyallconsistofanswerstojustthesefivequestions:

■Whatareyouclaiming?

■Whatareyourreasons?

■Whatevidencesupportsyourreasons?

■Butwhataboutotherpointsofview?

■Whatprinciplemakesyourreasonsrelevanttoyourclaim?

Yourstoryboardshouldanswerthosequestionsmanytimes.Ifitdoesn t,yourreportwillseemincompleteandunconvincing.

6PlanningaFirstDraft
6.1AvoidUnhelpfulPlans
6.2CreateaPlanThatMeetsYourReaders Needs
6.2.1ConvertingaStoryboardintoanOutline
6.2.2SketchaWorkingIntroduction
6.2.3IdentifyKeyTermsExpressingConceptsThatUnitetheReportandDistinguishItsParts
6.2.4UseKeyTermstoCreateSubheadsThatUniquelyIdentifyEachSection
6.2.5OrderYourReasons
6.2.6MakeYourOrderClearwithTransitionalWords
6.2.7SketchaBriefIntroductiontoEachSectionandSubsection
6.2.8ForEachSection,SketchinEvidence,Acknowledgments,Warrants,andSummaries
6.2.9SketchaWorkingConclusion
6.3FileAwayLeftovers
Onceyouassembleyourargument,youmightbereadytodraftit.Butexperiencedwritersknowthatthetimetheyinvestinplanning
adraftmorethanpaysoffwhentheywriteit.Todrafteffectivelythough,youneedmorethanjusttheelementsofasoundargument;
youneedaplantoassemblethemintoacoherentone.Someplans,however,arebetterthanothers.
6.1AvoidUnhelpfulPlans
Avoidcertainapproaches.
1.Donotorganizeyourreportasanarrativeofyourproject,especiallynotasamysterystorywithyourclaimrevealedattheend.
Fewreaderscarewhatyoufoundfirst,thenproblemsyouovercame,thenleadsyoupursued,onandontotheend.Youseesigns
ofthatinlanguagelikeThefirstissuewas ThenIcompared FinallyIconclude.
2.Donotpatchtogetheraseriesofquotations,summariesofsources,ordownloadsfromtheInternet.Teacherswanttoseeyour
thinking,notthatofothers.Theyespeciallydislikereportsthatreadlikeacollageofwebpages.Dothatandyou llseemnotonly
anamateurbutworse,possiblyaplagiarist(see7.9).
3.Donotmechanicallyorganizeyourreportaroundthetermsofyourassignmentortopic.Ifyourassignmentlistsissuestocover,
don tthinkyoumustaddressthemintheordergiven.IfyouwereaskedoryoudecidetocompareandcontrastFreud sand
Jung sanalysesoftheimagination,youwouldnothavetoorganizeyourreportintwoparts,thefirstonFreud,thesecondon
Jung.Itwouldbemoreproductivetobreakthosetwobigtopicsintotheirparts,thenorganizeyourreportaroundthem(for
moreonthis,see6.2.5 6.2.6).
6.2CreateaPlanThatMeetsYourReadersʼNeeds
Somefieldsstipulatetheplanofareport.Readersintheexperimentalsciences,forexample,expectreportstofollowsomeversionof
this:
Introduction—MethodsandMaterials—Results—Discussion—Conclusion
Ifyoumustfollowapresetplan,askyourinstructororfindasecondarysourceforamodel.Butifyoumustcreateyourown,itmust
makesensenotjusttoyoubutvisiblytoyourreaders.Tocreatethatvisibleform,gobacktoyourstoryboardoroutline.
6.2.1ConvertingaStoryboardintoanOutline
Ifyouprefertoworkfromanoutline,youcanturnyourstoryboardintoone:
■StartwithasentencenumberedIthatstatesyourclaim.
■AddcompletesentencesunderitnumberedII,III, ,eachofwhichstatesareasonsupportingyourclaim.
■Undereachreason,usecapitalletterstolistsentencessummarizingyourevidence;thenlistbynumberstheevidenceitself.For
example(thedataareinventedfortheillustration):
I.Introduction:Valueofclassroomcomputersisuncertain.
II.Differentuseshavedifferenteffects.
A.Allusesincreasenumberofwordsproduced.
1.Study1:950vs.780
2.Study2:1,103vs.922
B.Labsallowstudentstointeract.
44

III.Studiesshowlimitedbenefitonrevision.

A.StudyA:writersoncomputersaremorewordy.

1.Averageof2.3morewordspersentence

2.Averageof20%morewordsperessay

B.StudyB:writersneedhardcopytoreviseeffectively.

1.22%fewertyposwhendoneonhardcopyvs.computerscreen

2.2.26%fewerspellingerrors

IV.Conclusion:Toosoontotellhowmuchcomputersimprovelearning.

A.Fewreliableempiricalstudies.

B.Littlehistorybecausemanyprogramsareintransition.

Aspareroutlineisjustphrases,withnoformallayersofI,A,1,andsoon.

Introduction:benefitsuncertain

Differentuses/differenteffects

Morewords

Moreinteraction

Revisionstudies

StudyAlongersentences

StudyBlongeressays

Conclusion:Toosoontojudgeeffects

Whenyoustartaproject,aspareoutlinemaybethebestyoucando,andforashortprojectitmaybeallyouneed,solongasyou

knowthepointofeachitem.Butanoutlineofcompletesentencesisusuallymoreuseful.Moreusefulyetisastoryboard,especially

foralongproject.

6.2.2SketchaWorkingIntroduction

Bereadytowriteyourintroductiontwice,firstasketchforyourself,thenafinaloneforyourreadersafteryou verevisedyourdraft

andknowwhatyouhavewritten.Thatfinalintroductionwillusuallyhavefourparts,soyoumightaswellbuildyourworking

introductiontoanticipatethem(seechapter9).

1.Brieflysketchtheresearchyou vereadthatisspecificallyrelevanttoyourtopic.In5.4.1,wesuggestedthatyouwriteyourclaim

atthebottomofanewfirstpageofyourstoryboard.Now,atthetop,sketchthepriorresearchthatyouintendtoextend,modify,

orcorrect.Donotlistalltheresearchremotelyrelevanttoyourtopic.Manysemi-experiencedresearcherslistscoresofreports,

thinkingthey llimpressreaderswiththeirdiligence.Butanendlesslistofirrelevantreferencesislessimpressivethanitis

annoying.IfyouwereworkingonAlamostories,forexample,youwouldn tciteeveryhistoricalanalysisofthebattle,butonlythe

specificresearchthatyouintendtoextend,modify,orcorrect.

Listyoursourcesinanorderusefultoyourreaders.Iftheirhistoricalsequenceisimportant,listthemchronologically.Ifnot,

groupthembysomeotherprinciple:theirquality,significance,pointofview.Thenorderthosegroupsinwhateverwaybesthelps

yourreadersunderstandthem(see6.2.5forprinciplesoforder).Undernocircumstancesshouldyoulistyoursourcesintheorder

youhappenedtoreadthemornowrememberthem.

2.Rephraseyourquestionasalackofknowledgeorgapinunderstanding.Afteryousketchthatresearch,tellreaderswhatpartofit

youwillextend,modify,orcorrect.Dothatbyrestatingyourquestionassomethingthattheresearchhasgottenwrong,explained

poorly,orfailedtoconsider.

WhyistheAlamostorysoimportantinournationalmythology?

→FewhistorianshavetriedtoexplainwhytheAlamostoryhasbecomesoimportantinournationalmythology.

Writersdothisalmostalwaysandinmanyways,soasyouread,notehowyoursourcesdoit.

3.Ifyoucan,sketchananswertoSowhatifwedon tfindout?Whatlargerissuewillyourreadersnotunderstandifyoudon t

answeryourresearchquestion?

Ifweunderstoodhowsuchstoriesbecamenationallegends,wewouldbetterunderstandournationalvalues,perhapsevenwhat

makesusdistinct.

Atthispoint,youmayfindanylargersignificancehardtoimagine.Additifyoucan,butdon tspendalotoftimeonit;we llreturn

toit(see10.1.3).

4.Reviseandpositionyourclaim.Youwroteyourclaimonthefirstpageofyourstoryboard.Nowdecideifthat swhereyouwantto

leaveit.Youhavetwochoicesforwheretostateitinyourreport:

■attheendofyourintroductionandagainclosetothebeginningofyourconclusion

■onlyinyourconclusion,asakindofclimaxtoyourreasoning

Ifyou vedonefewadvancedprojects,weurgeyoutostateyourclaimattheendofyourintroductionandagainnearthe

beginningofyourconclusion.Whenreadersseeaclaimearly,attheendofyourintroduction,theyknowwhereyou retakingthem

andsocanreadwhatfollowsfaster,understanditbetter,andrememberitlonger.Whenyouputyourclaimfirst,italsohelpskeep

youontrack.

Somenewresearchersfearthatiftheyrevealtheirclaimintheirintroduction,readerswillbeboredandstopreading.Others

worryaboutrepeatingthemselves.Bothfearsarebaseless.Ifyouaskaninterestingquestion,readerswillwanttoseehowwellyou

cansupportitsanswer.

Ifyouleaveyourclaimatthebottomofyourintroductionpage,restateaversionofitatthetopofanewconclusionpageatthe

endofyourstoryboard.Ifyoucan,makethisconcludingclaimmorespecificthantheoneintheintroduction.

Insomefields,writersconventionallystatetheirclaimonlyinafinalsectionheadedDiscussionorConclusion.Inthosecases,

manyreadersjustskimtheintroduction,thenjumptotheconclusion.Soforthatkindofreader,writeyourintroductioninaway

thatintroducesnotonlythebodyofyourpaperbutyourconclusionaswell.

Ifyoudecidetoannounceyourclaimonlyinyourconclusion,moveittothetopofanewconclusionpage.Butifyoudo,you ll

needanothersentencetoreplaceitattheendofyourintroduction,onethatlaunchesyourreaderintothebodyofyourreport.That

sentenceshouldincludethekeytermsthatyouusethroughoutyourreport(see6.2.3).

Wesuggestthatyouwritethatlaunchingsentencewhenyoudraftyourfinalintroduction(see10.1.4).Sofornow,makeaplace

foritatthebottomoftheintroductionpageofyourstoryboard,eitherbysketchingaroughversionofitorbymakinganotetoaddit

later.

Somewritersadda roadmap attheendoftheirintroduction,layingouttheorganizationoftheirreport:

Inpart1,1discuss…Part2addressestheissueof…Part3examines…

Readersdifferonthis.Roadmapsarecommoninthesocialsciences,butmanyinthehumanitiesfindthemclumsy.Evenifyour

readersmightobject,youcanaddaroadmaptoyourstoryboardtoguideyourdrafting,thencutitfromyourfinaldraft.Ifyoukeep

it,makeitshort.

6.2.3IdentifyKeyTermsExpressingConceptsThatUnitetheReportandDistinguishItsParts

Toperceiveyourreportascoherent,readersmustseeafewcentralconceptsrunningthroughallofitsparts.Butreaderswon t

recognizethoserepeatedconceptsifyourefertotheminmanydifferentwords.Readersneedtoseespecifictermsthatrepeatedly

refertothoseconcepts,noteverytimeyoumentiononebutoftenenoughthatreaderscan tmissthem.Thosetermsrunning

throughthewholemightincludethewordsyouusedtocategorizeyournotes,buttheydefinitelymustincludeimportantwordsfrom

yourquestionandclaim.Readersmustalsoseemorespecificconceptsineachpartthatdistinguishthatpartfromallotherparts.

Beforeyoustartdrafting,therefore,identifythekeyconceptsthatyouintendtorunthroughyourwholereportandselectthe

termthatyouwillusemostoftentorefertoeachone.Thendothesamefortheconceptsthatdistinguisheachsectionfromother

sections.Asyoudraft,youmayfindnewonesanddropsomeoldones,butyou llwritemorecoherentlyifyoukeepyourmost

importanttermsandconceptsinthefrontofyourmind.

Hereisaspecificmethodtoidentifytheglobalconceptsthatunitethewholereport:

1.Ontheintroductionandconclusionpagesofyourstoryboard,circlefourorfivewordsthatexpressyourmostimportantconcepts.

Youshouldfindthosewordsinthemostexplicitstatementofyourclaim.

■Ignorewordsobviouslyconnectedtoyourtopic:Alamo,battle,defeat.

■Focusonconceptsthatyoubringtotheargumentandintendtodevelop:aftermathofdefeat,triumphinloss,heroicideals,

sacrifice,nationalspirit,andsoon.

2.Foreachconcept,selectakeytermthatyoucanrepeatthroughthebodyofyourpaper.Itcanbeoneofyourcircledwordsora

newone.Listthosekeytermsonaseparatepage.Ifyoufindfewwordsthatcanserveaskeyterms,yourclaimmaybetoogeneral

(review5.4.1).

Youcanfollowthesameproceduretofindthekeytermsthatunifyeachsection.Lookatthereasonyoustatedatthetopofeach

reasonpage,andcircleitsimportantwords.Someofthosewordsshouldberelatedtothewordscircledintheintroductionand

conclusion.Therestshouldidentifyconceptsthatdistinguishthatsectionfromothers.Selectakeytermforeachkeyconcept.

Now,asyoudraft,keepinfrontofyouboththegeneraltermsthatshouldrunthroughyourwholereportandthespecificterms

thatdistinguisheachsectionfromothersections.Theywillhelpyoukeepyourself andthusyourreaders ontrack.Iflateryou

findyourselfwritingsomethingthatlacksthoseterms,don tjustwrenchyourselfbacktothem.Intheactofdrafting,youmightbe

discoveringsomethingnew.

6.2.4UseKeyTermstoCreateSubheadsThatUniquelyIdentifyEachSection

Evenifreportsinyourfielddon tusesubheads(seeA.2.2.4intheappendix),werecommendthatyouusetheminyourdrafts.

Createthemoutofthekeytermsyouidentifiedin6.2.3.Ifyoucannotfindkeytermstodistinguishasection,lookcloselyathowyou

thinkitcontributestothewhole.Readersmaythinkitrepetitiveorirrelevant.

Ifyourfieldavoidssubheads,usethemtokeepyourselfontrack,thendeletethemfromyourlastdraft.

6.2.5OrderYourReasons

Findingagoodorderforthesectionsofareportcanbethehardestpartofplanning.Whenyouassembledyourargument,youmay

nothaveputyourreasonsinanyparticularorder(onebenefitofastoryboard).Butwhenyouplanadraft,youmustimposeonthem

someorderthatbestmeetsyourreaders needs.Thatisnoteasy,especiallywhenyou rewritingonanewtopicinanewfield.

Whenyou renotsurehowbesttoorderyourreasons,considerthefollowingoptions.

■Comparisonandcontrast.Thisistheformyou dchooseifyouwerecomparingtwoormoreentities,concepts,orobjects.

Buttherearetwowaystocompareandcontrast,andoneisusuallybetterthantheother.If,forexample,youwerecomparing

whetherHopimaskshavemorereligioussymbolismthanInuitmasks,youmightdecidetodevotethefirsthalfofyourpaperto

InuitmasksandthesecondtoHopimasks.Thisorganization,however,toooftenresultsinapairofunrelatedsummaries.Try

breakingthetopicsintotheirconceptualparts.Inthecaseofmasks,itwouldbetheirsymbolicrepresentation,designfeatures,

stagesofevolution,andsoon.

Thereareseveralotherstandardwaystoorderyourideas.Twofocusonthesubjectmatter:

■Chronological.Thisisthesimplest:earlier-to-laterorcause-to-effect.

■Part-by-part.Ifyoucanbreakyourtopicintoitsconstituentparts,youcandealwitheachpartinturn,butyoumuststillorder

thosepartsinsomewaythathelpsreadersunderstandthem.

Youcanalsoorganizethepartsfromthepointofviewofyourreaders abilitytounderstandthem:

■Shorttolong,simpletocomplex.Mostreadersprefertodealwithlesscomplexissuesbeforetheyworkthroughmorecomplex

ones.

■Morefamiliartolessfamiliar.Mostreadersprefertoreadwhattheyknowaboutbeforetheyreadwhattheydon t.

■Lesscontestabletomorecontestable.Mostreadersmovemoreeasilyfromwhattheyagreewithtowhattheydon t.

■Lessimportanttomoreimportant(orviceversa).Readersprefertoreadmoreimportantreasonsfirst,butthosereasonsmayhave

moreimpactwhentheycomelast.

■Earlierunderstandingasabasisforlaterunderstanding.Readersmayhavetounderstandsomeevents,principles,definitions,and

soonbeforetheyunderstandanotherthing.

Oftentheseprinciplescooperate:whatreadersagreewithandmosteasilyunderstandmightalsobeshortestandmostfamiliar.

Buttheymayalsoconflict:reasonsthatreadersunderstandmosteasilymightbetheonestheyrejectmostquickly;whatyouthinkis

yourmostdecisivereasonmighttoreadersseemleastfamiliar.Noruleshere,onlyprinciplesofchoice.

Whateverorderyouchoose,itshouldreflectyourreaders needs,nottheorderthatthematerialseemstoimposeonitself(asin

anobviouscompare-contrastorganization),andleastofalltheorderinwhichideasoccurredtoyou.

6.2.6MakeYourOrderClearwithTransitionalWords

Becertainthatyourreaderscanrecognizetheorderyouchose.Starteachpageofreasonsinyourstoryboardwithwordsthatmake

theprincipleoforderclear:First,Second,Later,Finally,Moreimportant,Amorecomplexissueis ,Asaresult.Don tworryif

thesewordsfeelawkwardlyobvious.Atthispoint,they remoreforyourbenefitthanforyourreaders .Youcanreviseorevendelete

theclumsyonesfromyourfinaldraft.

6.2.7SketchaBriefIntroductiontoEachSectionandSubsection

Justasyourwholereportneedsanintroductionthatframeswhatfollows,sodoeseachofitssections.Ifasectionisonlyapageor

two,youneedjustashortparagraph;forasectionseveralpageslong,youmightneedtosketchintwoormoreparagraphs.This

openingsegmentshouldintroducethekeytermsthatarespecialtoitssection,ideallyinasentenceatitsendexpressingitspoint.

Thatpointmightbeareason,aresponsetoadifferentpointofview,orawarrantyoumustexplain.Inasectionthatyouthinkwill

belongerthanfivepagesorso,youmightstateitspointbothattheendofitsintroductionandagaininaconclusion.

6.2.8ForEachSection,SketchinEvidence,Acknowledgments,Warrants,andSummaries

Intheirrelevantsections,sketchoutthepartsofyourargument.Rememberthatmanyofthosepartswillthemselvesmakeapoint

thatmustbesupportedbysmallerarguments.

6.2.8.1EVIDENCE.Mostsectionsconsistprimarilyofevidencesupportingreasons.Sketchtheevidenceafterthereasonitsupports.If

youhavedifferentkindsofevidencesupportingthesamereason,groupandordertheminawaythatwillmakesensetoyour

readers.

6.2.8.2EXPLANATIONSOFEVIDENCE.Youmayhavetoexplainyourevidence whereitcamefrom,whyit sreliable,exactlyhowit

supportsareason.Usuallytheseexplanationsfollowtheevidence,butyoucansketchthembeforeifthatseemsmorelogical.

6.2.8.3ACKNOWLEDGMENTSANDRESPONSES.Imaginewhatreadersmightobjecttoandwhere,thensketcharesponse.Responsesare

typicallysub-argumentswithatleastaclaimandreasons,oftenincludingevidenceandevenanotherresponsetoanimagined

objectiontoyourresponse.

6.2.8.4WARRANTS.Ifyouthinkyouneedawarranttojustifytherelevanceofareason,developitbeforeyoustatethereason.(Ifyou re

usingawarrantonlyforemphasis,putitafterthereason.)Ifyouthinkreaderswillquestionthetruthofthewarrant,sketcha

miniargumenttosupportit.Ifreadersmightthinkthatyourreasonorclaimisn tavalidinstanceofthewarrant,sketchan

argumentthatitis.

6.2.8.5SUMMARIES.Ifyourpaperismorethantwentyorsopages,youmightbrieflysummarizetheprogressofyourargumentatthe

endofeachmajorsection,especiallyifyourreportisfact-heavyindates,names,events,ornumbers.Onefactafteranothercanblur

thelineofanargument.Whathaveyouestablishedinthissection?Howdoesyourargumentshapeupthusfar?Ifinyourfinaldraft
thosesummariesseemtooobvious,cutthem.
Writersindifferentfieldsmayarrangetheseelementsinslightlydifferentways,buttheelementsthemselvesandtheirprinciplesof
organizationarethesameineveryfieldandprofession.Andwhatiskeyineveryreport,regardlessoffield,isthatyoumustorderthe
partsofyourargumentnotmerelytoreflectyourownthinkingbuttohelpyourreadersunderstandit.
6.2.9SketchaWorkingConclusion
Youshouldhavestatedyourconcludingclaimatthetopoftheconclusionpageofyourstoryboard.Ifyoucanaddtothesignificance
ofthatclaim(anotheranswertoSowhat?),sketchitaftertheclaim(see10.2formoreonconclusions).
6.3FileAwayLeftovers
Onceyouhaveafirstplan,youmaydiscoverthatyouhavealotofmaterialleftthatdoesn tfitintoit.Resisttheimpulsetoshoehorn
leftoversintoyourreportinthebeliefthatifyoufoundit,yourreadersshouldreadit.Infact,ifyoudon thavemoreleftoversthan
whatyouused,youmaynothavedoneenoughresearch.Fileawayleftoversforfutureuse.Theymaycontaintheseedsofanother
project.
48

7DraftingYourReport

7.1DraftintheWayThatFeelsMostComfortable

7.2DevelopProductiveDraftingHabits

7.3UseYourKeyTermstoKeepYourselfonTrack

7.4Quote,Paraphrase,andSummarizeAppropriately

7.5IntegrateQuotationsintoYourText

7.6UseFootnotesandEndnotesJudiciously

7.7InterpretComplexorDetailedEvidenceBeforeYouOfferIt

7.8BeOpentoSurprises

7.9GuardagainstInadvertentPlagiarism

7.9.1SignalEveryQuotation,EvenWhenYouCiteItsSource

7.9.2DonʼtParaphraseTooClosely

7.9.3UsuallyCiteaSourceforIdeasNotYourOwn

7.9.4DonʼtPleadIgnorance,Misunderstanding,orInnocentIntentions

7.10GuardagainstInappropriateAssistance

7.11WorkThroughChronicProcrastinationandWriter sBlock

Somewritersthinkthatoncetheyhaveanoutlineorstoryboard,theycandraftbyjustgrindingoutsentences.Ifyou vewrittenalot

toexploreyourideas,youmayeventhinkthatyoucanplugthatpreliminarywritingintoadraft.Experiencedwritersknowbetter.

Theyknowtwothings:exploratorywritingiscrucialbutoftennotrightforadraft,andthoughtfuldraftingcanbeanactofdiscovery

thatplanningandstoryboardingcanpreparethemforbutneverreplace.Infact,mostwritersdon tknowwhattheycanthinkuntil

theyseeitappearinwordsbeforethem.Indeed,youexperienceoneofthemostexcitingmomentsinresearchwhenyoudiscover

yourselfexpressingideasthatyoudidnotknowyouhaduntilthatmoment.

Sodon tlookupondraftingasmerelytranslatingastoryboardoroutlineintowords.Ifyoudraftwithanopenmind,youcan

discoverlinesofthoughtthatyoucouldn thaveimaginedbeforeyoustarted.Butlikeotherstepsintheprocess,evensurpriseswork

betterwithaplan.

7.1DraftintheWayThatFeelsMostComfortable

Writersdraftindifferentways.Someareslowandcareful:theyhavetogeteveryparagraphrightbeforetheystartthenextone.To

dothat,theyneedameticulousplan.Soifyoudraftslowly,plancarefully.Otherwritersletthewordsflow,skippingaheadwhen

theygetstuck,omittingquotations,statistics,andsoonthattheycanpluginlater.Iftheyarestoppedbyastylisticissuesuchas

whethertorepresentnumbersinwordsornumerals,theyinserta[?]andkeeponwritinguntiltheyrunoutofgas,thengobackand

fixit.Butquickdraftersneedlotsoftimetorevise.Soifyoudraftquickly,startearly.Draftinwhateverwayworksforyou,but

experiencedwritersusuallydraftquickly,thenreviseextensively.

7.2DevelopProductiveDraftingHabits

Mostofuslearntowriteintheleastefficientway underpressure,rushingtomeetadeadline,withaquickdraftthenightbefore

andmaybeafewminutesinthemorningforproofreading.Thatrarelyworksforashortpaper,almostneverforalongerone.You

needtimeandaplanthatsetssmall,achievablegoalsbutkeepsyoureyeonthewhole.

Mostimportant,draftregularlyandoften,notinmarathonsessionsthatdullyourthinkingandkillyourinterest.Setasmallgoal

andareasonablequotaofwordsforeachsession,andsticktoit.Whenyouresumedrafting,youneednotstartwhereyouleftoff:

reviewyourstoryboardtodecidewhatyou rereadytodrafttoday.Reviewhowitwillfitintoitssectionandthewhole:Whatreason

doesthissectionsupport?Wheredoesitfitintheoveralllogic?Whichkeytermsstatetheconceptsthatdistinguishthissection?If

you reblocked,skiptoanothersection.Whateveryoudo,don tsubstitutemorereadingforwriting.Chronicprocrastinatorsare

usuallysointimidatedbythesizeoftheirprojectthatitparalyzesthem,andtheyjustkeepputtingoffgettingstarted.Youcan

overcomethatdestructivehabitbybreakingyourprojectintosmall,achievablegoals(see7.11).

7.3UseYourKeyTermstoKeepYourselfonTrack

Asyoudraft,keepinfrontofyouaseparatelistofthekeytermsforyourgeneralconceptsthatshouldrunthroughyourwhole

report.Fromtimetotime,checkhowoftenyou veusedthosewords,boththosethatrunthroughthewholereportandthosethat

distinguishonesectionfromanother.Butdon tletthosewordsstiflefreshthinking.Ifyoufindyour-selfwandering,letyourselfgo

forawhile.Youmaybedevelopinganinterestingidea.Followituntilyouseewhereittakesyou.

7.4Quote,Paraphrase,andSummarizeAppropriately

Wecoveredthisissuewhenwediscussednote-taking(4.2.2).Youshouldbuildmostofyourreportoutofyourownwordsthat

reflectyourownthinking.Muchofthesupportforthatthinkingwillbeinquotations,paraphrases,andsummaries.Differentfields,

however,usethemindifferentproportions.Ingeneral,researchersinthehumanitiesquotemostoften;socialandnaturalscientists

typicallyparaphraseandsummarize.Butyoumustdecideeachcaseforitself,dependingonhowyouusetheinformationinyour

argument.Herearesomeprinciples:

■Summarizewhendetailsareirrelevantorasourceisn timportantenoughtowarrantmorespace.

■Paraphrasewhenyoucanstatewhatasourcesaysmoreclearlyorconciselythanthesource,orwhenyourargumentdependson

thedetailsofasourcebutnotonitsspecificwords.(Beforeyouparaphrase,however,read7.9.)

■Quoteforthesepurposes:

■Theexactwordingconstitutesevidencethatbacksupyourreasons.

■Apassagestatesaviewthatyoudisagreewith,andtobefairyouwanttostateitexactly.

■Thequotedwordsarefromanauthoritywhobacksupyourview.

■Thequotedwordsarestrikinglyoriginal.

■Thequotedwordsexpressyourkeyconceptssocompellinglythatthequotationcanframetherestofyourdiscussion.

Youmustbalancequotations,paraphrases,andsummarieswithyourownfreshideas.Donotmerelyrepeat,orworse,download,

wordsandideasofothersandstitchthemtogetherwithafewsentencesofyourown.Allteachershavegroundtheirteethoversuch

reports,dismayedbytheirlackoforiginalthinking.Inanadvancedprojectsuchasathesisordissertation,readersrejecta

patchworkofborrowingsoutofhand.

Readersvalueresearchonlytothedegreethattheytrustitssources.Soforeverysummary,paraphrase,orquotationyouuse,cite

itsbibliographicdataintheappropriatecitationstyle(seepart2).

7.5IntegrateQuotationsintoYourText

Youcaninsertquotationsintoyourtextintwoways:

■Runfourorfewerquotedlinesintoyourrunningtext.

■Setofffiveormorelinesasanindentedblock.

Youcanintegratebothrun-inandblockquotationsintoyourtextintwoways:

1.Dropinthequotationasanindependentsentenceorpassage,introducedwithafewexplanatorywords.Butavoidintroducingall

ofyourquestionswithjustasays,states,claims,andsoon:

Diamondsays,“ThehistoriesoftheFertileCrescentandChina…holdasalutarylessonforthemodernworld:circumstances

change,andpastprimacyisnoguaranteeoffutureprimacy”(417).

Instead,providesomeinterpretation:

Diamondsuggeststhatonelessonwecanlearnfromthepastisnottoexpecthistorytorepeatitself.“ThehistoriesoftheFertile

CrescentandChina…holdasalutarylessonforthemodernworld”(417).

2.Weavethegrammarofthequotationintothegrammarofyoursentence:

Politicalleadersshouldlearnfromhistory,butDiamondpointsoutthatthe“lessonforthemodernworld”inthehistoryofthe

FertileCrescentandChinaisthat“circumstanceschange,andpastprimacyisnoguaranteeoffutureprimacy”(417).Soone

lessonfromhistoryisthatyoucanʼtcountonittorepeatitself.

Tomakeaquotedsentencemeshwithyours,youcanmodifythequotation,solongasyoudon tchangeitsmeaningandyou

clearlyindicateaddedorchangedwordswithsquarebracketsanddeletionswiththreedots(calledellipses).Thissentencequotes

theoriginalintact:

Posnerfocusesonreligionnotforitsspiritualitybutforitssocialfunctions:“AnotablefeatureofAmericansocietyisreligious

pluralism,andweshouldconsiderhowthisrelatestotheefficacyofgovernancebysocialnormsinviewofthehistorical

importanceofreligionasbothasourceandenforcerofsuchnorms”(299).

Thisversionmodifiesthequotationtofitthegrammarofthewriter ssentence:

Inhisdiscussionofreligiouspluralism,PosnersaysofAmericansocietythat“anotablefeature…is[its]religiouspluralism.”We

shouldconsiderhowitssocialnormsaffect“theefficacyofgovernance…inviewofthehistoricalimportanceofreligionasboth

asourceandenforcerofsuchnorms”(299).

(Seechapter25formoreonintegratingquotationswithyourtext.)

Whenyourefertoasourcethefirsttime,usehisorherfullname.DonotprecedeitwithMr.,Mrs.,Ms.,orProfessor(see24.2.2

fortheuseofDr.,Reverend,Senator,andsoon).Whenyoumentionasourcethereafter,usejustthelastname:

AccordingtoStevenPinker,“claimsaboutalanguageinstinct…havevirtuallynothingtodowithpossiblegeneticdifferences

betweenpeople.”

Pinkergoesontoclaimthat…

Exceptwhenreferringtokings,queens,andpopes,neverrefertoasourcebyhisorherfirstname.Neverthis:

AccordingtoStevenPinker,“claimsaboutalanguageinstinct…”Stevengoesontoclaimthat…

7.6UseFootnotesandEndnotesJudiciously

Ifyouareusingbibliography-stylecitations(see3.2.1),youwillhavetodecideasyoudrafthowtousefootnotesandendnotes(for

theirformalrequirements,seechapter16).Youmustciteeverysourceinanote,ofcourse,butyoumayalsodecidetousefootnotes

andendnotesforsubstantivematerialthatyoudon twanttoincludeinthebodyofyourtextbutalsodon twanttoomit.(Youmight

alsousesuchsubstantivenotesincombinationwithparentheticalcitationsinauthor-datestyle;see18.3.3.)

■Ifyoucitesourcesinendnotes,putsubstantivematerialinfootnotes.Otherwiseyouforcereaderstokeepflippingtothebackof

yourreporttocheckeveryendnotetoseewhetheritissubstantiveorbibliographical.

■Usesubstantivefootnotessparingly.Ifyoucreatetoomany,youriskmakingyourpageslookchoppyandbrokenup.

Inanyevent,keepinmindthatmanyreadersignoresubstantivefootnotesontheprinciplethatinformationnotimportantenough

foryoutoincludeinthetextisnotimportantenoughforthemtoreadinafootnote.

7.7InterpretComplexorDetailedEvidenceBeforeYouOfferIt

Bythispointyoumaybesosurethatyourevidencesupportsyourreasonsthatyou llthinkreaderscan tmissitsrelevance.But

evidenceneverspeaksforitself,especiallynotalongquotation,animage,atable,orachart.Youmustspeakforitbyintroducingit

withasentencestatingwhatyouwantyourreaderstogetoutofit.

Forexample,it shardtoseehowthequotedlinesinthisnextpassagesupporttheintroductorysentence:

WhenHamletcomesupbehindhisstepfatherClaudiusatprayer,hecoollyandlogicallythinksaboutwhethertokillhimonthe

spot.

claim

NowmightIdoit[killhim]pat,nowheispraying:

AndnowIʼlldoʼt;andsohegoestoheaven;

AndsoamIrevengʼd…

[Butthis]villainkillsmyfather;andforthat,

I,hissoleson,dothissamevillainsendtoheaven.

Why,thisishireandsalary,notrevenge.

evidence

Nothinginthoselinesobviouslyreferstocoolrationality.Comparethis:

WhenHamletcomesupbehindhisstepfatherClaudiusatprayer,hecoollyandlogicallythinksaboutwhethertokillhimonthe

spot.

claim

FirsthewantstokillClaudiusimmediately,butthenhepausestothink:IfhekillsClaudiuswhileheispraying,hesends

hissoultoheaven.ButhewantsClaudiusdamnedtohell,sohecoollydecidestokillhimlater:

reason

NowmightIdoit[killhim]pat,nowheispraying:

AndnowIʼlldoʼt;andsohegoestoheaven;

AndsoamIrevengʼd…

[Butthis]villainkillsmyfather;andforthat,

I,hissoleson,dothissamevillainsendtoheaven.

Why,thisishireandsalary,notrevenge.

evidence

Thatkindofexplanatoryintroductionisevenmoreimportantwhenyoupresentquantitativeevidenceinatableorfigure(see8.3.1).

7.8BeOpentoSurprises

Ifyouwriteasyougoandplanyourbestcasebeforeyoudraft,you reunlikelytobeutterlysurprisedbyhowyourdraftdevelops.

Evenso,beopentonewdirectionsfrombeginningtoend:

■Whenyourdraftingstartstoheadoffonatangent,gowithitforabittoseewhetheryou reontosomethingbetterthanyou

planned.

■Whenreportingyourevidenceleadsyoutodoubtareason,don tignorethatfeeling.Followitup.

■Whentheorderofyourreasonsstartstofeelawkward,experimentwithnewones,evenifyouthoughtyouwerealmostdone.

■Evenwhenyoureachyourfinalconclusion,youmaythinkofawaytorestateyourclaimmoreclearlyandpointedly.

Ifyougethelpfulnewideasearlyenoughbeforeyourdeadline,investthetimetomakethechanges.Itisasmallpriceforabig

improvement.

7.9GuardagainstInadvertentPlagiarism

Itwillbeasyoudraftthatyouriskmakingoneoftheworstmistakesaresearchercanmake:leadingreaderstothinkthatyou re

tryingtopassofftheworkofanotherwriterasyourown.Dothatandyouriskbeingaccusedofplagiarism,achargethat,if

sustained,couldmeanafailinggradeorevenexpulsion.

Manyinstructorswarnagainstplagiarismbutdon texplainit,becausetheythinkitisalwaysanactofdeliberatedishonestythat

needsnoexplanation.Andtobesure,studentsknowtheycheatwhentheyputtheirnameonapaperboughtonlineorcopiedfroma

fraternityorsororityfile.Mostalsoknowtheycheatwhentheypassoffastheirownpageafterpagecopiedfromasourceor

downloadedfromtheInternet.Forthosecases,there snothingtosaybeyondDon t.

Butmanystudentsfailtorealizethattheyriskbeingchargedwithplagiarismeveniftheywerenotintentionallydishonestbut

onlyignorantorcareless.Yourunthatriskwhenyougivereadersreasontothinkthatyou vedoneoneormoreofthefollowing:

■Youcitedasourcebutuseditsexactwordswithoutputtingtheminquotationmarksorinablockquotation.

■Youparaphrasedasourceandcitedit,butinwordssosimilartothoseofyoursourcethattheyarealmostaquotation:anyone

couldseethatyouwerefollowingthesourcewordforwordasyouparaphrasedit.

■Youusedideasormethodsfromasourcebutfailedtociteit.

7.9.1SignalEveryQuotation,EvenWhenYouCiteItsSource

Evenifyouciteyoursource,readersmustknowwhichwordsareyoursandwhichyouquote.Youriskthechargeofplagiarismifyou

failtousequotationmarksorablockquotationtosignalthatyouhavecopiedaslittleasasinglelineofwords.

Itgetscomplicated,however,whenyoucopyjustafewwords.Readthis:

Becausetechnologybegetsmoretechnology,theimportanceofaninventionʼsdiffusionpotentiallyexceedstheimportanceofthe

originalinvention.Technologyʼshistoryexemplifieswhatistermedanautocatalyticprocess:thatis,onethatspeedsupataratethat

increaseswithtime,becausetheprocesscatalyzesitself(Diamond1998,301).

IfyouwerewritingaboutJaredDiamond sideas,youwouldprobablyhavetousesomeofhiswords,suchastheimportanceofan

invention.Butyouwouldn tputthatphraseinquotationmarks,becauseitshowsnooriginalityofthoughtorexpression.Twoofhis

phrases,however,aresostrikingthattheydorequirequotationmarks:technologybegetsmoretechnologyandautocatalytic

process.Forexample,

Thepoweroftechnologygoesbeyondindividualinventionsbecausetechnology“begetsmoretechnology.”Itis,asDiamondputsit,

an“autocatalyticprocess”(301).

Onceyoucitethosewords,youcanusethemagainwithoutquotationmarksorcitation:

Asoneinventionbegetsanotheroneandthatonestillanother,theprocessbecomesaself-sustainingcatalysisthatspreads

exponentiallyacrossallnationalboundaries.

Thisisagrayarea:wordsthatseemstrikingtosomereadersarecommonplacetoothers.Ifyouusequotationmarksfortoomany

commonphrases,readersmightthinkyou renaiveorinsecure,butifyoufailtousethemwhenreadersthinkyoushould,theymay

suspectyou retryingtotakecreditforlanguageandideasnotyourown.Sinceit sbettertoseemnaivethandishonest,especially

earlyinyourresearchcareer,usequotationmarksfreely.(Youmust,however,followthestandardpracticesofyourfield.For

example,lawyersoftenusetheexactlanguageofastatuteorjudicialopinionwithnoquotationmarks.)

7.9.2Don tParaphraseTooClosely

Youparaphraseappropriatelywhenyourepresentanideainyourownwordsmoreclearlyorpointedlythanthesourcedoes.But

readerswillthinkthatyoucrossthelinefromfairparaphrasetoplagiarismiftheycanmatchyourwordsandphrasingwiththoseof

yoursource.Forexample,thesenextsentencesplagiarizethetwosentencesyoujustread:

Booth,Colomb,andWilliamsclaimthatappropriateparaphraseistheuseofoneʼsownwordstorepresentanideatomakea

passagefromasourceclearerormorepointed.Readerscanaccuseastudentofplagiarism,however,ifhisparaphraseissosimilar

toitssourcethatsomeonecanmatchwordsandphrasesinthesentencewiththoseinthatsource.

Thisnextparaphrasebordersonplagiarism:

Appropriateparaphraserewritesapassagefromasourceintooneʼsownwordstomakeitclearerormorepointed.Readersthink

plagiarismoccurswhenasourceisparaphrasedsocloselythattheyseeparallelsbetweenwordsandphrases(Booth,Colomb,and

Williams2013).

Thisparaphrasedoesnotplagiarize:

AccordingtoBooth,Colomb,andWilliams(2013),paraphraseistheuseofyourownwordstorepresenttheideasofanothermore

clearly.Itbecomesplagiarismwhenreadersseeaword-for-wordsimilaritybetweenaparaphraseandasource.

Toavoidseemingtoplagiarizebyparaphrase,don treadyoursourceasyouparaphraseit.Readthepassage,lookaway,think

aboutitforamoment;then,stilllookingaway,paraphraseitinyourownwords.Thencheckwhetheryoucanrunyourfingeralong

yoursentenceandfindthesameideasinthesameorderinyoursource.Ifyoucan,socanyourreaders.Tryagain.

7.9.3UsuallyCiteaSourceforIdeasNotYourOwn

Thisruleismorecomplicatedthanitseems,becausemostofourownideasarebasedonorderivedfromidentifiablesources

somewhereinhistory.Readersdon texpectyoutofindeverydistantsourceforeveryfamiliaridea,buttheydoexpectyoutocitethe

sourceforanideawhen(i)theideaisassociatedwithaspecificpersonand(2)it snewenoughnottobepartofafield scommon

knowledge.

Forexample,psychologistsclaimthatwethinkandfeelindifferentpartsofourbrains.Butnoreaderwouldexpectyoutocite

thatidea,becauseit snolongerassociatedwithaspecificsourceandit ssofamiliarthatnoonewouldthinkyouimpliedthatitwas

yours.Ontheotherhand,somepsychologistsarguethatemotionsarecrucialtorationaldecisionmaking.Thatideaissonewandso

closelytiedtoparticularresearchersthatyou dhavetocitethem.

Theprincipleisthis:citeasourceforanideanotyourownwheneveraninformedreadermightthinkyou reimplyingthatitis

yourown.Thoughthatseemsblackandwhite,ithasabiggrayareainthemiddle.Whenindoubt,checkwithyourinstructor.

7.9.4Don tPleadIgnorance,Misunderstanding,orInnocentIntentions

Tobesure,whatlookslikeplagiarismisoftenjusthonestignoranceofhowtouseandcitesources.Somestudentsmayhavegoneto

schoolinpartsoftheworldinwhichverydifferentexpectationsgovernusingotherwriters work.Otherstudentssincerelybelieve

thattheydon thavetocitematerialtheyhavedownloadedfromtheInternetifthatmaterialisfreeandpubliclyavailable.But

they rewrong.Thefactthatit spublicorfreeisirrelevant.Youmustciteanythingyouusethatwascreatedbysomeoneelse.

Manystudentsdefendthemselvesbyclaimingtheydidn tintendtomislead.Theproblemis,wereadwords,notminds.Sothink

ofplagiarismnotasanintendedactbutasaperceivedone.Avoidanysignthatmightgiveyourreadersanyreasontosuspectyouof

it.Wheneveryousubmitapaperwithyournameonit,youimplicitlypromisethatitsresearch,reasoning,andwordingareyours

unlessyouspecificallyattributetosomeoneelse.

Hereisthebestwaytothinkaboutthis:Ifthepersonwhoseworkyouusedreadyourreport,wouldsherecognizeanyofitas

hers,includingparaphrasesandsummaries,orevengeneralideasormethodsfromheroriginalwork?Ifso,youmustcitethose

borrowings.

7.10GuardagainstInappropriateAssistance

Experiencedwritersregularlyshowtheirdraftstoothersforcriticismandsuggestions,andyoushouldtoo.Butinstructorsdifferon

howmuchhelpisappropriateandwhathelpstudentsshouldacknowledge.Whenyougethelp,asktwoquestions:

1.Howmuchhelpisappropriate?

■Foraclasspaper,mostinstructorsencouragestudentstogetgeneralcriticismandminorediting,butnotdetailedrewritingor

substantivesuggestions.

■Forathesis,dissertation,orworksubmittedforpublication,writersgetallthehelptheycanfromteachers,reviewers,and

otherssolongastheydon tbecomevirtualghostwriters.

Betweenthoseextremesisagrayarea.Askyourinstructorwhereshedrawstheline,thengetallthehelpyoucanontheright

sideofit.

2.Whathelpmustyouacknowledgeinyourreport?

■Foraclasspaper,youusuallyaren trequiredtoacknowledgegeneralcriticism,minorediting,orhelpfromaschoolwriting

tutor,butyoumustacknowledgehelpthat sspecialorextensive.Yourinstructorsetstherules,soask.

■Forathesis,dissertation,orpublishedwork,you renotrequiredtoacknowledgeroutinehelp,thoughit scourteousandoften

politictodosoinapreface(seeA.2.1.8andA.2.1.9).Butyoumustacknowledgespecialorextensiveeditingandciteinanote

majorideasorphrasesprovidedbyothers.

7.11WorkThroughChronicProcrastinationandWriterʼsBlock

Ifyoucan tseemtogetstartedonafirstdraftorifyoustruggletodraftmorethanafewwords,youmayhavewriter sblock.Some

casesarisefromseriousanxietiesaboutschoolanditspressures;ifthatmightbeyou,seeacounselor.Butmostcaseshavecauses

youcanaddress:

■Youmaybestuckbecauseyouhavenogoalsorhavegoalsthataretoohigh.Ifso,createaroutineandsetsmall,achievablegoals.

Donotbereluctanttousedevicestokeepyourselfmoving,suchasaprogresschartorregularmeetingswithawritingpartner.

■Youmayfeelsointimidatedbythesizeofthetaskthatyoudon tknowwheretobegin.Ifso,followoursuggestionsaboutdividing

theprocessintosmall,achievabletasks;thenfocusondoingonesmallstepatatime.Don tdwellonthewholetaskuntilyou ve

completedseveralsmallparts.

■Youmayfeelthatyouhavetomakeeverysentenceorparagraphperfectbeforeyoumoveontothenextone.Ifso,tellyourself

you renotwritingadraftbutonlysketchingoutsomeideas;thengrityourteethanddosomequickanddirtywritingtoget

yourselfstarted.Nexttimeyoucanavoidsomeofthisobsessionwithperfectionifyouwritealongthewayasyouresearch,

remindingyourselfthatyouaren twritingafirstdraft.Andinanyevent,weallhavetocompromiseonperfectiontogetthejob

done.

Ifyouhaveproblemslikethesewithmostofyourwritingprojects,gotothestudentlearningcenter.Therearepeopletherewhohave

workedwitheverykindofprocrastinatorandblockedwriterandcangiveyouadvicetailoredtoyourproblem.

Ontheotherhand,somecasesofwriter sblockmayreallybeopportunitiestoletyourideassimmerinyoursubconsciouswhile

theycombineandrecombineintosomethingnewandsurprising.Ifyou restuckbuthavetime(anotherreasontostartearly),do

somethingelseforadayortwo.Thenreturntothetasktoseeifyoucangetbackontrack.

8PresentingEvidenceinTablesandFigures
8.1ChooseVerbalorVisualRepresentations
8.2ChoosetheMostEffectiveGraphic
8.3DesignTablesandFigures
8.3.1FrameEachGraphictoHelpYourReadersUnderstandIt
8.3.2KeeptheImageasSimpleasItsContentAllows
8.3.3FollowGuidelinesforTables,BarCharts,andLineGraphs
8.4CommunicateDataEthically
Ifyourdataareintheformofnumbers,mostreadersgraspthemmoreeasilyifyoupresentthemgraphically.Butyoufacemany
choicesofgraphicforms,andsomeformswillsuityourdataandmessagebetterthanothers.Inthischapter,weshowyouhowto
choosetherightgraphicformanddesignitsothatreaderscanseebothwhatyourdataareandhowtheysupportyourargument.
(Seepp.413 14inthebibliographyforguidestocreatingandusinggraphics;seechapter26fordetailsonformattinggraphics.)
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8.1ChooseVerbalorVisualRepresentations
Ordinarily,presentquantitativedataverballywhentheyincludeonlyafewnumbers.(seechapter23forpresentingnumbersin
text.)Presentthemgraphicallywhenmostofyourevidenceisquantitativeoryoumustcommunicatealargesetofdata.Butwhen
thedataarefewandsimple,readerscangraspthemaseasilyinasentenceasinatableliketable8.1:
In1996,onaverage,menearned$32,144ayear,women$23,710,adifferenceof$8,434.
Table8.1.Male-femalesalaries($),1996
Table8.2.Changesinfamilystructure,1970–2000
Butifyoupresentmorethanfourorfivenumbersinapassage,readerswillstruggletokeepthemstraight,particularlyiftheymust
comparethem,likethis:
Between1970and2000,thestructureoffamilieschangedintwoways.In1970,85percentoffamilieshadtwoparents,butby1980
thatnumberhaddeclinedto77percent,thento73percentby1990andto68percentby2000.Thenumberofone-parentfamilies
rose,particularlyfamiliesheadedbyamother.In1970,11percentoffamilieswereheadedbyasinglemother.By1980thatnumber
roseto18percent,by1990to22percent,andto23percentby2000.Singlefathersheaded1percentoffamiliesin1970,2percent
in1980,3percentin1990,and4percentin2000.Familieswithnoadultinthehomehaveremainedstableat3-4percent.
Thosedatacanbepresentedmoreeffectivelyingraphicform,asintable8.2.
8.2ChoosetheMostEffectiveGraphic
Whenyougraphicallypresentdataascomplexasinthatparagraph,youhavemanychoices.Thesimplestandmostcommonare
55

tables,barcharts,andlinegraphs,eachofwhichhasadistinctiverhetoricaleffect.

■Toemphasizespecificvalues,useatableliketable8.2.

■Toemphasizecomparisonsthatcanbeseenataglance,useabarchartlikefigure8.1.

■Toemphasizetrends,usealinegraphlikefigure8.2.

Whileeachoftheseformscommunicatesthesamedata,readersrespondtothemindifferentways:

Figure8.1.Changesinfamilystructure,1970–2000

Figure8.2.Changesinfamilystructure,1970–2000

■Atableseemspreciseandobjective.Itemphasizesindividualnumbersandforcesreaderstoinferrelationshipsortrends(unless

youstatetheminanintroductorysentence).

■Bothchartsandlinegraphsemphasizeavisualimagethatcommunicatesvalueslesspreciselybutmorequicklythandotheexact

numbersofatable.Buttheyalsodiffer:

■Abarchartemphasizescomparisonsamongdiscreteitems.

■Alinegraphemphasizestrends,usuallyovertime.

Choosethegraphicformthatbestachievestheeffectyouintend,notthefirstonethatcomestomind.

Howmanychoicesyoushouldconsiderdependsonyourexperience.Ifyou renewtoquantitativeresearch,limityourchoicesto

basictables,barcharts,andlinegraphs.Yourcomputersoftwaremayoffermorechoices,butignorethosethatyouaren tfamiliar

with.

Ifyouaredoingadvancedresearch,readerswillexpectyoutousethegraphicformbestsuitedtoyourpointandyourkindof

data,andtodrawfromalargerrangeofchoices.Inthatcase,consulttable8.7,whichdescribestherhetoricalusesofothercommon

forms.Butyoumayhavetoconsidermorecreativewaysofrepresentingdataifyouarewritingadissertationorarticleinafieldin

whichresearchersroutinelydisplaycomplexrelationshipsinlargedatasets.

8.3DesignTablesandFigures

Computerprogramsnowletyoucreategraphicssodazzlingthatyoumightbetemptedtoletyoursoftwaremakeyourdesign

decisions.Butreadersdon tcarehowelaborateyourgraphicslookiftheyareconfusing,misleading,orirrelevanttoyourpoint.You

havetodecidehowtomakethemclear,focused,andrelevant,thensetyoursoftwaretoreflectthatjudgment.(SeeA.3.1.3and

A.1.3.4oncreatingandinsertingtablesandfiguresinyourpaper.)

8.3.1FrameEachGraphictoHelpYourReadersUnderstandIt

Agraphicrepresentingcomplexnumbersrarelyspeaksforitself.Youmustframeitsothatreadersknowwhattoseeinitandhowto

understanditsrelevancetoyourargument.

1.Introducetablesandfigureswithasentenceinyourtextthatstateshowthedatasupportyourpoint.Includeinthatsentenceany

specificnumberthatyouwantreaderstofocuson.(Thatnumbermustalsoappearinthetableorfigure.)

2.Labeleverytableandfigureinawaythatdescribesitsdataand,ifpossible,theirimportantrelationships.Foratable,thelabelis

calledatitleandissetflushleftabove;forafigure,thelabeliscalledacaption(orlegend)andissetflushleftbelow.(Forthe

formsoftitlesandcaptions,seechapter26.)Keeptitlesandcaptionsshortbutdescriptiveenoughtoindicatethespecificnature

ofthedataandtodifferentiateeverygraphicfromeveryotherone.

■Avoidmakingthetitleorcaptionageneraltopic:

NotHeadsofhouseholds

ButChangesinone-andtwo-parentheadsofhouseholds,1970–2000

■Usenounphrases;avoidrelativeclausesinfavorofparticiples:

NotNumberoffamiliesthatsubscribetoweeklynewsmagazines

ButNumberoffamiliessubscribingtoweeklynewsmagazines

■Donotgivebackgroundinformationorcharacterizetheimplicationsofthedata:

NotWeakereffectsofcounselingondepressedchildrenbeforeprofessionalizationofstaff,1995–2004

ButEffectofcounselingondepressedchildren,1995–2004

■Besurelabelsdistinguishgraphicspresentingsimilardata:

RiskfactorsforhighbloodpressureamongmeninMaywood,Illinois

RiskfactorsforhighbloodpressureamongmeninKingston,Jamaica

3.Putintothetableorfigureinformationthathelpsreadersseehowthedatasupportyourpoint.Forexample,ifnumbersinatable

showatrend,andifthesizeofthechangematters,addthechangetothefinalcolumn.Orifalineonagraphchangesinresponse

toaninfluencenotmentionedonthegraph,asinfigure8.3,addtexttotheimagetoexplainit:

Althoughreadingandmathscoresinitiallydeclinedbyalmost100pointsfollowingredistricting,thattrendwassubstantially

reversedbytheintroductionofsupplementalmathandreadingprograms.

Figure8.3.SATscoresforMid-CityHigh,1990–2005

Table8.3.Gasolineconsumption

Table8.4.Percapitamileageandgasolineconsumption,1970–2000

4.Highlightthepartofthetableorfigurethatyouwantreaderstofocuson,particularlyanynumberorrelationshipmentionedin

thesentenceintroducingthetableorfigure.Forexample,wehavetostudytable8.3closelytoseehowitsupportsthefollowing

introductorysentence:

Mostpredictionsaboutgasolineconsumptionhaveprovedwrong.

Weneedanothersentenceexplaininghowthenumbersrelatetotheclaim,amoreinformativetitle,andvisualhelpthat

focusesusonwhattolookfor(table8.4):

Gasolineconsumptiondidnotgrowasmanyhadpredicted.EventhoughAmericansdrove23percentmoremilesin2000thanin

1970,theyused32percentlessfuel.

Theaddedsentencetellsushowtointerpretthekeydataintable8.4,andthehighlighttellsuswheretofindit.

8.3.2KeeptheImageasSimpleasItsContentAllows

Someguidesencourageyoutoputasmuchdataasyoucanineverygraphic,butreaderswanttoseeonlythedatarelevanttoyour

point,presentedinanimagefreeofdistractions.

1.Includeonlyrelevantdata.Ifyouwanttoincludedatajustfortherecord,labelitaccordinglyandputitinanappendix(see

A.2.3.2).

2.Makethegridsimple.

■Graphics

Boxagraphiconlyifyougrouptwoormorefigures.

Usecautioninemployingshadingorcolortoconveymeaning.Evenifyouprintthepaperonacolorprinterorsubmititasa

PDF,itmaybeprintedorcopiedlateronablack-and-whitemachine,andifitisadissertation,itmaybemicrofilmed.

Shadingandcolormaynotreproducewellinanyoftheseforms.

Nevercreateathree-dimensionalbackgroundforatwo-dimensionalgraphic.Theaddeddepthcontributesnothingandcan

distorthowreadersjudgevalues.

Plotdataonthreedimensionsonlywhenyoucannotdisplaythedatainanyotherwayandyourreadersarefamiliarwithsuch

graphs.

■Tables

Neverusebothhorizontalandverticallinestodividecolumnsandrows.Uselightgraylinesifyouwanttodirectyour

reader seyesinonedirectiontocomparedataorifthetableisunusuallycomplex.Butavoidusinggraylinesorshadingin

anythingthatwillbemicrofilmed,becausethephotographedimagemaybeblurred.

Fortableswithmanyrows,lightlyshadeeveryfifthrow.

Donotuseafontsizesmallerthanninepointsforadocumentthatwillbemicrofilmed.Smallerfontswillbeillegible.

■Chartsandgraphs

Usegridlinesonlyifthegraphiciscomplexorreadersneedtoseeprecisenumbers.Makeallgridlineslightgray,unlessthe

textwillbemicrofilmed.

Usecautioninemployingshadingorcolortoconveymeaning.Evenifyouprintthepaperonacolorprinterorsubmititasa

PDF,itmaybeprintedorcopiedlateronablack-and-whitemachine,andifitisadissertation,itmaybemicrofilmed.

Shadingandcolormaynotreproducewellinanyoftheseforms.

Nevercreateathree-dimensionalchartorgraphifyoucanrepresentthesamedataintwodimensions.Theaddeddepth

contributesnothingandcandistorthowreadersjudgevalues.

Neveruseiconicbars(forexample,imagesofcarstorepresentautomobileproduction).Theyaddnothing,candistorthow

readersjudgevalues,andlookamateurish.

3.Useclearlabels.

■Labelrowsandcolumnsintablesandbothaxesinchartsandgraphs.(seechapter26forpunctuationandspellinginlabels.)

■Usetickmarksandlabelstoindicateintervalsontheverticalaxisofagraph(seefig.8.4).

■Ifpossible,labellines,barsegments,andthelikeontheimageratherthaninacaptionsettotheside.Dosointhecaptiononly

iflabelswouldmaketheimagetoocomplextoread.

■Whenspecificnumbersmatter,addthemtobars,segments,ordotsonlines.

8.3.3FollowGuidelinesforTables,BarCharts,andLineGraphs

8.3.3.1TABLES.Tableswithlotsofdatacanseemespeciallydense,sokeeptheirimageandcontentassimpleaspossible.

Table8.5.Unemploymentinmajorindustrialnations,1990–2000

Table8.6.Changesinunemploymentratesofindustrialnations,1990–2000

■Ordertherowsandcolumnsbyaprinciplethatletsreadersquicklyfindwhatyouwantthemtosee.Donotautomaticallychoose

alphabeticorder.

■Roundnumberstorelevantvalues.Ifdifferencesoflessthan1,000don tmatter,then2,123,499and2,124,886areirrelevantly

precise.

■Sumtotalsatthebottomofacolumnorattheendofarow,notatthetoporleft.Comparetables8.5and8.6.Table8.5looks

clutteredanditsitemsaren thelpfullyorganized.Table8.6isclearerbecauseitstitleismoreinformative,thetablehasless

distractingvisualclutter,anditsitemsareorganizedtoletusseepatternsmoreeasily.

8.3.3.2BARCHARTS.Barchartscommunicateasmuchbyimageasbyspecificnumbers.Barsthatseemtobearrangedinnopattern

implynopoint,soifpossible,groupandarrangebarstogivereadersanimageofanorderthatmatchesyourpoint.

Forexample,lookatfigure8.4inthecontextoftheexplanatorysentencebeforeit.Theitemsarelistedalphabetically,anorder

thatdoesn thelpreadersseethepoint.Incontrast,figure8.5supportstheclaimwithacoherentimage.

MostofthedesertareaintheworldisconcentratedinNorthAfricaandtheMiddleEast.

Figure8.4.Worldʼstenlargestdeserts

MostofthedesertareaintheworldisconcentratedinNorthAfricaandtheMiddleEast.

Figure8.5.Worlddistributionoflargedeserts

Instandardbarcharts,eachbarrepresents100percentofawhole.Butsometimesithelpsreadersiftheycanseespecificvalues

forpartsofthewhole.Youcandothatineitheroftwoways:

■A stackedbar chartsubdividesthebarsintoproportionalparts,asinthechartontheleftinfigure8.6.

■A groupedbar chartusesaseparatebarforeachpartofthewholebutgroupsthebars,asinthechartontherightinfigure8.6.

Usestackedbarsonlywhenit smoreimportanttocomparewholevaluesthanitistocomparetheirsegments.Readers,however,

can teasilygaugeproportionsbyeyealone,soifyoudousestackedbars,dothis:

■Arrangesegmentsinalogicalorder.Ifpossible,putthelargestsegmentatthebottominthedarkestshade.

■Labelsegmentswithspecificnumbersandconnectcorrespondingsegmentswithgraylinestohelpclarifyproportions.

Figure8.6.Stackedbarchartcomparedtogroupedbarchart

Figure8.7showshowastackedbarchartismorereadablewhenirrelevantsegmentsareeliminatedandthosekeptarelogically

orderedandfullylabeled.

Figure8.7.Stackedbarchartsshowinggeneratorsofnuclearenergy,1980–1999

Agroupedbarchartmakesiteasyforreaderstocomparepartsofawhole,butdifficultforthemtocomparedifferentwholes

becausetheymustdomentalarithmetic.Ifyougroupbarsbecausethesegmentsaremoreimportantthanthewholes,dothis:

■Arrangegroupsofbarsinalogicalorder;ifpossible,putbarsofsimilarsizenexttooneanother(orderbarswithingroupsinthe

sameway).

■Labelgroupswiththenumberforthewhole,eitheraboveeachgrouporbelowthelabelsonthebottom.

Mostdatathatfitabarchartcanalsoberepresentedinapiechart.Itisapopularchoiceinmagazines,tabloids,andannual

reports,butit shardertoreadthanabarchart,anditinvitesmisinterpretationbecausereadersmustmentallycompareproportions

ofsegmentswhosesizeishardtojudgeinthefirstplace.Mostresearchersconsiderthemamateurish.Usebarchartsinstead.

8.3.3.3LINEGRAPHS.Becausealinegraphemphasizestrends,readersmustseeaclearimagetointerpretitcorrectly.Tocreateaclear

image,dothefollowing:

■Choosethevariablethatmakesthelinegointhedirection,upordown,thatsupportsyourpoint.Ifthegoodnewsisareduction

(down)inhighschooldropouts,youcanmoreeffectivelyrepresentthesamedataasanincreaseinretention(up).

■Plotmorethansixlinesononegraphonlyifyoucannotmakeyourpointinanyotherway.

■Donotdependondifferentshadesofgraytodistinguishlines,asinfigure8.8.

■Whenyoucreatealinegraphfromonlyafewvalues,thelineswillbelessprecise.Soifyouplotfewerthantenvalues(calleddata

points),indicatethatbyaddingadotateachdatapoint,asinfigure8.9.Ifthosevaluesarerelevant,youcanaddnumbersabove

thedots.Donotadddotstolinesplottedfromtenormoredatapoints.

Comparefigure8.8andfigure8.9.Beyonditsgeneralstory,figure8.8ishardertoreadbecausetheshadesofgraydonotdistinguish

thelineswellandbecauseoureyeshavetoflickbackandforthtoconnectlineswithvariablesandtheirnumbers.Figure8.9makes

thoseconnectionsclearer.

Thesedifferentwaysofshowingthesamedatacanbeconfusing.Youcancutthroughthatconfusionifyoufirstrepresentthe

samedataindifferentways(yourcomputerprogramwillusuallyletyoudothatquickly)andthenasksomeoneunfamiliarwiththe

datatojudgetherepresentationsforimpactandclarity.Besuretointroducetherepresentationswithasentencethatstatesthe

claimyouwantthetableorfiguretosupport.

Figure8.8.Foreign-bornresidentsintheUnitedStates,1870–1990

Figure8.9.Foreign-bornresidentsintheUnitedStates,1870–1990

8.4CommunicateDataEthically

Yourgraphicmustbenotonlyclear,accurate,andrelevantbutalsohonest.Itshouldnotdistortitsdataortheirrelationshipsto

makeapoint.Forexample,thetwobarchartsinfigure8.10displayidenticaldatayetseemtosenddifferentmessages.Thefullscale

inthefigureontheleftcreatesafairlyflatslope,whichmakesthedropinpollutionseemsmall.Theverticalscaleinthefigureonthe

right,however,beginsnotat0butat80.Whenascaleisthattruncated,itsdrawn-outslopeexaggeratessmallcontrasts.

Graphscanalsomisleadbyimplyingfalsecorrelations.Someoneclaimingthatunemploymentgoesdownwhenunion

membershipgoesdownmightofferfigure8.11asevidence.Andindeed,unionmembershipandtheunemploymentrateseemto

movetogethersocloselythatareadermightinfertheyarecausallyrelated.Butthescalefortheleftaxisinfigure8.11(union

membership)differsfromthescalefortherightaxis(theunemploymentrate).Thetwoscaleshavebeendeliberatelyskewedto

makethetwodeclinesseemparallel.Theymayberelated,butthatdistortedimagedoesn tproveit.

Graphscanalsomisleadwhentheimageencouragesreaderstomisjudgevalues.Thetwochartsinfigure8.12seemto

communicatedifferentmessageseventhoughtheyrepresentexactlythesamedata.Thesetwochartsare stackedarea charts.

Despitetheirvisualdifferences,theyrepresentthesamedata.Thesestackedareachartsrepresentdifferencesinvaluesnotbythe

anglesofthelinesbutbytheareasbetweenthem.Inbothcharts,thebandsforsouth,east,andwestareroughlythesamewidth

throughout,indicatinglittlechangeinthevaluestheyrepresent.Thebandforthenorth,however,widenssharply,representinga

largeincreaseinthevalueitrepresents.Inthechartontheleft,readersarelikelytomisjudgethetopthreebandsbecausetheyare

ontopoftherisingnorthband,makingthosebandsseemtoriseaswell.Inthechartontheright,ontheotherhand,thosethree

bandsdonotrisebecausetheyareonthebottom.Hereonlythebandforthenorthrises.

Figure8.10.CapitolCitypollutionindex,1982–1994

Figure8.11.Unionmembershipandunemploymentrate,1993–1999

Figure8.12.RepresentationofcollarcountiesamongStateU.undergraduates(percentageoftotal)

Herearefourguidelinesforavoidingvisualmisrepresentations:

■Donotmanipulateascaletomagnifyorreduceacontrast.

■Donotuseafigurewhoseimagedistortsvalues.

■Donotmakeatableorfigureunnecessarilycomplexormisleadinglysimple.

■Ifthetableorfiguresupportsapoint,stateit.

Table8.7.Commongraphicformsandtheiruses

 Data Rhetoricaluses

Barchart



Comparesthevalueofonevariableacrossaseriesofitems

calledcases(e.g.,averagesalariesforservice

workers

variable

insixcompanies

cases

Createsstrongvisualcontrastsamongindividualcases,

emphasizingcomparisons.Forspecificvalues,add

numberstobars.Canshowranksortrends.Vertical

bars(calledcolumns)aremostcommon,butbarscan

behorizontalifcasesarenumerousorhavecomplex

labels.Seesection8.3.3.2.

Barchart,groupedorsplit

Comparesthevalueofonevariable,dividedintosubsets,

acrossaseriesofcases(e.g.,averagesalaries

variable

for

menandwomenserviceworkers

subsets

insix

companies

cases

Contrastssubsetswithinandacrossindividualcases;

notusefulforcomparingtotalvaluesforcases.For

specificvalues,addnumberstobars.Groupedbars

showrankingortrendspoorly;usefulfortimeseries

onlyiftrendsareunimportant.Seesection8.3.3.2.

Barchart,stacked

Comparesthevalueofonevariable,dividedintotwoormore

Bestforcomparingtotalsacrosscasesandsubsets

withincases;difficulttocomparesubsetsacrosscases

subsets,acrossaseriesofcases(e.g.,harassment

complaints

variable

segmentedbyregion

subsets

insix

industries

cases

(usegroupedbars).Forspecificvalues,addnumbersto

barsandsegments.Usefulfortimeseries.Canshow

ranksortrendsfortotalvaluesonly.Seesection

8.3.3.2.

Histogram

Comparestwovariables,withonesegmentedintoranges

thatfunctionlikethecasesinabargraph(e.g.,service

workers

continuous



variable

whosesalaryis$0-5,000,$5-

10,000,$10-15,000,etc.

segmentedvariable

Bestforcomparingsegmentswithincontinuousdata

sets.Showstrendsbutemphasizessegments(e.g.,a

suddenspikeat$5-10,000representingpart-time

workers).Forspecificvalues,addnumberstobars.

Imagechart

Showsvalueofoneormorevariablesforcasesdisplayedon

amap,diagram,orotherimage(e.g.,states

cases

colored

redorbluetoshowvotingpatterns

variable

Showsthedistributionofthedatainrelationto

preexistingcategories;deemphasizesspecificvalues.

Bestwhentheimageisfamiliar,asinamapordiagram

ofaprocess.

Piechart

Showstheproportionofasinglevariableforaseriesofcases

(e.g.,thebudgetshare

variable

ofUScabinet

departments

cases

Bestforcomparingonesegmenttothewhole.Useful

onlywithfewsegmentsorsegmentsthatarevery

differentinsize;otherwisecomparisonsamong

segmentsaredifficult.Forspecificvalues,addnumbers

tosegments.Commoninpopularvenues,frownedon

byprofessionals.See8.3.3.2.

Linegraph

Comparescontinuousvariablesforoneormorecases(e.g.,

temperature

variable

andviscosity

variable

intwofluids

cases

Bestforshowingtrends;deemphasizesspecificvalues.

Usefulfortimeseries.Toshowspecificvalues,add

numberstodatapoints.Toshowthesignificanceofa

trend,segmentthegrid(e.g.,beloworaboveaverage

performance).See8.3.3.3.

Areachart

Comparestwocontinuousvariablesforoneormorecases

(e.g.,readingtestscores

variable

overtime

variable

ina

schooldistrict

case

Showstrends;deemphasizesspecificvalues.Canbe

usedfortimeseries.Toshowspecificvalues,add

numberstodatapoints.Areasbelowthelinesaddno

informationandwillleadsomereaderstomisjudge

values.Confusingwithmultiplelines/areas.

Areachart,stacked

Comparestwocontinuousvariablesfortwoormorecases

(e.g.,Profit

variable

overtime

variable

forseveral

products

cases

Showsthetrendforthetotalofallcases,plushow

mucheachcasecontributestothattotal.Likelyto

misleadreadersonthevalueorthetrendforany

individualcase,asexplainedinsection8.4.

Scatterplot

Comparestwovariablesatmultipledatapointsforasingle

case(e.g.,housingsales

variable

anddistancefrom

downtown

variable

inonecity

case

)oratonedatapointfor

multiplecases(e.g.,brandloyalty

variable

andrepair

frequency

variable

fortenmanufacturers

cases

Bestforshowingthedistributionofdata,especially

whenthereisnocleartrendorwhenthefocusison

outlyingdatapoints.Ifonlyafewdatapointsare

plotted,itallowsafocusonindividualvalues.

Bubblechart

Comparesthreevariablesatmultipledatapointsfora

singlecase(e.g.,housingsales,

variable

distancefrom

downtown,

variable

andprices

variable

inonecity

case

)or

atonedatapointformultiplecases(e.g.,image

advertising,

variable

repairfrequency,

variable

andbrand

loyalty

variable

fortenmanufacturers

cases

Emphasizestherelationshipbetweenthethirdvariable

(bubbles)andthefirsttwo;mostusefulwhenthe

questioniswhetherthethirdvariableisaproductofthe

others.Readerseasilymisjudgerelativevaluesshown

bybubbles;addingnumbersmitigatesthatproblem.

1.Anoteonterminology:Thetermsforgraphicsvary,sowewillstipulateours.Inthischapter,weusethetermgraphicstorefer

toallvisualrepresentationsofevidence.Anothertermsometimesusedforsuchrepresentationsisillustrations.Traditionally,

graphicsaredividedintotablesandfigures.Atableisagridwithcolumnsandrowsthatpresentdatainnumbersorwordsorganized

bycategories.Figuresareallothergraphicforms,includinggraphs,charts,photographs,drawings,anddiagrams.Figuresthat

presentquantitativedataaredividedintocharts,typicallyconsistingofbars,circles,points,orothershapes,andgraphs,typically

consistingofcontinuouslines.Forasurveyofcommonfigures,seetable8.7.

9RevisingYourDraft

9.1CheckforBlindSpotsinYourArgument

9.2CheckYourIntroduction,Conclusion,andClaim

9.3MakeSuretheBodyofYourReportIsCoherent

9.4CheckYourParagraphs

9.5LetYourDraftCool,ThenParaphraseIt

Somenewresearchersthinkthatoncetheyhaveadraft,they redone.Thoughtfulwritersknowbetter.Theywriteafirstdraftnotfor

theirreadersbutforthemselves,toseewhethertheycanmakethecasetheyhopedto(orabetterone).Thentheyrevisetheirdraft

untiltheythinkitmeetstheneedsandexpectationsoftheirreaders.That shard,becauseweallknowourownworktoowelltoread

itasotherswill.Toreviseeffectively,youmustknowwhatreaderslookforandwhetheryourdrafthelpsthemfindit.Tothatend,

ouradvicemayseemmechanical.Butonlywhenyoucananalyzeyourdraftobjectivelycanyouavoidreadingintoitwhatyouwant

yourreaderstogetoutofit.

Wesuggestrevisingfromthetopdown:firstthe outerframe (introductionandconclusion),thenoverallorganization,then

sections,paragraphs,sentences,andfinallystylisticissuessuchasspellingandpunctuation(forguidanceontheseissues,seepart

3).Ofcoursenoonerevisessoneatly.Allofusfiddlewithwordsaswemoveparagraphsaroundandreorganizeaswerevisea

sentence.Butyou relikelytomakethebestrevisionsifyourevisefromwholetopart,evenifatthemomentyou rerevisingapartis

theonlywholeyouhave.

Manyexperiencedresearchersfindthattheycanedithardcopymorereliablythantheycanedittextontheircomputerscreen.

Youmighteditearlydraftsonthescreen,butyoumaycatchmoreerrorsandgetabettersenseoftheoverallstructureofyourreport

ifyoureadatleastonelaterversionofitonpaper,asyourreaderswill.

9.1CheckforBlindSpotsinYourArgument

Completingadraftisanaccomplishment,butdon tfinishthefirstdraftandthenmoveimmediatelytofine-tuningsentences.After

thefirstdraft,partsofyourargumentwilllikelystillnotstanduptoarobustchallenge.Ifyouinvestalotoftimeinpolishing

sentences,itcanbehardtolateracceptthatasectionofyourargumentneedstobereframed,especiallyifyouarenewtoresearch.

Instead,checkyourargument sreasoning.Haveyouconsideredthestrongestrelevantcounterarguments?Haveyoulookedfor

evidencethatchallengesorcomplicatesyourreasons?Haveyouconsideredalternativeinterpretationsofyourevidence?Ifnot,now

isthetime.Ifyoufinditdifficulttothinkofsignificantalternativestoyourargument,nowthatyouhavecompletedadraft,your

professormightbewillingtotalkwithyouaboutwhereyourargumentoverlookslikelyobjections.

9.2CheckYourIntroduction,Conclusion,andClaim

Yourreadersmustrecognizethreethingsquicklyandunambiguously:

■whereyourintroductionends

■whereyourconclusionbegins

■whatsentencesinoneorbothstateyourclaim

Tomakethefirsttwoclearlyvisible,youmightinsertasubheadorextraspacebetweenyourintroductionandbodyandanother

betweenthebodyandconclusion.(Chapter10discussesrevisingyourlastdraftintroductionandconclusionindetail,particularly

howandwhereyousignalyourclaim.)

9.3MakeSuretheBodyofYourReportIsCoherent

Onceyouframeyourreportclearly,checkitsbody.Readerswillthinkyourreportiscoherentwhentheyseethefollowing:

■whatkeytermsrunthroughallsectionsofthereport

■whereeachsectionandsubsectionendsandthenextbegins

■howeachsectionrelatestotheonebeforeit

■whatroleeachsectionplaysinthewhole

■whatsentenceineachsectionandsubsectionstatesitspoint

■whatdistinctivekeytermsrunthrougheachsection

Toensurethatyourreaderswillseethosefeatures,checkforthefollowing:

1.Dokeytermsrunthroughyourwholereport?

■Circlekeytermsintheclaiminyourintroductionandinyourconclusion(review7.3).

■Circlethosesametermsinthebodyofyourreport.

■Underlineotherwordsrelatedtoconceptsnamedbythosecircledterms.

Ifreadersdon tseeyourkeytermsinmostparagraphs,theymaythinkyourreportwanders.Revisebyworkingthoseterms

intopartsthatlackthem.Ifyouunderlinedmanymorewordsthanyoucircled,besurethatreaderswillrecognizehowthe

underlinedwordsrelatetotheconceptsnamedinyourcircledkeyterms.Ifreadersmightmisstheconnections,changesomeof

thoserelatedwordstothekeyterms.Ifyoureallydidstrayfromyourlineofreasoning,youhavesomeseriousrevisingtodo.

2.Isthebeginningofeachsectionandsubsectionclearlysignaled?

Youcanusesubheadstosignaltransitionsfromonemajorsectiontothenext(review6.2.4).Inalongpaper,youmightaddan

extraspaceatthemajorjoints.Ifyouhaveaproblemdecidingwhatwordstouseinsubheadsorwheretoputthem,yourreaders

willhaveabiggerone,becausetheyprobablywon tseeyourorganization.(Forstylesofdifferentlevelsofheads,seeA.2.2.4.)

3.Doeseachmajorsectionbeginwithwordsthatsignalhowthatsectionrelatestotheonebeforeit?

Readersmustnotonlyrecognizewheresectionsbeginandendbutalsounderstandwhytheyareorderedastheyare(see

6.2.5 6.2.6).SignalthelogicofyourorderwithwordssuchasConsequently,Incontrast,Moreimportantly,Somehaveobjected

that,andsoon.

4.Isitclearhoweachsectionisrelevanttothewhole?

Ofeachsection,askWhatquestiondoesthissectionanswer?Ifitdoesn thelptoansweroneofthefivequestionswhose

answersconstituteanargument(see5.2),thinkaboutitsrelevance:doesitcreateacontext,explainabackgroundconceptor

issue,orhelpreadersinsomeotherway?Ifyoucan texplainhowasectionrelatestoyourclaim,considercuttingit.

5.Isthepointofeachsectionstatedinasentenceattheendofabriefintroductiontothatsection(oratitsend)?

Ifyouhaveachoice,statethepointofasectionattheendofitsintroduction.Undernocircumstancesburythepointofa

sectioninitsmiddle.Ifasectionislongerthanfourorfivepages,youmightrestatethepointatitsend.

6.Dothespecifictermsthatdistinguishasectionrunthroughit?

Justasthekeytermsthatunifyyourwholereportdistinguishitfromotherreports,soshouldthekeytermsthatdistinguish

eachsectionandsubsectionrunthroughandunifythatsection.RepeatstepIforeachsection:findthesentencethatexpressesits

pointandidentifythekeytermsthatdistinguishthatsectionfromtheothers.Thencheckwhetherthosetermsrunthroughthat

section.Ifyoufindnokeyterms,thenyourreadersmightnotseewhatdistinctideasthatsectioncontributestothewhole.

9.4CheckYourParagraphs

Eachparagraphshouldberelevanttothepointofitssection.Andlikesections,eachparagraphshouldhaveasentenceortwo

introducingit,usuallystatingitspointandincludingthekeyconceptsthattherestoftheparagraphdevelops.Iftheopening

sentencesofaparagraphdon tstateitspoint,thenitslastoneshould.Orderyoursentencesbysomeprincipleandmakethem

relevanttothepointoftheparagraph(forprinciplesoforder,see6.2.5).

Avoidstringsofshortparagraphs(fewerthanfivelines)andverylongones(formostfields,morethanhalfapage).Reservethe

useoftwo-orthree-sentenceparagraphsforlists,transitions,introductionsandconclusionstosections,andstatementsthatyou

wanttoemphasize.(Weuseshortparagraphsheresothatreaderscanmoreeasilyskim rarelyaconsiderationinreportwriting.)

9.5LetYourDraftCool,ThenParaphraseIt

Ifyoustartyourprojectearly,you llhavetimetoletyourreviseddraftcool.Whatseemsgoodonedayoftenlooksdifferentthenext.

Whenyoureturntoyourdraft,don treaditstraightthrough;skimitstop-levelparts:itsintroduction,thefirstparagraphofeach

majorsection,andtheconclusion.Then,basedonwhatyouhaveread,paraphraseitforsomeonewhohasn treadit.Doesthe

paraphrasehangtogether?Doesitfairlysumupyourargument?Evenbetter,asksomeoneelsetoskimyourreportbyreadingjust

itsintroductionandtheintroductiontoeachmajorsection:howwellthatpersonsummarizesyourreportwillpredicthowwellyour

readerswillunderstandit.

Finally,alwaysreviseinlightofateacher soradvisor sadvice.Notonlywouldyouannoyanyonewhotakestimetoreadadraft

andmakesuggestionsonlytoseeyouignorethem,butyouwouldpassupanopportunitytoimproveyourreport.Thatdoesn tmean

youmustfolloweverysuggestion,butyoushouldconsidereachonecarefully.

10WritingYourFinalIntroductionandConclusion

10.1DraftYourFinalIntroduction

10.1.1EstablishaBriefContextofPriorResearch

10.1.2RestateYourQuestionasSomethingNotKnownorFullyUnderstood

10.1.3StatetheSignificanceofYourQuestion

10.1.4StateYourClaim

10.1.5DraftaNewFirstSentence

10.2DraftYourFinalConclusion

10.2.1RestateYourClaim

10.2.2PointOutaNewSignificance,aPracticalApplication,orNewResearch(orAllThree)

10.3WriteYourTitleLast

Onceyouhaveafinaldraftandcanseewhatyouhaveactuallywritten,youcanwriteyourfinalintroductionandconclusion.These

twoframingpartsofyourreportcruciallyinfluencehowreaderswillunderstandandremembertherestofit,soit sworthyourtime

tomakethemasclearandcompellingasyoucan.

Yourintroductionhasthreeaims.Itshoulddothefollowing:

■putyourresearchinthecontextofotherresearch

■makereadersunderstandwhytheyshouldreadyourreport

■givethemaframeworkforunderstandingit

Mostintroductionsrunabout10percentofthewhole(inthesciencestheyareoftenshorter).

Yourconclusionalsohasthreeaims.Itshoulddothefollowing:

■leavereaderswithaclearideaofyourclaim

■makereadersunderstanditsimportance

■suggestfurtherresearch

Yourconclusionshouldusuallybeshorterthanyourintroduction.(Inthesesanddissertations,theintroductionandconclusionare

usuallyseparatechapters.)

10.1DraftYourFinalIntroduction

Differentfieldsseemtointroducereportsindifferentways,butbehindmostofthemisapatternwiththefourpartsdescribedin

6.2.2:

1.Openingcontextorbackground.Whenthissummarizesrelevantresearch,it scalledaliteraturereviewthatputsyourprojectin

thecontextofotherresearchandsetsupthenextstep.Keepitshort.

2.Astatementofyourresearchquestion.Thisistypicallyastatementofwhatisn tknownorunderstoodorofwhatisflawedabout

theresearchyoucitedinstep1.Itoftenbeginswithbut,however,oranotherwordsignalingaqualification.

3.Thesignificanceofyourquestion.ThisanswersSowhat?Itiskeytomotivatingyourreaders.

4.Yourclaim.Thisanswersyourresearchquestionexpressedinstep2.Hereisanabbreviatedexample(eachsentencecouldbe

expandedtoaparagraphormore):



Forcenturies,riskanalystshavestudiedriskasaprobleminstatisticsandtherationalusesofprobabilitytheory.

context

Butrisk

communicatorshavediscoveredthatordinarypeoplethinkaboutriskinwaysthatseemunrelatedtostatisticallybased

probabilities.

question

Untilweunderstandhownonexpertsthinkaboutrisk,animportantaspectofhumancognitionwillremaina

puzzle.

significance

Itappearsthatnonexpertsjudgeriskbyvisualizingworst-casescenarios,thenassessinghowfrighteningthe

imageis.

claim

10.1.1EstablishaBriefContextofPriorResearch

Noteveryreportopenswithasurveyofresearch.Somebegindirectlywitharesearchquestionstatedassomethingnotknownor

understood,followedbyareviewoftherelevantliterature.Thisisacommonstrategywhenthegapinknowledgeorunderstanding

iswellknown:

Therelationshipbetweensecondhandsmokeandheartdiseaseisstillcontested.

Butifthatgapisn twellknown,suchanopeningcanfeelabrupt,likethisone:

Researchersdonotunderstandhowordinarypeoplethinkaboutrisk.

Asarule,writerspreparereadersbydescribingthepriorresearchthattheirresearchwillextend,modify,orcorrect.Ifthereport

isintendedforgeneralreaders,thecontextcanbebrief:

Wealltakeriskseveryday—whenwecrossthestreetoreathigh-fatfood,evenwhenwetakeabath.Thestudyofriskbeganwith

gamesofchance,soithaslongbeentreatedmathematically.Bythetwentiethcentury,researchersusedmathematicaltoolsto

studyriskinmanyareas:investments,commercialproducts,evenwar.Asaresult,mostresearchersthinkthatriskisastatistically

quantifiableproblemandthatdecisionsaboutitshouldberationallybased.

Inareportintendedforotherresearchers,thisopeningcontexttypicallydescribesthespecificresearchthatthereportwillextend

ormodify.Itisimportanttorepresentthispriorresearchfairly,sodescribeitasthoseresearcherswould.

EversinceGirolamoCardanothoughtaboutgamesofchanceinquantitativetermsinthesixteenthcentury(Cardano1545),riskhas

beentreatedasapurelymathematicalproblem.AnalysesofrisksignificantlyimprovedintheseventeenthcenturywhenPascal,

Leibniz,andothersdevelopedthecalculus(Bernstein1996).Inthetwentiethcentury,researcherswidenedtheirfocustostudyrisk

inallareasoflife:investments,consumerproducts,theenvironment,evenwar(Stimson1990;1998).Theseproblems,too,have

beenaddressedalmostexclusivelyfromamathematicalperspective.[Detaileddiscussionofcontemporaryresearchfollows.]

Somereports,especiallythesesanddissertations,goonlikethatforpages,citingscoresofbooksandarticlesonlymarginally

relevanttothetopic,usuallytoshowhowwidelytheresearcherhasread.Thatkindofsurveycanprovidehelpfulbibliographyto

otherresearchers,especiallynewones,butbusyreaderswanttoknowaboutonlythespecificresearchthattheresearcherintendsto

extend,modify,orcorrect.

Itisimportanttorepresentthispriorresearchfairlyandfully:describeitastheresearcheryou recitingwould,evenquoting,not

selectivelyoroutofcontextbutasshewouldrepresentherownwork.

Earlyinyourcareeryoumightnotbeabletowritethisreviewofpriorresearchwithmuchconfidence,becauseyou reunlikelyto

knowmuchofit.Ifso,imagineyourreaderassomeonelikeyourselfbeforeyoustartedyourresearch.Whatdidyouthennotknow?

Whatdidyouthengetwrongthatyourresearchhascorrected?Howhasitimprovedyourownflawedunderstanding?Thisiswhere

youcanuseaworkinghypothesisthatyourejected:ItmightseemthatXisso,but (seealso4.1.2).

10.1.2RestateYourQuestionasSomethingNotKnownorFullyUnderstood

Aftertheopeningcontext,statewhatthatpriorresearchhasn tdoneorhowit sincomplete,evenwrong.Introducethatqualification

orcontradictionwithbut,however,orsomeothertermindicatingthatyou reabouttomodifythereceivedknowledgeand

understandingthatyoujustsurveyed:

EversinceGirolamoCardano…mathematicalperspective.

context

Butriskcommunicatorshavediscoveredthatordinarypeoplethink

aboutriskinwaysthatareirrationalandunrelatedtostatisticallyrealisticprobabilities.Whatisnotunderstoodiswhethersuch

nonexpertriskassessmentisbasedonrandomguessesorwhetherithassystematicproperties.

questionrestated

10.1.3StatetheSignificanceofYourQuestion

Nowyoumustshowyourreadersthesignificanceofansweringyourresearchquestion.Imagineareaderaskingthatmostvexing

question,Sowhat?,thenanswerit.Frameyourresponseasalargercostofnotknowingtheanswertoyourresearchquestion:

EversinceGirolamoCardano…mathematicalperspective.

context

Butriskcommunicatorshavediscoveredthat…Whatisnot

understoodiswhethersuchnonexpertriskassessmentisbasedonrandomguessesorwhetherithassystematicproperties.

question

restated

[Sowhat?]Untilweunderstandhowriskisunderstoodbynonexperts,animportantaspectofhumanreasoningwillremaina

puzzle:thekindofcognitiveprocessingthatseemssystematicbutliesoutsidetherangeofwhatiscalled“rational

thinking.”

significance

Alternativelyyoucanphrasethecostasabenefit:

EversinceGirolamoCardano…mathematicalperspective.

context

Butriskcommunicatorshavediscoveredthat…Whatisnot

understoodiswhethersuchnonexpertriskassessmentisbasedonrandomguessesorwhetherithassystematicproperties.

question

restated

[Sowhat?]Ifwecouldunderstandhowordinarypeoplemakedecisionsaboutrisksintheirdailylives,wecouldbetter

understandakindofcognitiveprocessingthatseemssystematicbutliesoutsidetherangeofwhatiscalled“rational

thinking.”

significance

YoumaystruggletoanswerthatSowhat?Itisaproblemthatonlyexperiencecansolve,butthefactis,evenexperienced

researcherscanbevexedbyit.

10.1.4StateYourClaim

Onceyoustatethatsomethingisn tknownorunderstoodandwhyitshouldbe,readerswanttoseeyourclaim,theanswertoyour

researchquestion(weabbreviateagooddealinwhatfollows):

EversinceGirolamoCardano…mathematicalperspective.

context

Butriskcommunicatorshavediscoveredthatordinarypeoplethink

aboutriskinwaysthataresystematicbutirrationalandunrelatedtostatisticallyrealisticprobabilities.

question

[Sowhat?]Untilwe

understandhowriskisunderstoodbynonexperts,animportantkindofhumanreasoningwillremainapuzzle:thekindofcognitive

processingthatseemssystematicbutliesoutsidetherangeofwhatiscalled“rationalthinking.”

significance

Itappearsthatnonexperts

assessrisknotbyassigningquantitativeprobabilitiestoeventsthatmightoccurbutbyvisualizingworst-casescenarios,then

assigningdegreesofriskaccordingtohowvividandfrighteningtheimageis.

claim

Ifyouhavereasontowithholdyourclaimuntiltheendofyourpaper,writeasentencetoconcludeyourintroductionthatuses

thekeytermsfromthatclaimandthatframeswhatfollows:

Itappearsthatnonexpertsassessrisknotbyassigningquantitativeprobabilitiesbutbysystematicallyusingpropertiesoftheirvisual

imagination.

promiseofclaim

Thosefourstepsmayseemmechanical,buttheyconstitutetheintroductionstomostresearchreportsineveryfield,bothinside

theacademicworldandout.Asyoureadyoursources,especiallyjournalarticles,watchforthatfour-partframework.Youwillnot

onlylearnarangeofstrategiesforwritingyourownintroductionsbutbetterunderstandtheonesyouread.

10.1.5DraftaNewFirstSentence

Somewritersfinditsodifficulttowritethefirstsentenceofareportthattheyfallintoclich s.Avoidthese:

■Donotrepeatthelanguageofyourassignment.

■Donotquoteadictionarydefinition:Websterdefinesriskas

■Donotpontificate:Forcenturies,philosophershavedebatedtheburningquestionof (Goodquestionsspeaktheirown

importance.)

Ifyouwanttobeginwithsomethinglivelierthanpriorresearch,tryoneormoreoftheseopeners(butnotethewarningthat

follows):

1.Astrikingquotation:

Assomeoneoncesaid,calculatingriskislikejudgingbeauty:itʼsallintheeyeoftheirrationalbeholder.

2.Astrikingfact:

Manypeopledriveratherthanflybecausethevividimageofanairplanecrashterrifiesthem,eventhoughtheyaremanytimes

morelikelytodieinacarcrashthanaplanewreck.

3.Arelevantanecdote:

GeorgeMilleralwaysdrovelongdistancestomeetclientsbecausehebelievedthattheriskofanairplanecrashwastoogreat.

Evenwhenhebrokehisbackinanautomobileaccident,hestillthoughthehadmadetherightcalculation.“AtleastIsurvived.

Theoddsofsurvivinganairplanecrasharezero!”

Youcancombineallthree:

Assomeoneoncesaid,calculatingriskislikejudgingbeauty:itʼsallintheeyeoftheirrationalbeholder.Forexample,manypeople

driveratherthanflybecausethevividimageofanairplanecrashterrifiesthem,eventhoughtheyaremorelikelytodieinacar

crashthanaplanewreck.Becauseofthissortofirrationalthinking,GeorgeMilleralwaysdrovelongdistancestomeetclients

becausehebelievedthattheriskofanairplanecrashwastoogreat.Evenwhenhebrokehisbackinanautomobileaccident,hestill

thoughthehadmadetherightcalculation.“AtleastIsurvived.Theoddsofsurvivinganairplanecrasharezero!”

Besuretoincludeintheseopenerstermsthatrefertothekeyconceptsyou llusewhenyouwritetherestoftheintroduction(and

therestofthereport).Inthiscase,theyincludecalculating,risk,vividimage,irrational,morelikely.

Nowthewarning:beforeyouwriteasnappyopening,besurethatothersinyourfieldusethem.Insomefieldsthey reconsidered

toojournalisticforseriousscholarship.

10.2DraftYourFinalConclusion

Ifyouhavenobetterplan,buildyourconclusionaroundtheelementsofyourintroduction,inreverseorder.

10.2.1RestateYourClaim

Restateyourclaimearlyinyourconclusion,morefullythaninyourintroduction:

Ordinarypeoplemakedecisionsaboutrisknotonarationalorquantifiablebasisbutonthebasisofatleastsixpsychologicalfactors

thatnotonlyinvolveemotionbutsystematicallydrawonthepowerofvisualimagination.

Atthispointyou reprobablysurewhatyourclaimis,butevenso,takethislastchancetorephraseittomakeitasspecificand

completeasyoucan.

10.2.2PointOutaNewSignificance,aPracticalApplication,orNewResearch(orAllThree)

Afterstatingyourclaim,remindreadersofitssignificance,orbetter,stateanewsignificanceorapracticalapplicationofyourclaim:

Thesefindingssuggestahithertounsuspectedaspectofhumancognition,aquantitativelogicindependentofstatisticalprobabilities

involvingdegreesofprecisionorrealisminvisualization.Onceweunderstandthisimaginativebutsystematicassessmentofrisk,it

shouldbepossibleforriskcommunicatorstobetterexplainriskineverydaylife.

Finally,suggestfurtherresearch.Thisgesturesuggestshowthecommunityofresearcherscancontinuetheconversation.Itmirrors

theopeningcontext:

Althoughthesefactorsimproveourunderstandingofrisk,theydonotexhaustthe“human”factorsinjudgmentsofit.Wemustalso

investigatetherelevanceofage,gender,education,andintelligence.Forexample,…

10.3WriteYourTitleLast

Yourtitleisthefirstthingyourreadersread;itshouldbethelastthingyouwrite.Itshouldbothannouncethetopicofyourreport

andcommunicateitsconceptualframework,sobuilditoutofthekeytermsthatyouearliercircledandunderlined(review9.3).

Comparethesethreetitles:

Risk

ThinkingaboutRisk

IrrationalbutSystematicRiskAssessment:TheRoleofVisualImaginationinCalculatingRelativeRisk

Thefirsttitleisaccuratebuttoogeneraltogiveusmuchguidanceaboutwhatistocome.Thesecondismorespecific,butthethird

usesbothatitleandasubtitletogiveusadvancenoticeaboutthekeywordsthatwillappearinwhatfollows.Whenreadersseethe

keywordsinatitleturnupagaininyourintroductionandthenagainthroughoutyourreport,they remorelikelytofeelthatitsparts

hangtogether.Two-parttitlesaremostuseful:theygiveyouplentyofopportunitytouseyourkeywordstoannounceyourkey

concepts.

Atthispointyoumaybesosickofyourreportthatyouwantnothingmorethantokickitoutthedoor.Resistthatimpulse;you

haveonemoreimportanttask.

11RevisingSentences

11.1FocusontheFirstSevenorEightWordsofaSentence

11.1.1AvoidLongIntroductoryPhrasesandClauses

11.1.2MakeSubjectsShortandConcrete

11.1.3AvoidInterruptingSubjectsandVerbswithMorethanaWordorTwo

11.1.4PutKeyActionsinVerbs,NotinNouns

11.1.5PutInformationFamiliartoReadersattheBeginningofaSentence,NewInformationattheEnd

11.1.6ChooseActiveorPassiveVerbstoReflectthePreviousPrinciples

11.1.7UseFirst-PersonPronounsAppropriately

11.2DiagnoseWhatYouRead

11.3ChoosetheRightWord

11.4PolishItUp

11.5GiveItUpandPrintItOut

Yourlastbigtaskistomakeyoursentencesasclearasyourideasallow.Onsomeoccasionsyoumayknowyourwritingisawkward,

especiallyifyou rewritingaboutanunfamiliarandcomplextopicforintimidatingreaders.Infact,youmayevenfeelyou ve

forgottenhowtowriteclearlyatall.Youneedaplantorevisesentencesthatyoucanseeneedhelp,butevenmore,youneedaway

firsttoidentifythosethatyouthinkarefinebutthatreadersmightthinkarenot.

Wecan ttellyouhowtofixeveryproblemineverysentence,butwecantellyouhowtodealwiththosethatmostoftenafflicta

writerstrugglingtosoundlikea seriousscholar, astylethatmostexperiencedreadersthinkisjustpretentious.Hereisashort

example:

1a.Anunderstandingofterroristthinkingcouldachieveimprovementsintheprotectionofthepublic.

Howeverimpressivethatsounds,thestudentwhowroteitmeantonlythis:

1b.Ifweunderstoodhowterroriststhink,wecouldprotectthepublicbetter.

Todiagnose1aandreviseitinto1b,however,youmustknowafewgrammaticalterms:noun,verb,activeverb,passiveverb,whole

subject,simplesubject,mainclause,subordinateclause.Ifthey reonlyadimmemory,skimagrammarguidebeforeyougoon.

11.1FocusontheFirstSevenorEightWordsofaSentence

Justasthekeytoaclearlywrittenreport,section,orparagraphisinitsfirstfewsentences,soisthekeytoaclearlywrittensentence

initsfirstfewwords.Whenreadersgraspthosefirstsevenoreightwordseasily,theyreadwhatfollowsfaster,understanditbetter,

andrememberitlonger.Itisthedifferencebetweenthesetwosentences:

2a.TheFederalistsʼargumentinregardtothedestabilizationofgovernmentbypopulardemocracyarosefromtheirbeliefinthe

tendencyoffactionstofurthertheirself-interestattheexpenseofthecommongood.

2b.TheFederalistsarguedthatpopulardemocracydestabilizedgovernment,becausetheybelievedthatfactionstendedtofurther

theirself-interestattheexpenseofthecommongood.

Towriteasentencelike2b,ortoreviseonelike2ainto2b,followthesesevenprinciples:

■Avoidintroducingmorethanafewsentenceswithlongphrasesandclauses;gettothesubjectofyoursentencequickly.

■Makesubjectsshortandconcrete,ideallynamingthecharacterthatperformstheactionexpressedbytheverbthatfollows.

■Avoidinterruptingthesubjectandverbwithmorethanawordortwo.

■Putkeyactionsinverbs,notinnouns.

■Putinformationfamiliartoreadersatthebeginningofasentence,newinformationattheend.

■Chooseactiveorpassiveverbstoreflectthepreviousprinciples.

■Usefirst-personpronounsappropriately.

Thoseprinciplesadduptothis:readerswanttogetpastashort,concrete,familiarsubjectquicklyandeasilytoaverbexpressinga

specificaction.Whenyoudothat,therestofyoursentencewillusuallytakecareofitself.Todiagnoseyourownwriting,lookfor

thosecharacteristicsinit.Skimthefirstsevenoreightwordsofeverysentence.Lookcloselyatsentencesthatdon tmeetthose

criteria,thenrevisethemasfollows.

11.1.1AvoidLongIntroductoryPhrasesandClauses

Comparethesetwosentences(introductoryphrasesareboldfaced,wholesubjectsitalicized):

3a.Inviewofclaimsbyresearchersonhighereducationindicatingatleastonechangebymostundergraduatestudentsoftheir

majorfieldofstudy,first-yearstudentsseemnotwellinformedaboutchoosingamajorfieldofstudy.

3b.Researchersonhighereducationclaimthatmoststudentschangetheirmajorfieldofstudyatleastonceduringtheir

undergraduatecareer.Ifthatisso,thenfirst-yearstudentsseemnotwellinformedwhentheychooseamajor.

Mostreadersfind3ahardertoreadthan3b,becauseitmakesthemworkthroughatwenty-four-wordphrasebeforetheyreachits

subject(first-yearstudents).Inthetwosentencesin3b,readersimmediatelystartwithasubject,Researchers,orreachitafteravery

shortclause,Ifthatisso.

Theprincipleisthis:startmostofyoursentencesdirectlywiththeirsubjects.Beginonlyafewsentenceswithintroductory

phrasesorclauseslongerthantenorsowords.Youcanusuallyreviselongintroductoryphrasesandsubordinateclausesinto

separateindependentsentencesasin3b.

11.1.2MakeSubjectsShortandConcrete

Readersmustgraspthesubjectofasentenceeasily,buttheycan twhenthesubjectislong,complex,andabstract.Comparethese

twosentences(thewholesubjectsineachareitalicized;theone-wordsimplesubjectisboldfaced):

4a.Aschoolsystemʼssuccessfuladoptionofanewreadingcurriculumforitselementaryschoolsdependsonthedemonstrationin

eachschoolofthecommitmentofitsprincipalandthecooperationofteachersinsettingreasonablegoals.

4b.Aschoolsystemwillsuccessfullyadoptanewreadingcurriculumforelementaryschoolsonlywheneachprincipaldemonstrates

thatsheiscommittedtoitandteacherscooperatetosetreasonablegoals.

In4a,thewholesubjectisfourteenwordslong,anditssimplesubjectisanabstraction adoption.In4b,theclearerversion,the

wholesubjectofeveryverbisshort,andeachsimplesubjectisrelativelyconcrete:schoolsystem,eachprincipal,she,teachers.

Moreover,eachofthosesubjectsperformstheactioninitsverb:systemwilladopt,principaldemonstrates,sheiscommitted,

teacherscooperate.

Theprincipleisthis:readerstendtojudgeasentencetobereadablewhenthesubjectofitsverbnamesthemaincharacterina

fewconcretewords,ideallyacharacterthatisalsothe doer oftheactionexpressedbytheverbthatfollows.

Butthere sacomplication:youcanoftentellclearstoriesaboutabstractcharacters:

5.Noskillismorevaluedintheprofessionalworldthanproblemsolving.Theabilitytosolveproblemsquicklyrequiresustoframe

situationsindifferentwaysandtofindmorethanonesolution.Infact,effectiveproblemsolvingmaydefinegeneralintelligence.

Fewreadershavetroublewiththoseabstractsubjects,becausethey reshortandfamiliar:noskill,theabilitytosolveproblems

quickly,andeffectiveproblemsolving.Whatgivesreaderstroubleisanabstractsubjectthatislongandunfamiliar.

Tofixsentenceswithlong,abstractsubjects,reviseinthreesteps:

■Identifythemaincharacterinthesentence.

■Finditskeyaction,andifitisburiedinanabstractnoun,makeitaverb.

■Makethemaincharacterthesubjectofthatnewverb.

Forexample,compare6aand6b(actionsareboldfaced;verbsarecapitalized):

6a.Withoutameansforanalyzinginteractionsbetweensocialclassandeducationinregardtothecreationofmorejob

opportunities,successinunderstandingeconomicmobilityWILLREMAINlimited.

6b.EconomistsdonotentirelyUNDERSTANDeconomicmobility,becausetheycannotANALYZEhowsocialclassandeducation

INTERACTtoCREATEmorejobopportunities.

Inbothsentencesthemaincharacteriseconomists,butin6athatcharacterisn tthesubjectofanyverb;infact,it snotinthe

sentenceatall:wemustinferitfromactionsburiedinnouns analyzingandunderstanding(whateconomistsdo).Werevise6ainto

6bbymakingthemaincharacters,economists,socialclass,andeducation,subjectsoftheexplicitverbsunderstand,analyze,

interact,andcreate.

Readerswantsubjectstonamethemaincharactersinyourstory,ideallyflesh-and-bloodcharacters,andspecificverbstoname

theirkeyactions.

11.1.3AvoidInterruptingSubjectsandVerbswithMorethanaWordorTwo

Oncepastashortsubject,readerswanttogettoaverbquickly,soavoidsplittingaverbfromitssubjectwithlongphrasesand

clauses:

7a.Someeconomists,becausetheywriteinastylethatisimpersonalandobjective,donotcommunicatewithlaypeopleeasily.

In7a,thebecauseclauseseparatesthesubjectsomeeconomistsfromtheverbdonotcommunicate,forcingustosuspendour

mentalbreath.Torevise,movetheinterruptingclausetothebeginningorendofitssentence,dependingonwhetheritconnects

morecloselytothesentencebeforeortheoneafter.Whenindoubt,putitattheend(formoreonthis,see11.1.5).

7b.Becausesomeeconomistswriteinastylethatisimpersonalandobjective,theydonotcommunicatewithlaypeopleeasily.This

inabilitytocommunicate…

7c.Someeconomistsdonotcommunicatewithlaypeopleeasilybecausetheywriteinastylethatisimpersonalandobjective.They

usepassiveverbsand…

Readersmanageshortinterruptionsmoreeasily:

8.Feweconomistsdeliberatelywriteinastylethatisimpersonalandobjective.

11.1.4PutKeyActionsinVerbs,NotinNouns

Readerswanttogettoaverbquickly,buttheyalsowantthatverbtoexpressakeyaction.Soavoidusinganemptyverbsuchas

have,do,make,orbetointroduceanactionburiedinanabstractnoun.Makethenounaverb.

Comparethesetwosentences(nounsnamingactionsareboldfaced;verbsnamingactionsarecapitalized;verbsexpressinglittle

actionareitalicized):

9a.DuringtheearlyyearsoftheCivilWar,theSouthʼsattemptatenlistingGreatBritainonitssidewasmetwithfailure.

9b.DuringtheearlyyearsoftheCivilWar,theSouthATTEMPTEDtoENLISTGreatBritainonitssidebutFAILED.

In9a,threeimportantactionsaren tverbsbutnouns:attempt,enlisting,failure.Sentence9bseemsmoredirectbecauseitexpresses

thoseactionsinverbs:attempted,enlist,failed.

11.1.5PutInformationFamiliartoReadersattheBeginningofaSentence,NewInformationattheEnd

Readersunderstandasentencemostreadilywhentheygraspitssubjecteasily,andtheeasiestsubjecttograspisnotjustshortand

concretebutalsofamiliar.Comparehowthesecondsentenceineachofthefollowingpassagesdoesordoesn tcontributetoasense

of flow :

10a.Newquestionsaboutthenatureoftheuniversehavebeenraisedbyscientistsstudyingblackholesinspace.Thecollapseofa

deadstarintoapointperhapsnolargerthanamarblecreatesablackhole.Somuchmattersqueezedintosolittlevolumechanges

thefabricofspacearounditinoddways.

10b.Newquestionsaboutthenatureoftheuniversehavebeenraisedbyscientistsstudyingblackholesinspace.Ablackholeis

createdbythecollapseofadeadstarintoapointnolargerthanamarble.Somuchmattersqueezedintosolittlevolumechanges

thefabricofspacearounditinoddways.

Mostreadersthink10bflowsbetterthan10a,partlybecausethesubjectofthesecondsentence,Ablackhole,isshorterandmore

concretethanthelongersubjectof10a:Thecollapseofadeadstarintoapointperhapsnolargerthanamarble.But10balsoflows

betterbecausetheorderofitsideasisdifferent.

In10a,thefirstwordsofthesecondsentenceexpressnewinformation:

10a…blackholesinspace.Thecollapseofadeadstarintoapointperhapsnolargerthanamarblecreates…

Thosewordsaboutcollapsingstarsseemtocomeoutofnowhere.Butin10b,thefirstwordsechotheendoftheprevioussentence:

10b…blackholesinspace.Ablackholeiscreatedwhen…

Moreover,oncewemakethatchange,theendofthatsecondsentenceintroducesthethirdmorecohesively:

10b…thecollapseofadeadstarintoapointnolargerthanamarble.Somuchmattercompressedintosolittlevolumechanges…

Contrast10a;theendofitssecondsentencedoesn tflowintothebeginningofthethirdassmoothly:

10a.Thecollapseofadeadstarintoapointperhapsnolargerthanamarblecreatesablackhole.Somuchmattersqueezedintoso

littlevolumechangesthefabricofspacearounditinoddways.

Thatiswhyreadersthinkthatpassage10afeelschoppierthan10b:theendofonesentencedoesnotflowsmoothlyintothe

beginningofthenext.

Thecorollaryoftheold-information-firstprincipleistoputnewinformationlast,especiallynewtechnicalterms.Sowhenyou

introduceone,putitattheendofitssentence.Comparethese:

11a.Calciumblockerscancontrolmusclespasms.Sarcomeresarethesmallunitsofmusclefibersinwhichthesedrugswork.Two

filaments,onethickandonethin,areineachsarcomere.Theproteinsactinandmyosinarecontainedinthethinfilament.When

actinandmyosininteract,yourheartcontracts.

11b.Musclespasmscanbecontrolledwithdrugsknownascalciumblockers.Theyworkinsmallunitsofmusclefiberscalled

sarcomeres.Eachsarcomerehastwofilaments,onethickandonethin.Thethinfilamentcontainstwoproteins,actinandmyosin.

Whenactinandmyosininteract,yourheartcontracts.

In11a,thenewtechnicaltermsarecalciumblockers,sarcomeres,filaments,theproteinsactinandmyosin,buttheyfirstappearearly

intheirsentences.Incontrast,in11b,thosenewtermsfirstappeartowardtheendsoftheirsentences.Afterthat,they reold

informationandsocanappearatthebeginningofthenextsentences.

Noprincipleofwritingismoreimportantthanthis:oldbeforenew,familiarinformationintroducesunfamiliarinformation.

11.1.6ChooseActiveorPassiveVerbstoReflectthePreviousPrinciples

Youmayrecalladvicetoavoidpassiveverbs goodadvicewhenapassiveverbforcesyoutowriteasentencethatcontradictsthe

principleswehavediscussed,asinthesecondsentenceofthispassage:

12a.Globalwarmingmayhavemanycatastrophiceffects.TropicaldiseasesanddestructiveinsectlifeevennorthoftheCanadian

bordercouldbeincreased

passiveverb

bythisclimaticchange.

Thatsecondsentenceopenswithaneleven-wordsubjectconveyingnewinformation:Tropicaldiseases Canadianborder.Itisthe

subjectofapassiveverb,beincreased,andthatverbisfollowedbyashort,familiarbitofinformationfromthesentencebefore:by

thisclimaticchange.Thatsentencewouldbeclearerifitsverbwereactive:

12b.Globalwarmingmayhavemanycatastrophiceffects.Thisclimaticchangecouldincrease

activeverb

tropicaldiseasesand

destructiveinsectlifeevennorthoftheCanadianborder.

Nowthesubjectisfamiliar,andthenewinformationinthelongerphraseisattheend.Inthiscase,theactiveverbistheright

choice.

Butifyounevermakeaverbpassive,you llwritesentencesthatcontradicttheold-newprinciple.Wesawanexamplein10a:

10a.Newquestionsaboutthenatureoftheuniversehavebeenraisedbyscientistsstudyingblackholesinspace.Thecollapseofa

deadstarintoapointperhapsnolargerthanamarblecreates

activeverb

ablackhole.Somuchmattersqueezedintosolittlevolume

changesthefabricofspacearounditinoddways.

Theverbinthesecondsentenceisactive,butthepassageflowsbetterwhenit spassive:

10b.Newquestionsaboutthenatureoftheuniversehavebeenraisedbyscientistsstudyingblackholesinspace.Ablackholeis

created

passiveverb

bythecollapseofadeadstarintoapointnolargerthanamarble.Somuchmattersqueezedintosolittlevolume

changesthefabricofspacearounditinoddways.

Asentenceismorereadablewhenitssubjectisshort,concrete,andfamiliar,regardlessofwhetheritsverbisactiveorpassive.So

chooseactiveorpassivevoicebyconsideringwhichgivesyoutherightkindofsubject:short,concrete,andfamiliar.

Youcanbestjudgehowyourreaderswillrespondtoyourwritingifyouhavesomeonereaditbacktoyou.Ifthatpersonstumbles

orseemstodrone,youcanbetthatyourreaderswilllikeyourproselessthanyoudo.

11.1.7UseFirst-PersonPronounsAppropriately

AlmosteveryonehasheardtheadvicetoavoidusingIorweinacademicwriting.Infact,opinionsdifferonthis.Someteacherstell

studentsnevertouseI,becauseitmakestheirwriting subjective. OthersencourageusingIasawaytomakewritingmorelively

andpersonal.

MostinstructorsandeditorsdoagreethattwousesofIshouldbeavoided:

■InsecurewritersbegintoomanysentenceswithIthinkorIbelieve(ortheirequivalent,Inmyopinion).Readersassumethatyou

thinkandbelievewhatyouwrite,soyoudon thavetosayyoudo.

■Inexperiencedwriterstoooftennarratetheirresearch:FirstIconsulted ,thenIexamined ,andsoon.Readerscarelessabout

thestoryofyourresearchthanaboutitsresults.

Butwebelieve,andmostscholarlyjournalsagree,thatthefirstpersonisappropriateontwooccasions.Thatlastsentence

illustratesoneofthem:webelieve thatthefirstperson

■AnoccasionalintroductoryI(orwe)believecansoftenthedogmaticedgeofastatement.Comparethisblunter,lessqualified

version:

13.Butwebelieve,andmostscholarlyjournalsagree,thatthefirstpersonisappropriateontwooccasions.

Thetrickisnottohedgesooftenthatyousounduncertainorsorarelythatyousoundsmug.

■Afirst-personIorweisalsoappropriatewhenit sthesubjectofaverbnaminganactionuniquetoyouasthewriterofyour

argument.Verbsreferringtosuchactionstypicallyappearinintroductions(Iwillshow/argue/prove/claimthatX)andin

conclusions(Ihavedemonstrated/concludedthatY).Sinceonlyyoucanshow,prove,orclaimwhat sinyourargument,onlyyou

cansaysowithI:

14.Inthisreport,Iwillshowthatsocialdistinctionsatthisuniversityare…

Ontheotherhand,researchersrarelyusethefirstpersonforanactionthatothersmustrepeattoreplicatethereportedresearch.

Thosewordsincludedivide,measure,weigh,examine,andsoon.Researchersrarelywritesentenceswithactiveverbslikethis:

15a.IcalculatedthecoefficientofX.

Instead,they relikelytowriteinthepassive,becauseanyonecandothat:

15b.ThecoefficientofXwascalculated.

Thosesameprinciplesapplytowe,ifyou reoneoftwoormoreauthors.Butmanyinstructorsandeditorsobjecttotwoother

usesofwe:

■theroyalweusedtoreferreflexivelytothewriter

■theall-purposewethatreferstopeopleingeneral

Forexample:

16.Wemustbecarefultocitesourceswhenweusedatafromthem.Whenwereadwriterswhofailtodothat,wetendtodistrust

them.

Finally,though,yourinstructordecides.IfheflatlyforbidsIorwe,thensobeit.

11.2DiagnoseWhatYouRead

Onceyouunderstandhowreadersjudgewhattheyread,youknowhowtowriteclearprose,butalsowhysomuchofwhatyoumust

readseemssodense.Youmightstrugglewithsomewritingbecauseitscontentisdifficult.Butyoumayalsostrugglebecausethe

writerdidn twriteclearly.Thisnextpassage,forexample,isbynomeansthethickesteverwritten:

15a.Recognitionofthefactthatgrammarsdifferfromonelanguagetoanothercanserveasthebasisforseriousconsiderationof

theproblemsconfrontingtranslatorsofthegreatworksofworldliteratureoriginallywritteninalanguageotherthanEnglish.

Butinhalfasmanywords,itmeansonlythis:

15b.Onceweknowthatlanguageshavedifferentgrammars,wecanconsidertheproblemsofthosewhotranslategreatworksof

literatureintoEnglish.

Sowhenyoustruggletounderstandsomeacademicwriting(andyouwill),don tblameyourself,atleastnotfirst.Diagnoseits

sentences.Iftheyhavelongsubjectsstuffedwithabstractnounsexpressingnewinformation,theproblemisprobablynotyour

inabilitytoreadeasilybutthewriter sinabilitytowriteclearly.Inthiscase,unfortunately,themoreexperienceyougetwith

academicprose,thegreateryourriskofimitatingit.Infact,it sacommonprobleminprofessionalwritingeverywhere,academicor

not.

11.3ChoosetheRightWord

AnotherbitofstandardadviceisChoosetherightword.

1.Choosethewordwiththerightmeaning.Affectdoesn tmeaneffect;elicitdoesn tmeanillicit.Manyhandbookslistcommonly

confusedwords.Ifyou reaninexperiencedwriter,investinone.

2.Choosethewordwiththerightlevelofusage.Ifyoudraftquicklyyouriskchoosingwordsthatmightmeanroughlywhatyou

thinktheydobutaretoocasualforaresearchreport.Someonecancriticizeanotherwriterorknockhim;ariskcanseem

frighteningorscary.Thosepairshavesimilarmeanings,butmostreadersjudgethesecondineachpairtobeabitloose.

Ontheotherhand,ifyoutrytoohardtosoundlikeareal academic, youriskusingwordsthataretooformal.Youcanthinkor

cogitate,drinkorimbibe.Thosepairsarecloseinmeaning,butthesecondineachistoofancyforareportwritteninordinary

English.Wheneveryou retemptedtouseawordthatyouthinkisespeciallyfine,lookforamorefamiliarone.

Theobviousadviceistolookupwordsyou renotsureof.Butthey renottheproblem;theproblemistheonesyouaresureof.

Worse,nodictionarytellsyouthatawordlikevisageorperambulateistoofancyforjustaboutanycontext.Theshort-termsolution

istoasksomeonetoreadyourreportbeforeyouturnitin(butbecautiousbeforeacceptingtoomanysuggestions;see7.10).The

long-termsolutionistoreadalot,writealot,endurealotofcriticism,andlearnfromit.

11.4PolishItUp

Beforeyouprintoutyourreport,readitonelasttimetofixerrorsingrammar,spelling,andpunctuation.Manyexperiencedwriters

readfromthelastsentencebacktothefirsttokeepfromgettingcaughtupintheflowoftheirideasandmissingthewords.Donot

relysolelyonyourspellchecker.Itwon tcatchcorrectlyspelledbutincorrectlyusedwordssuchastheir/there/they re,it s/its,

too/to,accept/except,affect/effect,already/allready,complement/compliment,principal/principle,discrete/discreet,andsoon.If

you vehadthatkindofproblem,doaglobalsearchtocheckonsuchwords.Seechapter20formoreonspelling.

Ifyouusedalotofforeignwords,numbers,abbreviations,andsoon,checktherelevantchaptersinpart3ofthismanual.

Finally,ifyourreporthasatableofcontentsthatliststitlesandnumbersforchaptersandsections,becertainthattheyexactly

matchthecorrespondingwordingandnumberinginthebodyofyourreport.Ifinyourtextyoureferbackorforwardtoother

sectionsorchapters,besurethereferencesareaccurate.

SomestudentsthinktheyshouldworryaboutthequalityoftheirwritingonlyinanEnglishcourse.Itistruethatinstructorsin

coursesotherthanEnglisharelikelytofocusmoreonthecontentofyourreportthanonitsstyle.Butdon tthinkthey llignoreits

clarityandcoherence.Ifahistoryorartinstructorcriticizesyourreportbecauseit sbadlywritten,don tpleadButthisisn tan

Englishcourse.Everycourseinwhichyouwriteisanopportunitytopracticewritingclearly,coherently,andpersuasively,askillthat

willserveyouwellfortherestofyourlife.

11.5GiveItUpandPrintItOut

Ifonethingisharderthanstartingtowrite,it sstopping.Weallwantanotherdaytogettheorganizationright,anotherhourto

tweaktheopeningparagraph,anotherminuteto yougettheidea.Ifexperiencedresearchersknowonemorecrucialthingabout

researchanditsreporting,it sthis:nothingyouwritewilleverbeperfect,andthebenefitofgettingthelast1percentoreven5

percentrightisrarelyworththecost.Dissertationstudentsinparticularagonizeoverreachingastandardofperfectionthatexists

largelyintheirownminds.Nothesisordissertationhastobeutterlyperfect;whatithastobeisdone.Atsomepoint,enoughis

enough.Giveitupandprintitout.(Butbeforeyouturnitin,leafthroughitonelasttimetobesurethatitlooksthewayyouwantit

to:lookatpagebreaks,spacinginmargins,positionsoftablesandfigures,andsoon.)

Youmightnowthinkyourjobisdone.Infact,youhaveonelasttask:toprofitfromthecommentsonyourreturnedpaper.

12LearningfromYourReturnedPaper

12.1FindGeneralPrinciplesinSpecificComments

12.2TalktoYourInstructor

Teachersarebaffledandannoyedwhenastudentlooksonlyatthegradeonhispaperandignoressubstantivecomments,or,worse,

doesn tbothertopickupthepaperatall.Sinceyou llwritemanyreportsinyouracademicandprofessionallife,it ssmartto

understandhowyourreadersjudgethemandwhatyoucandonexttimetoearnabetterresponse.Forthat,youneedonemoreplan.

12.1FindGeneralPrinciplesinSpecificComments

Whenyoureadyourteacher scomments,focusonthosethatyoucanapplytoyournextproject.

■Lookforapatternoferrorsinspelling,punctuation,andgrammar.Ifyouseeone,youknowwhattoworkon.

■Ifyourteachersaysyoumadefactualerrors,checkyournotes:Didyoutakebadnotesormisreportthem?Wereyoumisledbyan

unreliablesource?Whateveryoufind,youknowwhattodoinyournextproject.

■Ifyourteacherreportsonlyherjudgmentsofyourwriting,lookforwhatcausesthem.Ifshesaysyourwritingischoppy,dense,or

awkward,checkyoursentencesusingthestepsinchapter11.Ifshesaysit sdisorganizedorwandering,checkitagainstchapter9.

Youwon talwaysfindwhatcausedthecomplaints,butwhenyoudoyou llknowwhattoworkonnexttime.

12.2TalktoYourInstructor

Ifyourteacher scommentsincludewordslikedisorganized,illogical,andunsupportedandyoucannotfindwhattriggeredthem,

makeanappointmenttoask.Aswitheveryotherstepinyourproject,thatvisitwillgobetterifyouplanandevenrehearseit:

■Ifyourteachermarkedupspelling,punctuation,andgrammar,correctthoseerrorsinboldlettersbeforeyoutalktoyourteacher

toshowherthatyoutookhercommentsseriously.Infact,youmightjotresponsesafterhercommentstoshowthatyou veread

themclosely.

■Don tcomplainaboutyourgrade.Beclearthatyouwantonlytounderstandthecommentssothatyoucandobetternexttime.

■Focusonjustafewcomments.Rehearseyourquestionssothatthey llseemamiable:not Yousaythisisdisorganizedbutyou

don tsaywhy, butrather CanyouhelpmeseewhereIwentwrongwithmyorganizationsoIcandobetternexttime?

■Askyourinstructortopointtopassagesthatillustrateherjudgmentsandwhatthosepassagesshouldhavelookedlike.Donotask

Whatdidn tyoulike? butrather WhereexactlydidIgowrongandwhatcouldIhavedonetofixit?

Ifyourteachercan tclearlyexplainherjudgment,shemayhavegradedyourpaperimpressionisticallyratherthanpointbypoint.If

so,badnews:youmaylearnlittlefromyourvisit.

YoumightvisityourteacherevenifyougotanA.Itisimportanttoknowhowyouearnedit,becauseyournextprojectislikelyto

bemorechallengingandmayevenmakeyoufeellikeabeginneragain.Infact,don tbesurprisedifthathappenswitheverynew

project.Ithappenstomostofus.Butwithaplan,weusuallyovercomeit,andsocanyou.

13PresentingResearchinAlternativeForums

13.1PlanYourOralPresentation

13.1.1NarrowYourFocus

13.1.2UnderstandtheDifferencebetweenListenersandReaders

13.2DesignYourPresentationtoBeListenedTo

13.2.1SketchYourIntroduction

13.2.2DesignNotesfortheBodyofYourTalkSoThatYouCanUnderstandThemataGlance

13.2.3ModelYourConclusiononYourIntroduction

13.2.4PrepareforQuestions

13.2.5CreateHandouts

13.3PlanYourPosterPresentation

13.4PlanYourConferenceProposal

Youmaybetooearlyinyourcareertothinkaboutpublishingyourwork,butyou llprobablysharesomeofitasanoralpresentation

toyourclass.Workingupatalkiseasierthanpreparingawrittenreport,butdoingitwellstillrequiresaplanandsomepractice.In

fact,theabilitytostandupandtalkaboutyourworkclearlyandcogentlyisaskillthatyou llfindcrucialinanycareeryoupursue.If

you reworkingonaPhDdissertation,youprobablyexpecttosubmityourworkforpublicationeventually,butyoushouldlookfor

opportunitiestopresentitasatalkbeforeyousenditofftoaprofessionaljournal.

Inthischapter,weshowyouhowtouseyourplanforyourwrittentexttoprepareatalk.Wealsodiscussahybridformof

presentationcalledaposter,whichcombineselementsofwritingandspeech.Finally,wediscusshowtoprepareaconference

proposalsothatyou llgetaninvitationtogiveatalk.

13.1PlanYourOralPresentation

Talkshavesomeadvantagesoverwriting.Yougetimmediatefeedbackduringthequestion-and-answerperiodafterward,responses

thatmaybelessseverelycriticalthantheywouldbetoyourwrittenwork,especiallyifyouframeyourpresentationasonly

auditioningnewideasortestingnewdata.Buttoprofitfromthoseresponses,youmustplanatalkjustascarefullyasyouwoulda

writtenreport.

13.1.1NarrowYourFocus

Youwillprobablyhaveonlyabouttwentyminutesforyourtalk.(Ifyouarereading,whichisrarelyagoodidea,thatmeansnomore

thanseventotendouble-spacedpages.)Soyoumustboildownyourworktoitsessenceorfocusonjustpartofit.Herearethree

commonoptions:

■Problemstatementwithasketchofyourargument.Ifyourproblemisnew,focusonitsoriginality.Startwithashortintroduction:

Briefliteraturereview Question Consequencesofnotknowingananswer Claim(review9.2);thenexplainyourreasons,

summarizingyourevidenceforeach.

■Summaryofasubargument.Ifyourargumentistoobig,focusonakeysubargument.Mentionyourlargerprobleminyour

introductionandconclusion,butbeclearthatyou readdressingonlypartofit.

■Methodologyordatareport.Ifyouofferanewmethodologyorsourceofdata,explainwhyitmatters.Startwithabriefproblem

statement,thenfocusonhowyournewmethodsordatasolveit.

13.1.2UnderstandtheDifferencebetweenListenersandReaders

Speakershaveendlesswaystotormenttheirlisteners.Someroboticallyrecitememorizedsentencesorhunchoverpagesreading

everyword,rarelymakingeyecontactwiththeiraudience.OthersramblethroughslidesofdatawithnomorestructurethanAnd

nowthisslideshows Suchpresentersthinkpassivelistenersarelikeactivereadersorengagedconversationalists.Theyarenot.

■Whenweread,wecanpausetoreflectandpuzzleoverdifficultpassages.Tokeeptrackoforganization,wecanlookatsubheads,

evenparagraphindentations.Ifourmindwanders,wereread.

■Whenweconverse,wecanposequestionsaswethinkofthemandasktheotherpersontoclarifyalineofreasoningorjustto

repeatit.

Butaslistenersinanaudiencewecandononeofthosethings.Wemustbemotivatedtopayattention,andweneedhelptofollow

acomplicatedlineofthought.Andifweloseitsthread,wemaydriftoffintoourownthoughts.Sowhenspeaking,youhavetobe

explicitaboutyourpurposeandyourorganization,andifyou rereadingapaper,youhavetomakeyoursentencestructurefar

simplerthaninawrittenreport.Sofavorshortersentenceswithconsistentsubjects(see11.1.2).Use I,  we, and you alot.What

seemsclumsilyrepetitivetoreadersisusuallywelcomedbylisteners.

13.2DesignYourPresentationtoBeListenedTo

Toholdyourlisteners attention,youmustseemtobenotlecturingatthembutratheramiablyconversingwiththem,askillthat

doesnotcomeeasily,becausefewofuscanwriteaswespeakandbecausemostofusneednotestokeepusontrack.Ifyoumust

read,readnofasterthanabouttwominutesapage(ataboutthreehundredwordsapage).Timeyourselfreadingmoreslowlythan

youordinarilyspeak.Thetopofyourheadisprobablynotyourmostattractivefeature,sobuildinmomentswhenyoudeliberately

lookstraightoutatyouraudience,especiallywhenyou resayingsomethingimportant.Dothatatleastonceortwiceapage.

Farbetteristotalkfromnotes,buttodothatwellyouneedtopreparethemwell.

13.2.1SketchYourIntroduction

Foratwenty-minutetalk,yougetoneshotatmotivatingyouraudiencebeforetheytuneout,soprepareyourintroductionmore

carefullythananyotherpartofyourtalk.Baseitonthefour-partproblemstatementdescribedinsection10.1,plusaroadmap.(The

timesinparenthesesinthelistbelowareroughestimates.)

Useyournotesonlytoremindyourselfofthefourparts,notasaword-for-wordscript.Ifyoucan trememberthecontent,you re

notreadytogiveatalk.Sketchenoughinyournotestoremindyourselfofthefollowing:

1.theresearchthatyouextend,modify,orcorrect(nomorethanaminute)

2.astatementofyourresearchquestion thegapinknowledgeorunderstandingthatyouaddress(thirtysecondsorless)

3.ananswertoSowhat?(thirtyseconds)

Thosethreestepsarecrucialinmotivatingyourlisteners.Ifyourquestionisneworcontroversial,giveitmoretime.Ifyourlisteners

knowitssignificance,mentionitquicklyandgoon.

4.Yourclaim,theanswertoyourresearchquestion(thirtysecondsorless)

Listenersneedtoknowyouranswerupfrontevenmorethanreadersdo,sostateatleastitsgist,unlessyouhaveacompelling

reasontowaitfortheend.Ifyoudowait,atleastforecastyouranswer.

5.Aforecastofthestructureofyourpresentation(tentotwentyseconds).Themostusefulforecastisanoraltableofcontents:

FirstIwilldiscuss Thatcanseemclumsyinprint,butlistenersneedmorehelpthanreadersdo.Repeatthatstructureasyou

workthroughthebodyofyourtalk.

Rehearseyourintroduction,notonlytogetitrightbutalsotobeabletolookyouraudienceintheeyeasyougiveit.Youcanlook

downatnoteslater.

Alltold,spendnomorethanthreeminutesorsoonyourintroduction.

13.2.2DesignNotesfortheBodyofYourTalkSoThatYouCanUnderstandThemataGlance

Donotwriteyournotesascompletesentences(muchlessparagraphs)thatyoureadaloud;notesshouldhelpyouseeataglance

onlythestructureofyourtalkandcuewhattosayatcrucialpoints.Sodonotcutandpastesentencesfromawrittentext;create

yournotesfromscratch.

Useaseparatepageforeachmainpoint.Oneachpage,writeoutyourmainpointnotasatopicbutasaclaims,eitherina

shortenedformor(onlyifyoumust)incompletesentences.Aboveit,youmightaddanexplicittransitionastheoralequivalentofa

subhead: Thefirstissueis

Visuallyhighlightthosemainpointssothatyourecognizetheminstantly.Underthem,listastopicstheevidencethatsupports

them.Ifyourevidenceconsistsofnumbersorquotations,you llprobablyhavetowritethemout.Otherwise,knowyourevidence

wellenoughtobeabletotalkaboutitdirectlytoyouraudience.

Organizeyourpointssothatyoucoverthemostimportantonesfirst.Ifyourunlong(mostofusdo),youcanskipalatersection

orevenjumptoyourconclusionwithoutlosinganythingcrucialtoyourargument.Neverbuilduptoaclimaxthatyoumightnot

reach.Ifyoumustskipsomething,usethequestion-and-answerperiodtoreturntoit.

13.2.3ModelYourConclusiononYourIntroduction

Makeyourconclusionmemorable,becauselistenerswillrepeatitwhenasked,WhatdidJonessay?Learnitwellenoughtopresentit

lookingatyouraudience,withoutreadingfromnotes.Itshouldhavethesethreeparts:

■yourclaim,inmoredetailthaninyourintroduction(iflistenersaremostlyinterestedinyourreasonsordata,summarizethemas

well)

■youranswertoSowhat?(youcanrestateananswerfromyourintroduction,buttrytoaddanewone,evenifit sspeculative)

■suggestionsformoreresearch,what sstilltobedone

Rehearseyourconclusionsothatyouknowexactlyhowlongittakes(nomorethanaminuteortwo).Thenwhenyouhavethat

muchtimeremaining,conclude,evenifyouhaven tfinishedyourlast(relativelyunimportant)points.Ifyouhadtoskiponeortwo

points,workthemintoananswerduringthequestion-and-answerperiod.Ifyourtalkrunsshort,don tadlib.Ifanotherspeaker

followsyou,makeheragiftofyourunusedtime.

13.2.4PrepareforQuestions

Ifyou relucky,you llgetquestionsafteryourtalk,soprepareanswersforpredictableones.Expectquestionsaboutdataorsources,

especiallyifyoudidn tcovertheminyourtalk.Ifyouaddressmattersassociatedwithwell-knownresearchersorschoolsofresearch,

bereadytoexpandonhowyourworkrelatestotheirs,especiallyifyoucontradictorcomplicatetheirresultsorapproach.Alsobe

readytoanswerquestionsaboutasourceyouneverheardof.Thebestpolicyistoacknowledgethatyouhaven tseenitbutthat

you llcheckitout.Ifthequestionseemsfriendly,askwhythesourceisrelevant.Don tprepareonlydefensiveanswers.Useanswers

toquestionstoreemphasizeyourmainpointsorcovermattersthatyoumayhaveleftout.

Listentoeveryquestioncarefully;thentobesureyouunderstandthequestion,pausebeforeyourespondandthinkaboutitfora

moment.Ifyoudon tunderstandthequestion,askthequestionertorephraseit.Don tsnapbackananswerreflexivelyand

defensively.Goodquestionsareinvaluable,evenwhentheyseemhostile.Usethemtorefineyourthinking.

13.2.5CreateHandouts

Youcanreadshortquotationsorimportantdataaloudforyourlisteners,butifyouhavelotsofthem,createahandout.Ifyouuse

slides,passoutprintedcopies.Youmighthandoutanoutlineofyourmainpoints,withwhitespacefornotes.

13.3PlanYourPosterPresentation

Aposterisalargeboardonwhichyoulayoutasummaryofyourresearchalongwithyourmostrelevantevidence.Postersessions

areusuallyheldinhallwaysorinalargeroomfilledwithotherpresenters.Peoplemovefrompostertoposter,askingquestionsof

thepresenters.Posterscombinetheadvantagesofwritingandspeaking.Thosewhoreadyourposterhavemorecontrolthana

listener,andtheycanrelyonprominentvisualsignalsthatyouusetoorganizeyourmaterial boxes,lines,colors,andlargerand

smallertitles.

Youcandesignyourposterusingavailablesoftwareandwebsitesthatproduceaserviceablefinalproduct.Forthetextitself,

however,followtheguidelinesforapapertobereadaloud,withtwomoreconsiderations:

1.Layeryourargument.Presentyourargumentvisuallyinthreelevelsofdetail:

■Highlightanabstractoraproblemstatementandsummaryatthetopoftheposter(boxit,uselargertype,etc.).

■Underit,listyourreasonsassubheadsinasectionthatsummarizesyourargument.

■Underthat,restateyourreasonsandgroupevidenceunderthem.

2.Explainallgraphsandtables.Inadditiontoprovidingacaptionforeachgraphic,addasentenceortwoexplainingwhatis

importantinthedataandhowtheysupportyourreasonandclaim(review7.7and8.3.1).

13.4PlanYourConferenceProposal

Conferencesaregoodopportunitiestoshareyourwork,buttobeinvitedtospeak,youusuallyhavetosubmitaproposal.Writeitnot

asaparagraph-by-paragraphsummaryofyourworkbutasathirty-second elevatorstory whatyouwouldtellsomeonewho

asked,asyoubothsteppedintoanelevatoronthewaytoyourtalk,Whatareyousayingtoday?Infact,acarefullypreparedand

rehearsedelevatorstoryisespeciallyusefulforanyconversationaboutyourwork,particularlyinterviews.

Anelevatorstoryhasthreeparts:

■aproblemstatementthathighlightsananswertoSowhat?

■asketchofyourclaimandmajorreasons

■asummaryofyourmostimportantevidence

Conferencereviewersarelessinterestedinyourexactwordsthaninwhyanyoneshouldwanttolistentothem.Youraimsareto

poseyourresearchquestionandtoanswerthereviewer sSowhat?Sofocusonhowyourclaimcontributestoyourfieldofresearch,

especiallyonwhat snovelorcontroversialaboutit.Ifyouaddressaquestionestablishedbypreviousresearch,mentionit,then

focusonyournewdataoryournewclaim,dependingonwhichismoreoriginal.

Beawarethatreviewerswilloftenknowlessaboutyourtopicthanyoudoandmayneedhelptoseethesignificanceofyour

question.SoevenafteryouanswerthatfirstSowhat?,askandansweritagain,andifyoucan,onemoretime.Whetheryourroleata

conferenceistotalkoronlytolistendependsnotjustonthequalityofyourresearchbutalsoonthesignificanceofyourquestion.

14OntheSpiritofResearch

Aswe vesaid,wecanreachgoodconclusionsinmanywaysotherthanresearch:wecanrelyonintuition,emotion,evenspiritual

insight.Butthetruthswereachinthosewaysarepersonal.Whenweaskotherstoacceptandactonthem,wecan tpresentour

feelingsasevidencetoconvinceothersofourclaims;wecanaskonlythattheytakeourreportofourinnerexperience andour

claims onfaith.

Thetruthsofresearch,however,andhowwereachedthemmustbeavailableforpublicstudy.Webaseresearchclaimson

evidenceavailabletoeveryoneandonprinciplesofreasoningthat,wehope,ourreadersacceptassound.Andthenthosereaderstest

allofthatinallthewaysthattheyandotherscanimagine.Thatmaybeahighstandard,butitmustbeifweexpectotherstobase

theirunderstandingandactions,eventheirlives,onwhatweaskthemtobelieve.

Whenyouaccepttheprinciplesthatshapepublic,evidence-basedbelief,youaccepttwomorethatcanbehardtoliveby.One

concernsourrelationshiptoauthority.Nomorethanfivecenturiesago,thesearchforbetterunderstandingbasedonevidencewas

oftenregardedasathreat.Amongthepowerful,manybelievedthatalltheimportanttruthswerealreadyknownandthatthe

scholar sjobwastopreserveandtransmitthem,certainlynottochallengethem.Ifnewfactscastdoubtonanoldbelief,thebelief

usuallytrumpedthefacts.Manywhodaredtofollowevidencetoconclusionsthatchallengedauthoritywerebanished,imprisoned,

orevenkilled.

Eventoday,thosewhoreasonfromevidencecanangerthosewhoholdacherishedbelief.Forexample,somehistoriansclaim

that,basedonthesumoftheevidence,ThomasJeffersonprobablyfatheredatleastonechildbyhisslaveSallyHemings.Others

disagree,notbecausetheyhavebettercounterevidencebutbecauseofafiercelyheldbelief:apersonofJefferson sstaturecouldn t

dosuchathing(see5.5).Butintheworldofresearch,bothacademicandprofessional,goodevidenceandsoundreasoningtrump

beliefeverytime,oratleasttheyshould.

Insomepartsoftheworld,it sstillconsideredmoreimportanttoguardsettledbeliefsthantotestthem.Butinplacesinformed

bythevaluesofresearch,wethinkdifferently:webelievenotonlythatwemayquestionsettledbeliefsbutthatwemust,nomatter

howmuchauthoritycherishesthem solongaswebaseouranswersonsoundreasonsbasedonreliableevidence.

Butthatprinciplerequiresanother.Whenwemakeaclaim,wemustexpect,evenencourage,otherstoquestionnotjustour

claimbuthowwereachedit,toaskWhydoyoubelievethat?It softenhardtowelcomesuchquestions,butwe reobligedtolisten

withgoodwilltoobjections,reservations,andqualificationsthatcollectivelyimplyIdon tagree,atleastnotyet.Andthemorewe

challengeoldideas,themorewemustbereadytoacknowledgeandanswerthosequestions,becausewemaybeaskingotherstogive

updeeplyheldbeliefs.

Whensomestudentsencounterthesevalues,theyfinditdifficult,evenpainful,tolivebythem.Somefeelthatachallengetowhat

theybelieveisn talivelysearchfortruthbutapersonalattackontheirdeepestvalues.Othersretreattoacynicalskepticismthat

doubtseverythingandbelievesnothing.Othersfallintomindlessrelativism:We reallentitledtoourownbeliefs,andsoallbeliefs

arerightforthosewhoholdthem!Manyturnawayfromanactivelifeofthemind,rejectingnotonlyanswersthatmightdisturb

theirsettledbeliefsbuteventhequestionsthatinspiredthem.

Butinourworldsofwork,scholarship,civicaction,andevenpolitics,wecan treplacetestedknowledgeandhard-won

understandingwithpersonalopinion,arelativisticviewoftruth,orthecomfortable,settledknowledgeof authority.

Thatdoesnotmeanwerejectlong-heldandtime-testedbeliefslightly.Wereplacethemonlyafterwe repersuadedbysound

argumentsbackedbygoodreasonsbasedonthebestevidenceavailable,andafteranamiablebutsearchinggive-and-takethattests

thoseargumentsasseverelyaswecan.Inshort,webecomeresponsiblebelieverswhenwecanmakeourownsoundargumentsthat

testandevaluatethoseofothers.

Youmayfinditdifficulttoseeallofthisatworkinapaperwrittenforaclass,butdespiteitscoldtype,aresearchreportwritten

foranyaudienceisaconversation,imaginedtobesure,butstillacooperativebutrigorousinquiryintowhatweshouldandshould

notbelieve.

PartII

 

Source

Citation

15GeneralIntroductiontoCitationPractices
15.1ReasonsforCitingYourSources
15.2TheRequirementsofCitation
15.2.1SituationsRequiringCitations
15.2.2InformationRequiredinCitations
15.3TwoCitationStyles
15.3.1BibliographyStyle
15.3.2Author-DateStyle
15.4ElectronicSources
15.4.1OnlineSources
15.4.2OtherElectronicMedia
15.5PreparationofCitations
15.6CitationManagementSoftware
Yourfirstdutyasaresearcheristogetthefactsright.Yourseconddutyistotellreaderswherethefactscamefrom.Tothatend,you
mustcitethesourcesofthefacts,ideas,orwordsthatyouuseinyourpaper.
15.1ReasonsforCitingYourSources
Thereatleastfourreasonstociteyoursources:
1.Togivecredit.Researchishardwork.Somewhodoitwellreceiveconcreterewards money,promotions,goodgrades,degrees,
andsoon.Butnolessimportantisrecognition,theprideandprestigeofseeingone snameassociatedwithknowledgethat
othersvalueanduse.Infact,forsomeresearchersthatistheonlyreward.Sowhenyoucitetheworkofanother,yougivethat
writertherecognitionheorshehasearned.
2.Toassurereadersabouttheaccuracyofyourfacts.Researcherscitesourcestobefairtootherresearchersbutalsotoearntheir
readers trust.Itisnotenoughtogetthefactsright.Youmustalsotellreadersthesourceofthefactssothattheycanjudgetheir
reliability,evencheckthemiftheywish.Readersdonottrustasourcetheydonotknowandcannotfind.Iftheydonottrustyour
sources,theywillnottrustyourfacts;andiftheydonottrustyourfacts,theywillnottrustyourargument.Youestablishthefirst
linkinthatchainoftrustbycitingyoursourcesfully,accurately,andappropriately.
3.Toshowreaderstheresearchtraditionthatinformsyourwork.Researcherscitesourceswhosedatatheyuse,buttheyalsocite
workthattheyextend,support,contradict,orcorrect.Thesecitationshelpreadersnotonlyunderstandyourspecificprojectbut
connectittootherresearchinyourfield.
4.Tohelpreadersfolloworextendyourresearch.Manyreadersusesourcescitedinaresearchpapernottocheckitsreliabilitybut
topursuetheirownwork.Soyourcitationshelpothersnotonlytofollowyourfootstepsbuttostrikeoutinnewdirections.
Youmustneverappeartotakecreditforworkthatisnotyourown(see7.9),andpropercitationguardsagainstthechargeof
plagiarism.Butitalsostrengthensyourargumentandassistsotherswhowanttobuildonyourwork.
15.2TheRequirementsofCitation
Tofulfilltherequirementsofcitation,youneedtoknowwhentoincludeasourcecitationinyourpaperandwhatinformationabout
thesourcetoinclude.
15.2.1SituationsRequiringCitations
Chapter7,particularly7.9,discussesindepthwhenyoushouldcitematerialsfromothersources.Briefly,youshouldalwaysprovide
acitationinthefollowingsituations:
■whenyouquoteexactwordsfromasource(seealsochapter25onquotations)
■whenyouparaphraseideasthatareassociatedwithaspecificsource,evenifyoudon tquoteexactwordsfromit
■whenyouuseanyidea,data,ormethodattributabletoanysourceyouconsulted
Asnotedin15.1,youmayalsousecitationstopointreaderstosourcesthatarerelevanttoaparticularportionofyourargumentbut
notquotedorparaphrased.Suchcitationsdemonstratethatyouarefamiliarwiththesesources,eveniftheypresentclaimsatodds
90

withyourown.

15.2.2InformationRequiredinCitations

Overthelongtraditionofcitingsources,asresearchersindifferentfieldsbegantowriteindifferentways,theyalsodeveloped

distinctivewaysofcitinganddocumentingtheirsources.Whencitationmethodsbecamestandardized,researchershadtochoose

fromnotjustoneortwostandardsbutmany.

Citationstylesdifferintheelementsincludedandintheformatoftheseelements,buttheyhavethesameaim:togivereadersthe

informationtheyneedtoidentifyandfindasource.Formostsources,includingbooks,articles,unpublisheddocuments,andother

writtenmaterial,inprintorelectronicform,thatinformationmustanswerthesequestions:

■Whowrote,edited,ortranslatedthetext(sometimesallthree)?

■Whatdataidentifythetext?Thisincludesthetitleandsubtitleofthework;titleofthejournal,collection,orseriesitappearsin,as

wellasvolumenumber,editionnumber,orotheridentifyinginformation;andpagenumbersorotherlocatinginformationifthe

referenceistoaspecificpartofalargertext.

■Whopublishedthetextandwhen?Thisincludesthenameofthepublisherandtheplaceanddateofpublication oranindication

thatthedocumenthasnotbeenpublished.

■Wherecanthetextbefound?Mostprintedsourcescanbefoundinalibraryorbookstore,informationthatgoeswithoutsaying.

Forasourceobtainedonline,aURLorthenameofacommercialdatabasewillhelpreadersfindit.Foranitemfromaone-of-a-

kindcollection,datawillincludetheplacewherethecollectionishoused.

Detailsvaryforothersources,suchassoundandvideorecordings,buttheyanswerthesamefourquestions:Whowrote,edited,

translated,orwasotherwiseresponsibleforcreatingthesource?Whatdataidentifyit?Whopublisheditandwhen?Wherecanitbe

found?

Yourreaderswillexpectyoutousethecitationstyleappropriatetotheirparticularfield,notjustbecausetheyarefamiliarwith

thisstylebutbecausewhenyouuseit,youshowthemthatyouunderstandtheirvaluesandpractices.Thedetailsmayseemtrivial:

whentousecapitals,periods,commas,andevenwheretoputaspace.Butifyoudonotgetthesesmallmattersright,manyofyour

readerswillquestionwhethertheycantrustyouonthebiggerones.Fewresearcherstrytomemorizeallthesedetails.Instead,they

learntheformsofthecitationstheyusemostsothattheydonotneedtolookthemuprepeatedly.Then,forcitingsourcesthatare

lesscommonorhaveunusualelements,theyconsultabooklikethisone.

15.3TwoCitationStyles

Thisbookcoversthetwomostcommoncitationforms:notes-bibliographystyle,orsimplybibliographystyle(usedwidelyinthe

humanitiesandinsomesocialsciences),andauthor-datestyle(usedinmostsocialsciencesandinthenaturalandphysicalsciences,

andreferredtointhepreviouseditionofthisbookasparentheticalcitations-referenceliststyle).Ifyouarenotcertainwhichstyleto

useinapaper,consultyourinstructor.

Youmaybeaskedtousedifferentstylesindifferentsettings(forexample,anarthistorycourseandapoliticalsciencecourse).

Withinaspecificpaper,however,alwaysfollowasinglestyleconsistently.

Ifyouarenewtoresearch,readthissectionforabriefdescriptionofhowthetwocitationstyleswork.Then,ifyouareusing

bibliographystyle,readchapter16foranoverviewofthisstyle,andrefertochapter17fordetailedguidelinesandexamplesforciting

mosttypesofsourcesyou relikelytoconsult.Ifyouareusingauthor-datestyle,theoverviewanddetailedguidelinesareinchapters

18and19,respectively.

15.3.1BibliographyStyle

Inbibliography-stylecitations,yousignalthatyouhaveusedasourcebyplacingasuperscriptnumberattheendofthesentencein

whichyourefertoit:

Heconcludesthat“beingapersonisnotapatformula,butaquest,amystery,aleapoffaith.”

Youthencitethesourceofthatquotationinacorrespondinglynumberednotethatprovidesinformationaboutthesource(author,

title,andfactsofpublication)plusrelevantpagenumbers.Notesareprintedatthebottomofthepage(calledfootnotes)orinalist

collectedattheendofyourpaperortheendofeachchapter(calledendnotes).Allnoteshavethesamegeneralform:

N:1.JaronLanier,YouAreNotaGadget:AManifesto(NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,2010),5.

Ifyoucitethesametextagain,youcanshortensubsequentnotes:

N:5.Lanier,NotaGadget,133–34.

Inmostcases,youalsolistsourcesattheendofthepaperinabibliography.Thatlistnormallyincludeseverysourceyoucitedin

anoteandsometimesothersyouconsultedbutdidnotcite.Eachbibliographyentryincludesthesameinformationcontainedina

fullnote,butinaslightlydifferentform:

B:Lanier,Jaron.YouAreNotaGadget:AManifesto.NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,2010.

15.3.2Author-DateStyle

Inauthor-datecitations,yousignalthatyouhaveusedasourcebyplacingaparentheticalcitation(includingauthor,date,and

relevantpagenumbers)nexttoyourreferencetoit:
Heconcludesthat“beingapersonisnotapatformula,butaquest,amystery,aleapoffaith”(Lanier2010,5).
Attheendofthepaper,youlistallsourcesinareferencelist.Thatlistnormallyincludeseverysourceyoucitedinaparenthetical
citationandsometimesothersyouconsultedbutdidnotcite.Eachreferencelistentryincludescompletebibliographicalinformation
forasource.Thepublicationdateimmediatelyfollowsthenameoftheauthor,makingiteasytofollowaparentheticalcitationtoits
correspondingentryinthereferencelist:
R:Lanier,Jaron.2010.YouAreNotaGadget:AManifesto.NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf.
15.4ElectronicSources
Thestandardcitationformsevolvedintheageofprint,butresearchersnowincreasinglyrelyonsourcesthatarefoundonlineorin
anotherelectronicmedium.Thesesourceshavebeenusedlongenoughforresearcherstohavecreatedstandardcitationforms
adaptedtotheirspecialcharacteristics.
15.4.1OnlineSources
15.4.1.1INFORMATIONINCITATIONS.Whenyouciteonlinesources,youincludemanyofthesamepiecesofinformationasyouwouldfor
printsources,butsometimesthisinformationisdifficulttofind,unavailable,orsubjecttochangewithoutnotice.Thesefactorscan
makeitmoredifficultforyourreaderstofindthesourcesyou vecited,andinsomecasestheymaymakeyouquestiontheauthority
andreliabilityofasource.
■Manywebsiteshavenoidentifiableauthor,publisher,orsponsor.Thismakesthemtheequivalentofanyotheranonymoussource,
unlikelytobeauthoritativeorreliableenoughtousewithoutseriousqualification(see3.4.3).Thesamecautionappliestocontent
suchasusercommentsthatarepostedunderpseudonyms,evenifthewebsiteorblogtheyarepostedonisconsideredareliable
source.
■Onlinecontentcanberevisedwithoutnotice,andtherearenostandardsforindicatingrevisions.Arevisiondateononewebsite
mayindicatecorrectionofaspellingerrorwhileonanotheritmaymarkchangesinfactualdataorclaims.
■Onlinecontentmaybesimultaneouslyavailablefrommorethanonesite,somemorereliablethanothers.
■MostonlinesourcesarelocatedthroughaURL(uniformresourcelocator),butURLscomeandgo.Youcannotalwaysbecertain
theywillbeavailablemonths,weeks,orevendayslater,andtheirdisappearancewouldmakeitdifficultorimpossibleforyouor
yourreaderstofindthecontentyouoriginallyconsulted.
Inyourresearch,chooseonlinesourcescarefully.Wheninformationisavailableonmultiplewebsitesorinmultiplemedia(print
andonline),consultthemostreliableversionavailable,andalwayscitetheversionyouconsulted.
15.4.1.2TWOCATEGORIESOFSOURCES.Onlinesourcesfallintotwocategories.
1.Manyonlinesourcesarelikeprintsourcesineverythingexceptmedium forexample,anarticlepublishedinanonlinejournal
insteadofinaprintedjournal.Othersourcesofthistypeincludeonlinebooks,newspaperandmagazinearticles,andpublic
documents.Citeanonlinesourceofthistypesimilarlytoaprintsource,beginningwithstandardfactsofpublication(author s
name,title,date,andsoforth).Attheendofthecitation,addthedateyouaccessedthematerialandtheURL(see15.4.1.3)orthe
nameofthedatabasethroughwhichyouaccessedthesource(see15.4.1.4).Youcanfindexamplesofhowtocitesuchitems
undertherelevanttypeofsourceinchapter17(forbibliographystyle)andchapter19(forauthor-datestyle).
2.Othertypesofonlinesources,suchasinstitutionalorpersonalwebsitesandsocialnetworkingservices,areuniquetothe
medium.Unlikemoretraditionalmedia,thesesourcesoftenlackoneormoreofthestandardfactsofpublication.Tocitesucha
source,youwillneedtogiveasmuchinformationaspossibleaboutitinadditiontoaURLandaccessdate(see15.4.1.3).
Examplesofhowtocitetheseitemsappearin17.7(forbibliographystyle)and19.7(forauthor-datestyle).
15.4.1.3URLSANDACCESSDATES.Foranysourceyoucite,youmustalwaysincludethefullfactsofpublicationinadditiontoaURL.If
theURLchanges,interestedreaderswilloftenbeabletofindyoursourcebysearchingfortheauthor,title,andotherfactsof
publication.
CapitalizethecomponentsofaURLexactlyastheyappearonyourscreen.IftheURLendsinaslash,includeit.Donotenclose
theURLinbrackets.ItisbestnottobreakaURLattheendofaline,butifyouneedtodoso,see20.4.2forsomeguidelines.
IfawebsitegivesapreferredformoftheURLalongwiththecitationdataforasource,usethatratherthantheURLinyour
browser saddressbar.SomesourcesareidentifiedbyaDOI(digitalobjectidentifier).URLsbasedonDOIsaremorepersistentand
stablethanordinaryURLs.TociteasourcethatincludesaDOI,appendtheDOItohttp://dx.doi.org/inyourcitation.Forexamples,
seethesectionsonjournalarticlesinfigure16.1(forbibliographystyle)orfigure18.1(forauthor-datestyle)andinchapters17and
19.
Inaddition,everycitationofanonlinesourceshouldincludethedateyoulastaccessedit.Ifthesourceisrevisedordeleted,
readers(andyourinstructor)willwanttoknowwhenthesourcewaslastavailabletoyou.Chapters17and19providemany
examplesofaccessdatesincitations.
15.4.1.4COMMERCIALDATABASES.Manyonlinesources,includingjournalsandotherperiodicalsandsomeelectronicbooks,are
accessibleonlythroughacommercialdatabasewithrestrictedaccess(oftenthroughauniversityorothermajorlibrary).Ifsucha
databaselistsarecommendedURLalongwiththesource,usethatoneinsteadoftheoneinyouraddressbar.AURLbasedona
DOI,ifavailable,isthebestoption(see15.4.1.3).IfnosuitablyshortanddirectURLexists,however,youmaysubstitutethenameof
92

thedatabasefortheURL(e.g.,LexisNexisAcademic).Forexamples,see17.1.10(bibliographystyle)and19.1.10(author-datestyle).
15.4.2OtherElectronicMedia
Publicationsavailableinotherelectronicmedia,suchasanelectronicbookavailablefordownloadorasaCD-orDVD-ROM,can
oftenbecitedsimilarlytoprintedbooks,withtheadditionofinformationaboutthemediumorfileformat;see17.1.10and17.5.8(for
bibliographystyle)or19.1.10and19.5.8(forauthor-datestyle).
Ifasourceisavailableinmorethanoneelectronicmedium(forexample,inmorethanoneelectronicbookformat),orboth
electronicallyandinprintform,consultthemostreliableandauthoritativeversion(see3.4),andalwayscitetheversionyou
consulted.
15.5PreparationofCitations
Youcaneasetheprocessofpreparingandcheckingcitationsifyouanticipatewhatyouwillneed.
■Usethemostauthoritativesources,intheirmostreliableversion.Ifyoufindsecond-orthirdhandinformation,trackdownthe
originalsource.
■Ifasourceisavailableinmultipleversions,alwayscitetheoneyouactuallyconsulted.Theremaybesmallbutimportant
differencesbetweentheversionsthatcouldaffecttheaccuracyofyourquotationsorotherreferencestothesource.
■Recordallbibliographicalinformationbeforeyoutakenotes.Seefigure16.1(forbibliographystyle)orfigure18.1(forauthor-date
style)fortemplatesshowingwhatinformationisneededforseveralcommontypesofsources.
■Recordthepagenumber(s)foreveryquotationandparaphrase.
■Asyoudraft,clearlyindicateeveryplacewhereyoumayneedtociteasource.Itismucheasiertoremoveanunnecessarycitation
whenyourevisethantorememberwhereyoumayhavereliedonsomeoneelse sideas.
■Whenyourdraftisinitsfinalform,consultchapter17or19toensurethateachcitationisinthecorrectform,including
punctuationandspacing.
■Youcanassembleyourbibliographyorreferencelisteitherasyouconsultyoursourcesorasyoudraftandrevise.Besuretocheck
eachdetailcarefully.
Gettingeachcitationrightmaybetedious,butaswitheveryotherphaseofresearch,ifyouanticipatewhatyouneedandmanage
theprocessfromthebeginning,youcancompleteeventhisleastexcitingpartofresearchfaster,moreeasily,andmorereliably.
15.6CitationManagementSoftware
Ifyoudothebulkofyourbibliographicresearchonline,youmaywanttoconsiderusingcitationmanagementsoftwaretocollect
dataaboutyoursources.ProgramslikeEndNote,RefWorks,andZoteroaredesignedtohelpyoubuilda library ofcitationsfora
varietyofsourcetypes.Lateryoucanplugthesecitationsdirectlyintoyourpaperinoneofthecitationstylesdescribedinthis
manual(referredtoinmostprogramsaseither Turabian or Chicago style).Afewthingstokeepinmind:
■Double-checkyourdata.Asyoubuildyourlibrary,checkeachfieldagainsttheactualsourceassoonasyouacquirethedataforit.
Makesurethatauthors names,titlesofworks,dates,andsoforthareaccurateandthattheyareenteredintheappropriatefields.
Youwillneedtodothiswhetheryouenteredthedatayourselforexportedthecitationfromalibrarycatalogorotherdatabase.
■Double-checkyourcitations.Oncethey vebeeninsertedinyourpaper,makesureeachcitationiscorrectlyformattedand
punctuatedaccordingtothecitationstyleyou vechosen.Reviewyourfinaldraftwithextracare.Citationsoftwareprogramsdo
makeerrors,anditremainsyourresponsibilitytoensurethatyourcitationsareaccurate.Forexamplesofbibliography-style
citations,seechapters16and17;forauthor-datestyle,seechapters18and19.
■Alwayskeepatleasttwocopiesofyourcitationslibrary.Ifyourschoolletsyoukeepacopyonitsserver,makesureyoualsohavea
copyonalocaldrive.
Theseprogramsworkbestforpapersthatciteonlyafewtypesofthemostcommonsources.Articlesinacademicjournals,
especially,areeasytoworkwith.Ifyoucitemanydifferenttypesofsources,expecttospendextratimecorrectingyourcitations
libraryandeditingyourfinalpaper.Youmaychooseinsteadtorecordtheinformationinthecorrectcitationformatyourself,usinga
wordprocessororspreadsheetapplication.
93

16Notes-BibliographyStyle:TheBasicForm
16.1BasicPatterns
16.1.1OrderofElements
16.1.2Punctuation
16.1.3Capitalization
16.1.4ItalicsandQuotationMarks
16.1.5Numbers
16.1.6Abbreviations
16.1.7Indentation
16.2Bibliographies
16.2.1TypesofBibliographies
16.2.2ArrangementofEntries
16.2.3SourcesThatMayBeOmitted
16.3Notes
16.3.1FootnotesversusEndnotes
16.3.2ReferencingNotesinText
16.3.3NumberingNotes
16.3.4FormattingNotes
16.3.5ComplexNotes
16.4ShortFormsforNotes
16.4.1ShortenedNotes
16.4.2Ibid.
16.4.3ParentheticalNotes
Acitationstyleusedwidelyinthehumanitiesandinsomesocialsciencesisthenotes-bibliographystyle,orbibliographystylefor
short.Thischapterpresentsanoverviewofthebasicpatternforcitationsinbibliographystyle,includingbibliographyentries,full
notes,shortenednotes,andparentheticalnotes.ExamplesofnotesareidentifiedwithanN;examplesofbibliographyentriesare
identifiedwithaB.
Inbibliographystyle,yousignalthatyouhaveusedasourcebyplacingasuperscriptnumberattheendofthesentenceinwhich
youquoteorotherwiserefertothatsource:
Accordingtoonescholar,“TherailroadshadmadeChicagothemostimportantmeetingplacebetweenEastandWest.”
4
Youthencitethesourceofthatinformationinacorrespondinglynumberednotethatprovidesinformationaboutthesource(author,
title,andfactsofpublication)plusrelevantpagenumbers.Notesareprintedatthebottomofthepage(calledfootnotes)orinalist
collectedattheendofyourpaperortheendofeachchapter(calledendnotes).Allnoteshavethesamegeneralform:
N:4.WilliamCronon,NatureʼsMetropolis:ChicagoandtheGreatWest(NewYork:W.W.Norton,1991),92–93.
Ifyoucitethesametextagain,youcanshortensubsequentnotes:
N:8.Cronon,NatureʼsMetropolis,383.
Inmostcases,youalsolistsourcesattheendofthepaperinabibliography.Thatlistnormallyincludeseverysourceyoucitedin
anoteandsometimesothersyouconsultedbutdidnotcite.Eachbibliographyentryincludesthesameinformationcontainedina
fullnote,butinaslightlydifferentform:
B:Cronon,William.NatureʼsMetropolis:ChicagoandtheGreatWest.NewYork:W.W.Norton,1991.
Readersexpectyoutofollowtherulesforcorrectcitationsexactly.Theserulescovernotonlywhatdatayoumustincludeand
theirorderbutalsopunctuation,capitalization,italicizing,andsoon.Togetyourcitationsright,youmustpaycloseattentionto
manyminutedetailsthatfewresearcherscaneasilyremember.Chapter17providesareadyreferenceguidetothosedetails.
16.1BasicPatterns
94

Althoughsourcesandtheircitationscomeinalmostendlessvariety,youarelikelytouseonlyafewkinds.Whileyoumayneedto

lookupdetailstocitesomeunusualsources,youcaneasilylearnthebasicpatternsforthefewkindsyouwillusemostoften.Youcan

thencreatetemplatesthatwillhelpyourecordbibliographicaldataquicklyandreliablyasyouread.

Therestofthissectiondescribesthebasicpatterns,andfigure16.1providestemplatesforandexamplesofseveralcommontypes

ofsources.Chapter17includesexamplesofawiderangeofsources,includingexceptionstothepatternsdiscussedhere.

Figure16.1.Templatesfornotesandbibliographyentries

Thefollowingtemplatesshowwhatelementsshouldbeincludedinwhatorderwhencitingseveralcommontypesofsourcesin

notes(N)andbibliographies(B).Theyalsoshowpunctuation,capitalizationoftitles,andwhentouseitalicsorquotationmarks.

Grayshadingshowsabbreviations(ortheirspelled-outversions)andothertermsastheywouldactuallyappearinacitation.

standsinforfootnotenumber.XXstandsinforpagenumbersactuallycited,YYforafullspanofpagenumbersforanarticleora

chapter.

Forfurtherexamples,explanations,andvariations,seechapter17.Fortemplatesofshortenednoteforms,seefigure16.2.

Books

1.SingleAuthororEditor

N:##.AuthorʼsFirstandLastNames,TitleofBook:SubtitleofBook(PlaceofPublication:PublisherʼsName,DateofPublication),XX–XX.

1.MalcolmGladwell,TheTippingPoint:HowLittleThingsCanMakeaBigDifference(Boston:Little,Brown,2000),64 65.

B:AuthorʼsLastName,AuthorʼsFirstName.TitleofBook:SubtitleofBook.PlaceofPublication:PublisherʼsName,DateofPublication.

Gladwell,Malcolm.TheTippingPoint:HowLittleThingsCanMakeaBigDifference.Boston:Little,Brown,2000.

Forabookwithaneditorinsteadofanauthor,adaptthepatternasfollows:

N:##.EditorʼsFirstandLastNames,ed.,TitleofBook…

7.JoelGreenberg,ed.,OfPrairie,Woods,andWater

B:EditorʼsLastName,EditorʼsFirstName,ed.TitleofBook…

Greenberg,Joel,ed.OfPrairie,Woods,andWater

2.MultipleAuthors

Forabookwithtwoauthors,usethefollowingpattern:

N:##.Author#1ʼsFirstandLastNamesandAuthor#2ʼsFirstandLastNames,TitleofBook:SubtitleofBook(PlaceofPublication:PublisherʼsName,Date

ofPublication),XX–XX.

2.PeterMoreyandAminaYaqin,FramingMuslims:StereotypingandRepresentationafter9/11(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,2011),52.

B:Author#1ʼsLastName,Author#1ʼsFirstName,andAuthor#2ʼsFirstandLastNames.TitleofBook:SubtitleofBook.PlaceofPublication:PublisherʼsName,

DateofPublication.

Morey,Peter,andAminaYaqin.FramingMuslims:StereotypingandRepresentationafter9/11.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,2011.

Forabookwiththreeauthors,adaptthepatternasfollows:

N:##.Author#1ʼsFirstandLastNames,Author#2ʼsFirstandLastNames,andAuthor#3ʼsFirstandLastNames,TitleofBook…

5.JoeSoss,RichardC.Fording,andSanfordF.Schram,DiscipliningthePoor

B:Author#1ʼsLastName,Author#1ʼsFirstName,Author#2ʼsFirstandLastNames,andAuthor#3ʼsFirstandLastNames.TitleofBook…

Soss,Joe,RichardC.Fording,andSanfordF.Schram.DiscipliningthePoor

Forabookwithfourormoreauthors,adaptthenotepatternonlyasfollows:

N:##.Author#1ʼsFirstandLastNamesetal.,TitleofBook…

15.JayM.Bernsteinetal.,ArtandAestheticsafterAdorno

3.Author(s)PlusEditororTranslator

Forabookwithanauthorplusaneditor,usethefollowingpattern:

N:##.AuthorʼsFirstandLastNames,TitleofBook:SubtitleofBook,ed.EditorʼsFirstandLastNames(PlaceofPublication:PublisherʼsName,Dateof

Publication),XX–XX.

9.JaneAusten,Persuasion:AnAnnotatedEdition,ed.RobertMorrison(Cambridge,MA:BelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress,2011),311 12.

B:AuthorʼsLastName,AuthorʼsFirstName.TitleofBook:SubtitleofBook.EditedbyEditorʼsFirstandLastNames.PlaceofPublication:PublisherʼsName,

DateofPublication.

Austen,Jane.Persuasion:AnAnnotatedEdition.EditedbyRobertMorrison.Cambridge,MA:BelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress,2011.

Ifabookhasatranslatorinsteadofaneditor,substitutethewordstrans,andTranslatedbyandthetranslatorʼsnamefortheeditordata.

4.EditionNumber

N:##.AuthorʼsFirstandLastNames,TitleofBook:SubtitleofBook,EditionNumbered.(PlaceofPublication:PublisherʼsName,DateofPublication),XX–

XX.

11.JohnVanMaanen,TalesoftheField:OnWritingEthnography,2nded.(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2011),84.

B:AuthorʼsLastName,AuthorʼsFirstName.TitleofBook:SubtitleofBook.EditionNumbered.PlaceofPublication:PublisherʼsName,DateofPublication.

VanMaanen,John.TalesoftheField:OnWritingEthnography.2nded.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2011.

5.SingleChapterinanEditedBook

N:##.ChapterAuthorʼsFirstandLastNames,“TitleofChapter:SubtitleofChapter,”inTitleofBook:SubtitleofBook,ed.EditorʼsFirstandLastNames

(PlaceofPublication:PublisherʼsName,DateofPublication),XX–XX.

15. ngelesRam rez, MuslimWomenintheSpanishPress:ThePersistenceofSubalternImages, inMuslimWomeninWarandCrisis:Representationand

Reality,ed.FaeghehShirazi(Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,2010),231.

B:ChapterAuthorʼsLastName,ChapterAuthorʼsFirstName.“TitleofChapter:SubtitleofChapter.”InTitleofBook:SubtitleofBook,editedbyEditorʼsFirstand

LastNames,YY–YY.PlaceofPublication:PublisherʼsName,DateofPublication.

Ram rez, ngeles.MuslimWomenintheSpanishPress:ThePersistenceofSubalternImages. InMuslimWomeninWarandCrisisRepresentationand

Reality,editedbyFaeghehShirazi,227 44.Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,2010.

JournalArticles

6.JournalArticleinPrint

N:##.AuthorʼsFirstandLastNames,“TitleofArticle:SubtitleofArticle,”TitleofJournalVolumeNumber,IssueNumber(DateofPublication):XX–XX.

4.AlexandraBogren, GenderandAlcohol:TheSwedishPressDebate, JournalofGenderStudies20,no.2(June2011):156.

B:AuthorʼsLastName,AuthorʼsFirstName.“TitleofArticle:SubtitleofArticle.”TitleofJournalVolumeNumber,IssueNumber(DateofPublication):YY–YY.

Bogren,Alexandra. GenderandAlcohol:TheSwedishPressDebate. JournalofGenderStudies20,no.2(June2011):155 69.

Foranarticlewithmultipleauthors,followtherelevantpatternforauthorsʼnamesintemplate2.

7.JournalArticleOnline

Forajournalarticleconsultedonline,includeanaccessdateandaURL.ForarticlesthatincludeaDOI,formtheURLbyappendingtheDOItohttp://dx.doi.org/

ratherthanusingtheURLinyouraddressbar.TheDOIfortheKiserarticleintheexamplebelowis10.1086/658052.

accessedDateofAccess,URL.

5.LisaJ.Kiser, SilencingtheLambs:Economics,Ethics,andAnimalLifeinMedievalFranciscanHagiography, ModernPhilology108,no.3(February

2011):340,accessedSeptember18,2011,http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/658052.

AccessedDateofAccess.URL.

Kiser,LisaJ. SilencingtheLambs:Economics,Ethics,andAnimalLifeinMedievalFranciscanHagiography. ModernPhilology108,no.3(February2011):

323 42.AccessedSeptember18,2011.http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/658052.

See15.4.1formoredetails.

16.1.1OrderofElements

Theorderofelementsinnotesandbibliographyentriesfollowsthesamegeneralpatternforalltypesofsources:author,title,factsof

publication.However,notespresentauthors namesinstandardorder(firstnamefirst),whilebibliographyentriespresentthemin

invertedorder(lastnamefirst)foralphabeticallisting.Notescitingspecificpassagesusuallyincludepagenumbersorotherlocating

information;bibliographyentriesdonot,thoughtheydoincludeafullspanofpagenumbersforasourcethatispartofalarger

whole,suchasanarticleorachapter.

16.1.2Punctuation

Innotes,separatemostelementswithcommas;inbibliographyentries,separatethemwithperiods.Innotes,enclosefactsof

publicationinparentheses;inbibliographyentries,donot.Thestylesaredifferentbecauseanoteisintendedtobereadliketext,

whereaperiodmightsignaltheendofacitation.Bibliographiesaredesignedaslistsinwhicheachsourcehasitsownentry,so

periodscanbeusedwithoutconfusiontoseparatetheelementsofauthor,title,andpublicationdata.

16.1.3Capitalization

Capitalizemosttitlesheadlinestyle,butcapitalizetitlesinforeignlanguagessentencestyle.(See22.3.1forbothstyles.)Capitalize

propernounsintheusualway(seechapter22).

16.1.4ItalicsandQuotationMarks

Titlesoflargerentities(books,journals)areprintedinitalics;titlesofsmallerentities(chapters,articles)areprintedinromantype

andenclosedinquotationmarks.Titlesofunpublishedworks(suchasdissertations)areprintedinromantypeandenclosedin

quotationmarks,eveniftheyarebooklength.Seealso22.3.2.

16.1.5Numbers

Intitles,anynumbersarespelledoutorgiveninnumeralsexactlyastheyareintheoriginal.Pagenumbersthatareinroman

numeralsintheoriginalarepresentedinlowercaseromannumerals.Allothernumbers(suchaschapternumbersorfigure

numbers)aregiveninarabicnumerals,eveniftheyareinromannumeralsorspelledoutintheoriginal.

16.1.6Abbreviations

Innotes,abbreviatetermssuchaseditorandtranslator(ed.andtrans.).Inbibliographyentries,thesetermsareoftenspelledout

whentheyintroduceaname(Editedby)butabbreviatedwhentheyconcludeit(ed.).Thepluralisusuallyformedbyaddings(eds.)

unlesstheabbreviationendsinans(usetrans.forbothsingularandplural).Termssuchasvolume,edition,andnumber(vol.,ed.,

andno.)arealwaysabbreviated.

16.1.7Indentation

Notesareindentedlikeotherparagraphsinthetext:thefirstlineisindentedandallfollowinglinesareflushleft.Bibliography

entrieshaveahangingindentation:thefirstlineisflushleftandallfollowinglinesareindentedthesameamountasthefirstlineofa

paragraph.

16.2Bibliographies

Papersthatusethenotes-bibliographycitationstyletypicallyincludebothnotesandabibliographythatlistsallsourcescitedinthe

notes.Althoughthesameinformationappearsinbothnotesandbibliography,readersneeditinbothplaces,becausetheyusenotes

andbibliographiesdifferently.Notesletreadersquicklycheckthesourceforaparticularreferencewithoutdisruptingtheflowof

theirreading.Bibliographiesshowreaderstheextentofyourresearchanditsrelationshiptopriorwork.Bibliographiesalsohelp

readersuseyoursourcesintheirownresearch.Sounlessyouhaveonlyahandfulofsourcesoryourinstructortellsyouotherwise,

alwaysincludebothnotesandabibliographyinyourpapers.Ifyoudonotincludeabibliography,makesurethatyournotespresent

completeinformationforeachsource,atleastthefirsttimeyouciteit.

16.2.1TypesofBibliographies

Inmostcases,yourbibliographyshouldincludeeveryworkyouciteinyourtext.(Forexceptions,see16.2.3.)Youmayalsoinclude

worksthatwereimportanttoyourthinkingbutthatyoudidnotspecificallymentioninthetext.LabelthiskindBibliographyor

SourcesConsulted.SeefigureA.15intheappendixforasamplepageofabibliography.

Thereareotheroptions:

■Selectedbibliography.Somebibliographiesdonotincludeallworkscitedinnotes,eithertosavespaceortoomitminorreferences

unlikelytointerestreaders.Youmayuseaselectedbibliographyifyouhavegoodreasonsandyourinstructororadvisorapproves.

LabelitSelectedBibliographyandaddaheadnotethatexplainsyourprincipleofselection.

■Single-authorbibliography.Somewriterslistworksbyoneperson,usuallyasaseparatelistinadditiontoastandardbibliography,

butsometimesastheonlybibliographyinasingle-authorstudywithfewothersources.LabelsuchalistWorksof[Author s

Name]orsomeappropriatedescriptivetitle(PublishedWorksofWritingsof,andsoon).Youcanarrangeitchronologicallyor

alphabeticallybytitle.Ifchronologically,listtitlespublishedinthesameyearalphabetically.

■Annotatedbibliography.Somewritersannotateeachbibliographyentrywithabriefdescriptionofthework scontentsor

relevancetotheirresearch.Inmostcases,ifyouannotateoneentryyoushouldannotatethemall.Butresearcherssometimes

annotateonlythemostimportantworksorthosewhoserelevancetotheirresearchmaynotbeevident.Ifyourannotationsare

briefphrases,addtheminbracketsafterthepublicationdata(notethatthereisnoperiodwithinorafterthebracketedentry):

B:Toulmin,Stephen.TheUsesofArgument.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1958.[aseminaltextdescribingargumentin

nonsymboliclanguage]

Youmayalsoaddfull-sentenceannotationsonanewlinewithparagraphindentation:

B:Toulmin,Stephen.TheUsesofArgument.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1958.

Thisistheseminaltextindescribingthestructureofanargumentinnonsymboliclanguage.

16.2.2ArrangementofEntries

16.2.2.1ALPHABETICALBYAUTHOR.Abibliographyisnormallyasinglelistofallsourcesarrangedalphabeticallybythelastnameofthe

author,editor,orwhoeverisfirstineachentry.(Foralphabetizingforeignnames,compoundnames,andotherspecialcases,see

16.2.2.2.)Mostwordprocessorsprovideanalphabeticalsortingfunction;ifyouuseit,firstmakesureeachentryisfollowedbya

hardreturn.Ifyouarewritingathesisordissertation,yourdepartmentoruniversitymayspecifythatyoushouldalphabetizethe

entriesletterbyletterorwordbyword;see16.58-61ofTheChicagoManualofStyle,16thedition(2010),foranexplanationofthese

twosystems.

Ifyourbibliographyincludestwoormoreworkswritten,edited,ortranslatedbythesameindividual,arrangetheentries

alphabeticallybytitle(ignoringarticlessuchasaorthe).Forallentriesafterthefirst,replacetheindividual snamewithalongdash,

calleda3-emdash(see21.7.3).Foreditedortranslatedworks,putacommaandtheappropriatedesignation(ed.,trans.,andsoon)

afterthedash.Listallsuchworksbeforeanythattheindividualcoauthoredorcoedited.Notethatitisbesttomakeallthese

adjustmentsmanually afteryouhavesortedyourcompletebibliographyalphabeticallybyname.

B:Gates,HenryLouis,Jr.AmericabehindtheColorLine:DialogueswithAfricanAmericans.NewYork:WarnerBooks,2004.

_______

.BlackinLatinAmerica.NewYork:NewYorkUniversityPress,2011.

_______

,ed.TheClassicSlaveNarratives.NewYork:PenguinPutnam,2002.

_______

.TheSignifyingMonkey:ATheoryofAfrican-AmericanLiteraryCriticism.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1988.

_______

.TraditionandtheBlackAtlantic:CriticalTheoryintheAfricanDiaspora.NewYork:BasicCivitas,2010.

Gates,HenryLouis,Jr.,andCornelWest.TheAfrican-AmericanCentury:HowBlackAmericansHaveShapedOurCountry.

NewYork:FreePress,2000.

Thesameprinciplesapplytoworksbyasinglegroupofauthorsnamedinthesameorder.

B:Marty,MartinE.,andR.ScottAppleby,eds.AccountingforFundamentalisms.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2004.

_______

.TheGloryandthePower:TheFundamentalistChallengetotheModernWorld.Boston:BeaconPress,1992.

Marty,MartinE.,andMicahMarty.WhenTrueSimplicityIsGained:FindingSpiritualClarityinaComplexWorld.GrandRapids,

Ml:WilliamB.Eerdmans,1998.

Ifasourcedoesnothaveanamedauthororeditor,alphabetizeitbasedonthefirstelementofthecitation,generallyatitle.

Ignorearticlessuchasaorthe.

B:AccountoftheOperationsoftheGreatTrigonometricalSurveyofIndia.22vols.DehraDun:SurveyofIndia,1870–1910.

“TheGreatTrigonometricalSurveyofIndia.”CalcuttaReview38(1863):26–62.

“StateandProspectsofAsia.”QuarterlyReview63,no.126(March1839):369–402.

16.2.2.2SPECIALTYPESOFNAMES.Someauthors namesconsistofmorethanareadilyidentifiable firstname and lastname. In

manycasesyoucandeterminethecorrectorderbyconsultingyourlibrary scatalog.Forhistoricalnames,agoodsourceisMerriam-

Webster sBiographicalDictionary.Thissectionoutlinessomegeneralprinciplesforalphabetizingsuchnamesinyourbibliography.

Inshortenedorparentheticalnotes,usethelastnameexactlyasinverted(shownbelowinboldface).Ifyourpaperinvolvesmany

namesfromaparticularforeignlanguage,followtheconventionsforthatlanguage.

■Compoundnames.Alphabetizecompoundlastnames,includinghyphenatednames,bythefirstpartofthecompound.Ifawoman

usesbothherownfamilynameandherhusband sbutdoesnothyphenatethem,generallyalphabetizebythesecondsurname.

Whilemanyforeignlanguageshavepredictablepatternsforcompoundnames(seebelow),others suchasFrenchandGerman

donot.

Kessler-Harris,Alice

Hine,DarleneClark



MiesvanderRohe,Ludwig

TeilharddeChardin,Pierre

■Nameswithparticles.Dependingonthelanguage,particlessuchasde,di,D ,andvanmayormaynotbeconsideredthefirstpart

ofalastnameforalphabetizing.Consultoneoftheresourcesnotedaboveifyouareunsureaboutaparticularname.Notethat

particlesmaybeeitherlowercasedorcapitalized,andsomearefollowedbyanapostrophe.

deGaulle,Charles

diLeonardo,Micaela

VanRensselaer,Stephen



Beauvoir,Simonede

Kooning,Willemde

Medici,Lorenzodeʼ

■Namesbeginningwith Mac,  Saint, or O . NamesthatbeginwithMac,Saint,orO canhavemanyvariationsinabbreviations

(Mc,St.),spelling(Sainte,San),capitalization(Macmillan,McAllister),andhyphenationorapostrophes(O NeillorOdell;Saint-

GaudensorSt.Denis).Alphabetizeallsuchnamesbasedonthelettersactuallypresent;donotgroupthembecausetheyare

similar.

■Spanishnames.ManySpanishlastnamesarecompoundnamesconsistingofanindividual spaternalandmaternalfamilynames,

sometimesjoinedbytheconjunctiony.Alphabetizesuchnamesunderthefirstpart.

OrtegayGasset,José

SánchezMendoza,Juana

■Arabicnames.AlphabetizeArabiclastnamesthatbeginwiththeparticleal-orel-( the )undertheelementfollowingtheparticle.

NamesthatbeginwithAbu,Abd,andIbn,likeEnglishnamesbeginningwithMacorSaint,shouldbealphabetizedunderthese

terms.

Hakim,Tawfiqal-
Jamal,MuhammadHamidal-

AbuZafarNadvi,Syed
IbnSaud,Aziz
■ChineseandJapanesenames.IfanauthorwithaChineseorJapanesenamefollowstraditionalusage(familynamefollowedby
givenname),donotinvertthenameorinsertacommabetweenthe first and last names.IftheauthorfollowsWesternized
usage(givennamefollowedbyfamilyname),treatthenameasyouwouldanEnglishname.
Traditionalusage Westernizedusage
ChaoWu-chi Tsou,Tang
YoshidaShigeru Kurosawa,Noriaki
16.2.2.3OTHERTHANALPHABETICAL.Occasionally,readerswillfindanorderotherthanalphabeticalmoreuseful.Single-author
bibliographiesareoftenmoreusefullyarrangedchronologically,asarespecializedlistingssuchasnewspaperarticles,archival
records,andsoon.Youmayalsofinditusefultoinventanorderforaspecificpurpose forexample,alistoftopographicalmaps
arrangedbystateorregion.Ifyoudouseanorderotherthanalphabeticalorchronological,explainyourchoiceinaheadnote.
16.2.2.4CATEGORIZEDLISTINGS.Youmayorganizealongerbibliographyintocategoriestohelpreadersseerelatedsourcesasagroup.
Somecommonwaysofcategorizinglongerbibliographiesintosectionsincludethese:
■Bythephysicalformofsources.Youcancreateseparatelistsformanuscripts,archivalcollections,recordings,andsoon.
■Bytheprimacyofsources.Youcanseparateprimarysourcesfromsecondaryandtertiaryones,asinasingle-authorbibliography.
■Bythefieldofsources.Youcangroupsourcesbyfield,eitherbecauseyourreaderswillhavedifferentinterests(asinthe
bibliographytothisbook)orbecauseyoumixworkfromfieldsnotusuallycombined.Forexample,aworkonthetheoryand
psychologyofcomicliteraturemightcategorizesourcesasfollows:TheoryofComedy,PsychologicalStudies,LiteraryCriticism,
ComicWorks.
Ifyoucategorizesources,presentthemineitherseparatebibliographiesorasingleonedividedintosections.Introduceeach
separatebibliographyorsectionwithasubheadingand,ifnecessary,aheadnote.Inasinglebibliography,usethesameprincipleof
orderwithineachsection(usuallyalphabetical),anddonotlistasourceinmorethanonesectionunlessitclearlycouldbe
categorizedintwoormoreways.Ifyouusedifferentprinciplesoforder,createseparatebibliographies,eachwithitsown
explanatoryheading.
16.2.3SourcesThatMayBeOmitted
Byconvention,youmayomitthefollowingtypesofsourcesfromabibliography:
■newspaperarticles(see17.4)
■classical,medieval,andearlyEnglishliteraryworks(17.5.1)and(insomecases)well-knownEnglish-languageplays(17.8.5.2)
■theBibleandothersacredworks(17.5.2)
■well-knownreferenceworks,suchasmajordictionariesandencyclopedias(17.5.3)
■briefpublisheditems,suchasreviewsofpublishedworksorperformances(17.5.4),abstracts(17.5.5),andpamphletsandreports
(17.5.6)
■unpublishedinterviewsandpersonalcommunications(17.6.3),blogentriesandcomments(17.7.2),andpostingstosocial
networks(17.7.3)orelectronicdiscussiongroupsormailinglists(17.7.4)
■individualdocumentsinunpublishedmanuscriptcollections(17.6.4)
■somesourcesinthevisualandperformingarts,includingartworks(17.8.1)andliveperformances(17.8.2)
■theUSConstitution(17.9.5),legalcases(17.9.7),andsomeotherpublicdocuments(17.9.2.5)
Youmaychoosetoincludeinyourbibliographyaspecificworkfromoneofthesecategoriesthatiscriticaltoyourargumentor
frequentlycited.
Ifyouusemanysuchsourcesfromasinglelargerentity forexample,severaldocumentsfromasinglemanuscriptcollection
youmaycitethelargerentity,asdiscussedintherelevantsectionsofchapter17.
16.3Notes
Writersuseseveraldifferentkindsofnotes,dependingontheirfield,theirreaders,andthenatureoftheirproject.Thissection
explainsyouroptionsandhowtochooseamongthem.
16.3.1FootnotesversusEndnotes
Yourdepartmentmayspecifywhetheryoushouldusefootnotesorendnotes,especiallyforathesisordissertation.Ifnot,youshould
generallychoosefootnotes,whichareeasiertoread.Endnotesforcereaderstofliptothebackofthepaperorofeachchapterto
checkeverycitation.Ifyouincludesubstantivecommentsinendnotes(see16.3.5),readersmayignorethembecausetheycannottell
withoutturningbackwhichnotesaresubstantiveandwhichonlycitesources.
Ontheotherhand,chooseendnoteswhenyourfootnotesaresolongornumerousthattheytakeuptoomuchspaceonthepage,
makingyourreportunattractiveanddifficulttoread.Also,endnotesbetteraccommodatetables,quotedpoetry,andanythingelse
99

thatrequiresalotofroomorcomplexformatting.

Ifyouuseendnotesandincludeonlyafewsubstantivenotes,youcanreducetheriskthatreaderswillmissthembyseparating

substantivenotesfromsourcenotes.Numbersourcenotesandprintthemasendnotes.Signalsubstantivenoteswithasterisksand

othersymbols(see16.3.3)andprintthemasfootnotes.

16.3.2ReferencingNotesinText

Wheneveryourefertoorotherwiseusematerialfromasource,youmustinsertintoyourtextasuperscriptnumberthatdirectsyour

readertoanotethatgivesbibliographicalinformationaboutthatsource.Putthenumberattheendofthesentenceorclause

containingthequotationorothermaterial(seealso25.2).Normally,thenotenumbershouldfollowanymarkofpunctuation,

includingaclosingparenthesis.

MagicwasastapleoftheKinahancharm.

“This,”wroteGeorgeTempletonStrong,“iswhatourtailorscando.”

(Inanearlierbookhehadsaidquitetheopposite.)

If,however,thenotereferstomaterialbeforeadash,putthereferencenumberbeforethedash:

ThebiassurfacedintheShotwellseries

—thoughnotobviously.

Donotincludemorethanonereferencenumberatthesamelocation(suchas

5,6

).Instead,useonenumberandincludeall

citationsorcommentsinasinglenote(see16.3.5).

Avoidputtinganotenumberinsideorattheendofachaptertitleorsubtitle.Ifyournoteappliestotheentirechapter,omitthe

numberandputanunnumberedfootnoteonthefirstpage,beforeanynumberednotes.Youmay,ontheotherhand,attachanote

numbertoasubhead.

16.3.3NumberingNotes

Numbernotesconsecutively,beginningwith1.Ifyourpaperhasseparatechapters,restarteachchapterwithnote1.Donotskipa

numberorusenumberssuchas5a.

Ifyouuseendnotesforsourcecitationsbutfootnotesforsubstantivecomments(see16.3.1),donotnumberthefootnotes.

Instead,labelthefirstfootnoteonapagewithanasterisk(*).Ifyouhavemorethanonefootnoteonapage,usesuperscriptsymbols

inthesequence

 ǂ .

Fornotestotables,see26.2.2.

16.3.4FormattingNotes

Useregularparagraphindentsforbothfootnotesandendnotes.Begineachnotewithitsreferencenumber,formattednotasa

superscriptbutasregulartext.Putaperiodandaspacebetweenthenumberandthetextofthenote.Fornoteslabeledwithsymbols

(see16.3.3),aspacebutnotaperiodshouldappearbetweenthesymbolandthetextofthenote.

Ifyourlocalguidelinesallowit,youmayinsteadusesuperscriptsforreferencenumbersandsymbolsinnotes.Youshouldthen

beginthetextofeachnotewithaninterveningspacebutnoperiod.

16.3.4.1FOOTNOTES.Begineveryfootnoteonthepageonwhichyoureferenceit.Putashortrulebetweenthelastlineoftextandthe

firstfootnoteoneachpage,includinganynotesthatrunoverfrompreviouspages,evenifyourwordprocessordoesn tdoso

automatically.Ifafootnoterunsovertothenextpage,itisbestifitbreaksinmidsentence,sothatreadersdonotthinkthenoteis

finishedandoverlookthepartonthenextpage.Single-spaceeachfootnote.Ifyouhavemorethanonefootnoteonapage,puta

blanklinebetweennotes.SeefigureA.10forasamplepageoftextwithfootnotes.

16.3.4.2ENDNOTES.Endnotesshouldbelistedtogetheraftertheendofthetextandanyappendixesbutbeforethebibliography.

Single-spaceeachnote,andputablanklinebetweennotes.LabelthelistNotes.Ifyourestartnumberingforeachchapter,adda

subheadingbeforethefirstnotetoeachchapter: Chapter1 andsoforth.SeefigureA.14forasamplepageofendnotes.

16.3.5ComplexNotes

16.3.5.1CITATIONS.Ifyouciteseveralsourcestomakeasinglepoint,groupthemintoasinglenotetoavoidclutteringyourtextwith

referencenumbers.Listthecitationsinthesameorderinwhichthereferencesappearinthetext;separatecitationswithsemicolons.

Onlywhenwegathertheworkofseveralscholars—WalterSuttonʼsexplicationsofsomeofWhitmanʼsshorterpoems;Paul

Fussellʼscarefulstudyofstructurein“Cradle”;S.K.Coffmanʼsclosereadingsof“CrossingBrooklynFerry”and“Passageto

India”—dowebegintogetasenseofboththeextentandthespecificityofWhitmanʼsforms.

N:1.Sutton,“TheAnalysisofFreeVerseForm,IllustratedbyaReadingofWhitman,”JournalofAestheticsandArtCriticism18

(December1959):241–54;Fussell,“WhitmanʼsCuriousWarble:ReminiscenceandReconciliation,”inThePresenceof

Whitman,ed.R.W.B.Lewis(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1962),28–51;Coffman,“ʻCrossingBrooklynFerryʼ:ANote

ontheCatalogueTechniqueinWhitmanʼsPoetry,”ModernPhilology51,no.4(May1954):225–32;Coffman,“Formand

MeaninginWhitmanʼsʻPassagetoIndia,ʼ”PMLA70,no.3(June1955):337–49.

100

Itisalsousefultogroupcitationswhenyoureferreaderstoanumberofadditionalsources(calleda stringcite ):

N:2.Foraccountsofthecoherence-makingprocessesofconsciousnessfrom,respectively,psychological,neuropsychological,

andphilosophicalpointsofview,seeBernardJ.Baars,ACognitiveTheoryofConsciousness(NewYork:CambridgeUniversity

Press,1988);GeraldEdelman,BrightAir,BrilliantFire:OntheMatteroftheMind(NewYork:BasicBooks,1992);andDaniel

Dennett,ConsciousnessExplained(Boston:Little,Brown,1991).

16.3.5.2CITATIONSANDCOMMENTS.Ifanoteincludesbothacitationandasubstantivecomment,putthecitationfirstwithaperiod

afterit,followedbythecommentinaseparatesentence.

TocometoPariswastoexperiencethesimultaneouspleasuresofthebestcontemporaryartandthemostvibrantartcenter.

N:9.Natt,“ParisArtSchools,”269.GildedAgeAmericanartiststraveledtootherEuropeanartcenters,mostnotablyMunich,

butParissurpassedallothersinsizeandimportance.

Whenyouincludeaquotationinanote,putthecitationaftertheterminalpunctuationofthequotation.

PropertyqualificationsdroppedoutofUSpracticeforpetitjuriesgraduallyduringthenineteenthcenturybutremainedinforce

forgrandjuriesinsomejurisdictionsuntilthemid-twentiethcentury.

N:33.“Agrandjuryinquiresintocomplaintsandaccusationsbroughtbeforeitand,basedonevidencepresentedbythestate,

issuesbillsofindictment.”KermitHall,TheMagicMirror:LawinAmericanHistory(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1989),

172.

Bejudiciousinyouruseofsubstantivecommentsinnotes.Ifapointiscriticaltoyourargument,includeitinthetext.Ifitis

peripheral,thinkcarefullyaboutwhetheritisimportantenoughtomentioninanote.

16.4ShortFormsforNotes

Insomefields,yourinstructormayexpectyoutogivefullbibliographicaldataineachnote,butinmostyoucangiveacomplete

citationthefirsttimeyouciteaworkandashortenedoneinsubsequentnotes.Inafewfields,writersuseashortenedformforall

citations,withcompletedatalistedonlyinthebibliography.

Ifyoudon tknowthepracticecommoninyourfield,consultyourlocalguidelines.

16.4.1ShortenedNotes

Ashortenednoteshouldincludeenoughinformationforreaderstofindthefullcitationinyourbibliographyorinanearliernote.

Thetwomainchoicesareauthor-onlynotesandauthor-titlenotes.Inmanyfields,writersusetheauthor-titleformforallshortened

notes;inothers,writersusetheauthor-onlyformformostshortenednotes,buttheauthor-titleformwhentheycitemorethanone

workbythesameauthor.Ifasourcedoesnothaveanauthor(oreditor),youcanuseatitle-onlynote.Figure16.2providestemplates

foreachtypeofshortenednote.

Figure16.2.Templatesforshortenednotes

Thefollowingtemplatesshowwhatelementsshouldbeincludedinwhatorderinthethreetypesofshortenednotes(see16.4.1for

whentouseeachtype).Theyalsoshowpunctuation,capitalizationoftitles,andtypographyoftheelements.Grayshadingshows

termsastheywouldactuallyappearinacitation.##standsinfornotenumber;XXstandsinforpagenumberscited.

Author-OnlyNotes

1.SingleAuthor

N:##.AuthorʼsLastName,XX–XX.

2.Gladwell,85 90.

Foraworkcitedbyeditorortranslatorinsteadofauthor(see17.1.1),usetheeditorortranslatorinplaceoftheauthor.Donotadded.ortrans.,asinafullnote.

N:##.EditorʼsorTranslatorʼsLastName,XX–XX.

9.Greenberg,15.

Iftwoormoreauthorshavethesamelastname,distinguishthembyaddingfirstnamesorinitials.

2.TwoorThreeAuthors

N:##.Author#1ʼsLastNameandAuthor#2ʼsLastName,XX–XX.

7.MoreyandYaqin,52.

N:##.Author#1ʼsLastName,Author#2ʼsLastName,andAuthor#3ʼsLastName,XX–XX.

101

15.Soss,Fording,andSchram,135 36.

3.FourorMoreAuthors

N:##.Author#1ʼsLastNameetal.,XX–XX.

10.Bernsteinetal.,114 15.

Author-TitleNotes

4.Books

N:##.AuthorʼsLastName,ShortenedTitle,XX–XX.

2.Gladwell,TippingPoint,85 90.

Forbooksbymorethanoneauthor,followthepatternforauthorsʼnamesintemplates2and3.

5.Articles

N:##.AuthorʼsLastName,“ShortenedTitle,”XX–XX.

8.Kiser, SilencingtheLambs, 328.

Forarticlesbymorethanoneauthor,followthepatternforauthorsʼnamesintemplates2and3.

Title-OnlyNotes

6.BookswithoutanAuthor

N:##.ShortenedTitle,XX–XX.

11.AccountofOperations,252.

7.ArticleswithoutanAuthor

N:##.“ShortenedTitle,”XX–XX.

17. GreatTrigonometricalSurvey, 26 27

Anauthor-onlynoteincludestheauthor slastnameandpagenumbers(orotherlocator),separatedbyacommaandfollowedby

aperiod.Iftheworkhasaneditorratherthananauthor,usetheeditor slastnamebutdonotadded.Anauthor-titlenoteaddsa

shortenedtitlecomposedofuptofourdistinctivewordsfromthefulltitle.Useacommatoseparatetheauthorandtheshortened

title,andprintthetitlewithitalicsorquotationmarksasyouwouldinafullnote.

N:1.HarrietMurav,MusicfromaSpeedingTrain:JewishLiteratureinPost-RevolutionRussia(Stanford,CA:Stanford

UniversityPress,2011),219.

4.Murav,220.

4.Murav,SpeedingTrain,220.

12.FrancoiseMeltzer,“TheoriesofDesire:AntigoneAgain,”CriticalInquiry37,no.2(Winter2011):170.

17.Meltzer,184.

17.Meltzer,“TheoriesofDesire,”184.

20.HasanKwameJeffries,“RemakingHistory:BarackObama,PoliticalCartoons,andtheCivilRightsMovement,”inCivil

RightsHistoryfromtheGroundUp:LocalStruggles,aNationalMovement,ed.EmilyeCrosby(Athens:UniversityofGeorgia

Press,2011),260.

22.Jeffries,261–62.

22.Jeffries,“RemakingHistory,”261–62.

Formultipleauthorsoreditors,listthelastnamesinthesameorderinwhichtheyappearinafullnote.

102

N:5.DanielGoldmarkandCharlieKeil,FunnyPictures:AnimationandComedyinStudio-EraHollywood(Berkeley:Universityof

CaliforniaPress,2011),177–78.

8.GoldmarkandKeil,180.

8.GoldmarkandKeil,FunnyPictures,180.

16.4.2Ibid.

Atonetime,writersshortenedcitationsinnotesbyusingLatintermsandabbreviations:idem, thesame ;op.cit.,foroperecitato,

intheworkcited ;andloc.cit.,forlococitato, intheplacecited. Thispracticehasfallenoutoffavor,soavoidallLatincitation

termsexceptone ibid.,fromibidemor inthesameplace. Somewritersstilluseibid.toshortenacitationtoaworkcitedinthe

immediatelyprecedingnote.

N:30.Buchan,AdvicetoMothers,71.

31.Ibid.,95.

32.Ibid.

Innotes,ibid.shouldnotbeitalicized;atthestartofanote,itshouldbecapitalized.Sinceibid.isanabbreviation,itmustend

withaperiod;ifthecitationincludesapagenumber,putacommaafteribid.Ifthepagenumberofareferenceisthesameasinthe

previousnote,donotincludeapagenumberafteribid.Donotuseibid.afteranotethatcontainsmorethanonecitation,andavoid

usingibid.torefertofootnotesthatdonotappearonthesamepage.

16.4.3ParentheticalNotes

16.4.3.1PARENTHETICALNOTESVERSUSFOOTNOTESORENDNOTES.Youmaywanttouseparentheticalnotesifyouarediscussinga

particularworkatlengthandneedtociteitfrequently.Suchin-textreferencescanmakeyourtexteasiertofollow.Thefirsttimeyou

citethework,providefullbibliographicaldatainafootnoteorendnote;forsubsequentreferences,useparentheticalnotesinsteadof

shortenednotes(see16.4.1).Forexamples,see16.4.3.2.

Youmayalsouseparentheticalnotesforcertaintypesofsourcesthatreaderscanidentifywithonlyafewelements,suchasa

newspaperarticle(see17.4),alegalcase(17.9.7),anolderliterarywork(17.5.1),abiblicalorothersacredwork(17.5.2),orasourcein

thevisualandperformingarts(17.8).Thesesourcescanoftenbeomittedfromyourbibliography(see16.2.3).

Instudiesoflanguageandliterature,parentheticalnoteshavegenerallyreplacedfootnotesorendnotesformostsourcecitations,

includingthefirstreferencetoeachwork.

16.4.3.2FORMATTINGPARENTHETICALNOTES.Insertaparentheticalnotewhereyouwouldplaceareferencenumberforanote:atthe

endofaquotation,sentence,orclause.Thenotecomesbeforeratherthanafteranycomma,period,orotherpunctuationmarkwhen

thequotationisrunintothetext.Oneexception:withablockquotation,thenotefollowstheterminalpunctuationmark(see

25.2.2.1foranexample).

Thefullestparentheticalnoteincludesthesameinformationastheauthor-titleformofashortenednote,withtheelements

separatedbycommas.(Notethatboththeelementsandthepunctuationareslightlydifferentfromthoseusedinparenthetical

citationsinauthor-datestyle,describedinchapters18and19;donotconfuseorcombinethetwostyles.)

“Whatonintrospectionseemstohappenimmediatelyandwithouteffortisoftenacomplexsymphonyofprocessesthattaketimeto

complete”(LeDoux,SynapticSelf,116).

Accordingtooneexpert,thenormsoffriendshiparedifferentintheworkplace(Little,“NormsofCollegiality,”330).

Insomefields,writersareexpectedtousethisfullformforallparentheticalnotes;inothers,theyareallowedtoshortenthem,

sincesuchnotesinterrupttheflowofatext.Ifyourfieldallowsshortening,youhavethreeoptionsformosttypesofsources:

■Pagenumbersonly.Youmayincludeintheparenthesesonlythepagenumber(s)orotherlocatorifreaderscanreadilyidentifythe

specificsourcefromyourtext,eitherbecauseitisamainobjectofyourstudy(asinthefirstexamplebelowreferringtoHarriet

BeecherStowe sUncleTom sCabin)orbecauseyoumentiontheauthorortitleinyourtext.Eitherway,youmustprovidefull

bibliographicinformationelsewhere.

“PoorJohn!”interposesStoweʼsnarrativevoice,“Itwasrathernatural;andthetearsthatfell,ashespoke,cameasnaturallyasif

hehadbeenawhiteman”(169).

ErnstCassirernotesthisinLanguageandMyth(59–60).

■Authorandpagenumber.Youshouldincludetheauthorandpagenumber(s)orotherlocatorifreaderscannotreadilyidentifythe

sourcefromyourtext,aslongasyouciteonlyoneworkbythatauthor.

Whileoneschoolclaimsthat“materialculturemaybethemostobjectivesourceofinformationwehaveconcerningAmericaʼs

past”(Deetz,259),othersdisagree.

■Titleandpagenumber.Youshouldincludeashortenedtitleandpagenumber(s)orotherlocatorifreaderscanreadilyidentifythe

authorfromyourtextbutyoucitemorethanoneworkbythatauthor.

103

AccordingtoFuret,“theSecondWorldWarcompletedwhattheFirsthadbegun—thedominationofthegreatpoliticalreligions
overEuropeanpublicopinion”(PassingofanIllusion,360).
Ifyouciteaworkoften,youcanabbreviatethetitle.Iftheabbreviationisnotobvious,youmayspecifyitinthenoteforitsfirst
citation.(Ifyouusemorethanfivesuchabbreviationsinyourcitations,listtheminaseparatesectionofyourpaper;seeA.2.1.10.)
N:2.FrancoisFuret,ThePassingofanIllusion:TheIdeaofCommunismintheTwentiethCentury,trans.DeborahFuret
(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1999),368(citedintextasPI).
AccordingtoFuret,“theSecondWorldWarcompletedwhattheFirsthadbegun—thedominationofthegreatpoliticalreligions
overEuropeanpublicopinion”(PI,360).
Fornewspaperarticlesandothertypesofsourcesinwhichauthor,title,andpagenumberarenotthekeyidentifyingelements
(see16.4.3.1andtherelevantsectionsofchapter17),modifytheparentheticalnotestyleasneeded.
InaNewYorkTimesarticleonthebrawlinBeijing(August19,2011),AndrewJacobscomparestheofficialresponseswith
thosepostedtosocialmedianetworks.
104

17Notes-BibliographyStyle:CitingSpecificTypesofSources
1Books
1.1AuthorʼsName
1.2Title
1.3Edition
1.4Volume
1.5Series
1.6FactsofPublication
1.7PageNumbersandOtherLocators
1.8ChaptersandOtherPartsofaBook
1.9LettersandOtherCommunicationsinPublishedCollections
1.10ElectronicBooks
2JournalArticles
2.1AuthorʼsName
2.2ArticleTitle
2.3JournalTitle
2.4IssueInformation
2.5PageNumbers
2.6SpecialIssuesandSupplements
3MagazineArticles
4NewspaperArticles
4.1NameofNewspaper
4.2CitingNewspapersinNotes
4.3CitingNewspapersinText
5AdditionalTypesofPublishedSources
5.1Classical,Medieval,andEarlyEnglishLiteraryWorks
5.2TheBibleandOtherSacredWorks
5.3ReferenceWorks
5.4Reviews
5.5Abstracts
5.6PamphletsandReports
5.7MicroformEditions
5.8CD-ROMsorDVD-ROMs
5.9OnlineCollections
6UnpublishedSources
6.1ThesesandDissertations
6.2LecturesandPapersPresentedatMeetings
6.3InterviewsandPersonalCommunications
6.4ManuscriptCollections
7Websites,Blogs,SocialNetworks,andDiscussionGroups
7.1Websites
7.2BlogEntriesandComments
7.3SocialNetworkingServices
7.4ElectronicDiscussionGroupsandMailingLists
8SourcesintheVisualandPerformingArts
8.1ArtworksandGraphics
8.2LivePerformances
8.3Movies,Television,Radio,andtheLike
8.4SoundRecordings
105

17.8.5TextsintheVisualandPerformingArts
17.9PublicDocuments
17.9.1ElementstoInclude,TheirOrder,andHowtoFormatThem
17.9.2CongressionalPublications
17.9.3PresidentialPublications
17.9.4PublicationsofGovernmentDepartmentsandAgencies
17.9.5USConstitution
17.9.6Treaties
17.9.7LegalCases
17.9.8StateandLocalGovernmentDocuments
17.9.9CanadianGovernmentDocuments
17.9.10BritishGovernmentDocuments
17.9.11PublicationsofInternationalBodies
17.9.12UnpublishedGovernmentDocuments
17.9.13OnlinePublicDocuments
17.10OneSourceQuotedinAnother
Chapter16presentsanoverviewofthebasicpatternforcitationsinthenotes-bibliographystyle,includingbibliographyentries,full
notes,shortenednotes,andparentheticalnotes.Ifyouarenotfamiliarwiththiscitationstyle,readthatchapterbeforeconsulting
thisone.
Thischapterprovidesdetailedinformationontheformofnotesandbibliographyentriesforawiderangeofsources.Itstarts
withthemostcommonlycitedsources booksandjournalarticles beforeaddressingawidevarietyofothersources.Thesections
onbooks(17.1)andjournalarticles(17.2)discussvariationsinsuchelementsasauthors namesandtitlesofworksingreaterdepth
thansectionsonlesscommonsources.
Examplesofelectronicversionsofmosttypesofsourcesareincludedalongsideothertypesofexamples.Electronicbooksare
discussedat17.1.10.Websites,blogs,andsocial-networkingservicesarediscussedin17.7.
ExamplesofnotesareidentifiedwithanNandbibliographyentrieswithaB.Insomecases,theexamplesshowthesamework
citedinbothformstoillustratethesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenthem;inothercases,theyshowdifferentworkstoillustrate
variationsinelementsevenwithinaspecifictypeofsource.Forshortenedformsofnotes,see16.4.
Ifyoucannotfindanexampleinthischapter,consultchapter14ofTheChicagoManualofStyle,16thedition(2010).Youmay
alsocreateyourownstyle,adaptedfromtheprinciplesandexamplesgivenhere.Mostinstructors,departments,anduniversities
acceptsuchadaptationsaslongasyouusethemconsistently.
17.1Books
Citationsofbooksmayincludeawiderangeofelements.Manyofthevariationsinelementsdiscussedinthissectionarealso
relevanttoothertypesofsources.
17.1.1Author sName
Givethenameofeachauthor(andeditor,translator,orothercontributor)exactlyasitappearsonthetitlepage,andinthesame
order.Ifanameincludesmorethanoneinitial,usespacesbetweenthem(see24.2.1).Formultipleauthors,seefigure16.1.
Innotes,listauthors namesinstandardorder(firstnamefirst):
N:1.HarrietMurav,MusicfromaSpeedingTrain:JewishLiteratureinPost-revolutionRussia(Stanford,CA:StanfordUniversity
Press,2011),219–20.
6.G.J.Barker-Benfield,AbigailandJohnAdams:TheAmericanizationofSensibility(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,
2010),499.
11.DonaldR.KinderandAllisonDale-Riddle,TheEndofRace?Obama,2008,andRacialPoliticsinAmerica(NewHaven,
CT:YaleUniversityPress,2012),47.
Inbibliographyentries,putthefirst-listedauthor snameininvertedorder(lastnamefirst),exceptforsomenon-Englishnames
andothercasesexplainedin16.2.2.2.Namesofanyadditionalauthorsshouldfollowbutshouldnotbeinverted.
B:Murav,Harriet.MusicfromaSpeedingTrain:JewishLiteratureinPost-revolutionRussia.Stanford,CA:StanfordUniversity
Press,2011.
Barker-Benfield,G.J.AbigailandJohnAdams:TheAmericanizationofSensibility.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2010.
Kinder,DonaldR.,andAllisonDale-Riddle.TheEndofRace?Obama,2008,andRacialPoliticsinAmerica.NewHaven,CT:
YaleUniversityPress,2012.
17.1.1.1EDITORORTRANSLATORINADDITIONTOANAUTHOR.Ifatitlepagelistsaneditororatranslatorinadditiontoanauthor,treat
theauthor snameasdescribedabove.Addtheeditorortranslator snameafterthebook stitle.Ifthereisatranslatoraswellasan
editor,listthenamesinthesameorderasonthetitlepageoftheoriginal.Iftheauthor snameappearsinthetitle,youmayomitit
fromthenotebutnotfromthebibliographyentry.
106

Innotes,inserttheabbreviationed.(nevereds.,sinceinthiscontextitmeans editedby ratherthan editor )ortrans.before

theeditor sortranslator sname.

N:6.ElizabethI,CollectedWorks,ed.LeahS.Marcus,JanelMueller,andMaryBethRose(Chicago:UniversityofChicago

Press,2000),102–4.

7.GeorgWilhelmFriedrichHegel,TheScienceofLogic,ed.andtrans.GeorgediGiovanni(Cambridge:Cambridge

UniversityPress,2010),642–43.

10.TheNoéJitrikReader:SelectedEssaysonLatinAmericanLiterature,ed.DanielBalderston,trans.SusanE.Benner

(Durham,NC:DukeUniversityPress,2005),189.

Inbibliographyentries,insertthephraseEditedbyorTranslatedbybeforetheeditor sortranslator sname.

B:ElizabethI.CollectedWorks.EditedbyLeahS.Marcus,JanelMueller,andMaryBethRose.Chicago:UniversityofChicago

Press,2000.

Hegel,GeorgWilhelmFriedrich.TheScienceofLogic.EditedandtranslatedbyGeorgediGiovanni.Cambridge:Cambridge

UniversityPress,2010.

Jitrik,Noé.TheNoéJitrikReader:SelectedEssaysonLatinAmericanLiterature.EditedbyDanielBalderston.Translatedby

SusanE.Benner.Durham,NC:DukeUniversityPress,2005.

Whenatitlepageidentifiesaneditorortranslatorwithacomplicateddescription,suchas EditedwithanIntroductionand

Notesby or TranslatedwithaForewordby, youcansimplifythisphrasetoeditedbyortranslatedbyandfollowtheabove

examples.Ingeneral,ifaforewordoranintroductioniswrittenbysomeoneotherthantheauthor,youneednotmentionthat

personunlessyoucitethatpartspecifically(see17.1.8).

17.1.1.2EDITORORTRANSLATORINPLACEOFANAUTHOR.Whenaneditororatranslatorislistedonabook stitlepageinsteadofan

author,usethatperson snameintheauthor sslot.Treatitasyouwouldanauthor sname(seeabove),butaddtheabbreviationed.

ortrans,followingthename.Iftherearemultipleeditorsortranslators,useeds.ortrans.(singularandplural)andfollowthe

principlesformultipleauthorsshowninfigure16.1.

N:3.SeamusHeaney,trans.,Beowulf:ANewVerseTranslation(NewYork:W.W.Norton,2000),55.

4.Anne-MariaMakhulu,BethA.Buggenhagen,andStephenJackson,eds.,HardWork,HardTimes:GlobalVolatilityand

AfricanSubjectivities(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2010),viii–ix.

B:Heaney,Seamus,trans.Beowulf:ANewVerseTranslation.NewYork:W.W.Norton,2000.

Makhulu,Anne-Maria,BethA.Buggenhagen,andStephenJackson,eds.HardWork,HardTimes:GlobalVolatilityandAfrican

Subjectivities.Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2010.

17.1.1.3ORGANIZATIONASAUTHOR.Ifapublicationissuedbyanorganization,association,commission,orcorporationhasnopersonal

author snameonthetitlepage,listtheorganizationitselfasauthor,evenifitisalsogivenaspublisher.Forpublicdocuments,see

17.9.

N:9.AmericanBarAssociation,The2010FederalRulesBook(Chicago:AmericanBarAssociation,2010),221.

B:NationalCommissiononTerroristAttacksupontheUnitedStates.The9/11CommissionReport.NewYork:W.W.Norton,2004.

17.1.1.4PSEUDONYM.Treatawidelyrecognizedpseudonymasifitweretheauthor srealname.Ifthenamelistedastheauthor sis

knowntobeapseudonymbuttherealnameisunknown,addpseud.inbracketsafterthepseudonym.

N:16.MarkTwain,ThePrinceandthePauper:ATaleforYoungPeopleofAllAges(NewYork:HarperandBrothers,1899),34.

B:Centinel[pseud.].“Letters.”InTheCompleteAnti-Federalist,editedbyHerbertJ.Storing.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,

1981.

17.1.1.5ANONYMOUSAUTHOR.Iftheauthorshipisknownorguessedatbutomittedfromthebook stitlepage,includethenamein

brackets(withaquestionmarkifthereisuncertainty).Iftheauthororeditorisunknown,avoidtheuseofAnonymousinplaceofa

name,andbeginthenoteorbibliographyentrywiththetitle.

N:22.[EbenezerCook?],SotweedRedivivus,orThePlanterʼsLooking-Glass(Annapolis,1730),5–6.

31.ATrueandSincereDeclarationofthePurposeandEndsofthePlantationBeguninVirginia,oftheDegreesWhichIt

HathReceived,andMeansbyWhichItHathBeenAdvanced(London,1610),17.

B:[Cook,Ebenezer?].SotweedRedivivus,orThePlanterʼsLooking-Glass.Annapolis,1730.

ATrueandSincereDeclarationofthePurposeandEndsofthePlantationBeguninVirginia,oftheDegreesWhichItHath

Received,andMeansbyWhichItHathBeenAdvanced.London,1610.

17.1.2Title

Listcompletebooktitlesandsubtitles.Italicizeboth,andseparatethetitlefromthesubtitlewithacolon.Iftherearetwosubtitles,

useacolonbeforethefirstandasemicolonbeforethesecond.

107

N:5.DanielGoldmarkandCharlieKeil,FunnyPictures:AnimationandComedyinStudio-EraHollywood(Berkeley:Universityof

CaliforniaPress,2011),177–78.

B:Ahmed,Leila.ABorderPassage:FromCairotoAmerica;AWomanʼsJourney.NewYork:Farrar,StrausandGiroux,1999.

Capitalizemosttitlesandsubtitlesheadlinestyle;thatis,capitalizethefirstletterofthefirstandlastwordsofthetitleand

subtitleandallmajorwords.Forforeign-languagetitles,usesentence-stylecapitalization;thatis,capitalizeonlythefirstletterofthe

firstwordofthetitleandsubtitleandanypropernounsandproperadjectivesthatwouldbecapitalizedundertheconventionsofthe

originallanguage(insomeRomancelanguages,properadjectivesandsomepropernounsarenotcapitalized).(See22.3.1foramore

detaileddiscussionofthetwostyles.)

(headlinestyle)HowtoDoIt:GuidestoGoodLivingforRenaissanceItalians

(sentencestyle)Desermoneamatorioapudlatinoselegiarumscriptores

Preservethespelling,hyphenation,andpunctuationoftheoriginaltitle,withtwoexceptions:changewordsinfullcapitals

(exceptforinitialismsoracronyms;seechapter24)toupper-andlowercase,andchangeanampersand(&)toand.Spellout

numbersorgivethemasnumeralsaccordingtotheoriginal(TwelfthCenturyor12thCentury)unlessthereisagoodreasontomake

themconsistentwithothertitlesinthelist.

Fortitlesofchaptersandotherpartsofabook,see17.1.8.

17.1.2.1SPECIALELEMENTSINTITLES.Severalelementsintitlesrequirespecialtypography

■Dates.Useacommatosetoffdatesattheendofatitleorsubtitle,evenifthereisnopunctuationintheoriginalsource.Butifthe

sourceintroducesthedateswithapreposition(forexample, from1920to1945 )oracolon,donotaddacomma.

N:5.RomainHayes,SubhasChandraBoseinNaziGermany:Politics,Intelligence,andPropaganda,1941–43(NewYork:

ColumbiaUniversityPress,2011),151–52.

B:Sorenson,JohnL.,andCarlL.Johannessen.WorldTradeandBiologicalExchangesbefore1492.Bloomington,IN:iUniverse,

2009.

■Titleswithintitles.Whenthetitleofaworkthatwouldnormallybeitalicizedappearswithintheitalicizedtitleofanother,enclose

thequotedtitleinquotationmarks.Ifthetitle-within-a-titlewouldnormallybeenclosedinquotationmarks,keepthequotation

marks.

N:22.ElisabethLadenson,DirtforArtʼsSake:BooksonTrialfrom“MadameBovary”to“Lolita”(Ithaca,NY:CornellUniversity

Press,2007),17.

B:McHugh,Roland.Annotationsto“FinnegansWake.”2nded.Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1991.

However,whentheentiremaintitleofabookconsistsofaquotationoratitlewithinatitle,donotencloseitinquotationmarks.

N:8.SamSwope,IAmaPencil:ATeacher,HisKids,andTheirWorldofStories(NewYork:HenryHolt,2004),108–9.

B:Wilde,Oscar.ThePictureofDorianGray:AnAnnotated,UncensoredEdition.EditedbyNicholasFrankel.Cambridge,MA:

HarvardUniversityPress,2011.

■Italicizedterms.Whenanitalicizedtitleincludestermsnormallyitalicizedintext,suchasspeciesnamesornamesofships,setthe

termsinromantype.

N:7.T.HughPennington,WhenFoodKills:BSE,E.coli,andDisasterScience(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2003),15.

B:Lech,RaymondB.TheTragicFateoftheU.S.S.Indianapolis:TheU.S.NavyʼsWorstDisasteratSea.NewYork:Cooper

SquarePress,2001.

■Questionmarksandexclamationpoints.Whenatitleorasubtitleendswithaquestionmarkoranexclamationpoint,noother

punctuationnormallyfollows.Oneexception:ifthetitlewouldnormallybefollowedbyacomma,asinashortenednote(see

16.4.1),keepthecomma.Seealso21.12.1.

N:26.JafariS.Allen,¡Venceremos?TheEroticsofBlackSelf-MakinginCuba(Durham,NC:DukeUniversityPress,2011),210–

11.

27.Allen,¡Venceremos?,212.

B:Wolpert,Stanley.IndiaandPakistan:ContinuedConflictorCooperation?Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2010.

17.1.2.2OLDERTITLES.Fortitlesofworkspublishedintheeighteenthcenturyorearlier,retaintheoriginalpunctuationandspelling.

Alsoretaintheoriginalcapitalization,evenifitdoesnotfollowheadlinestyle.Wordsinallcapitalletters,however,shouldbegiven

inupper-andlowercase.Ifthetitleisverylong,youmayshortenit,butprovideenoughinformationforreaderstofindthefulltitle

inalibraryorpublisher scatalog.Indicateomissionsinsuchtitlesbythreeellipsisdots.Iftheomissioncomesattheendofatitlein

108

abibliographyentry,useaperiodandthreeellipsisdots.

N:19.JohnRay,ObservationsTopographical,Moral,andPhysiological:MadeinaJourneyThroughpartoftheLow-Countries,

Germany,Italy,andFrance:withACatalogueofPlantsnotNativeofEngland…WhereuntoisaddedABriefAccountofFrancis

Willughby,Esq.,hisVoyagethroughagreatpartofSpain([London],1673),15.

B:Escalante,Bernardino.ADiscourseoftheNavigationwhichthePortugalesdoemaketotheRealmesandProvincesoftheEast

PartesoftheWorlde….TranslatedbyJohnFrampton.London,1579.

17.1.2.3NON-ENGLISHTITLES.Usesentence-stylecapitalizationfornon-Englishtitles,followingthecapitalizationprinciplesforproper

nounswithintherelevantlanguage.Ifyouareunfamiliarwiththeseprinciples,consultareliablesource.

N:3.SylvainGouguenheim,AristoteauMont-Saint-Michel:LesracinesgrecquesdelʼEuropechrétienne(Paris:Éditionsdu

Seuil,2008),117.

6.LjiljanaPiletićStojanović,ed.Gutfreundičeškikubizam(Belgrade:Muzejsavremeneumetnosti,1971),54–55.

B:Kelek,Necla.DiefremdeBraut:EinBerichtausdemInnerendestürkischenLebensinDeutschland.Munich:GoldmannVerlag,

2006.

IfyouaddtheEnglishtranslationofatitle,placeitaftertheoriginal.Encloseitinbrackets,withoutitalicsorquotationmarks,

andcapitalizeitsentencestyle.

N:7.HenrykWereszycki,Koniecsojuszutrzechcesarzy[TheendoftheThreeEmperorsʼLeague](Warsaw:PWN,1977),5.

B:YuGuoming.Zhongguochuanmeifazhanqianyantansuo[Newperspectivesonnewsandcommunication].Beijing:Xinhua

chubanshe,2011.

Ifyouneedtociteboththeoriginalandatranslation,useoneofthefollowingforms,dependingonwhetheryouwanttofocus

readersontheoriginalorthetranslation.

B:Furet,François.Lepassédʼuneillusion.Paris:ÉditionsRobertLaffont,1995.TranslatedbyDeborahFuretasThePassingofan

Illusion(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1999).

Furet,François.ThePassingofanIllusion.TranslatedbyDeborahFuret.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1999.Originally

publishedasLepassédʼuneillusion(Paris:EditionsRobertLaffont,1995).

17.1.3Edition

Someworksarepublishedinmorethanoneedition.Eacheditiondiffersincontentorformatorboth.Alwayscitetheeditionyou

actuallyconsulted(unlessitisafirstedition,whichisusuallynotlabeledassuch).

17.1.3.1.REVISEDEDITIONS.Whenabookisreissuedwithsignificantcontentchanges,itmaybecalleda revised editionora second

(orsubsequent)edition.Thisinformationusuallyappearsonthebook stitlepageandisrepeated,alongwiththedateoftheedition,

onthecopyrightpage.

Whenyouciteaneditionotherthanthefirst,includethenumberordescriptionoftheeditionafterthetitle.Abbreviatesuch

wordingas SecondEdition,RevisedandEnlarged as2nded.;abbreviate RevisedEdition asRev.ed.Includethepublicationdate

onlyoftheeditionyouareciting,notofanypreviouseditions(see17.1.6).

N:1.PaulJ.Bolt,DamonV.Coletta,andCollinsG.ShackelfordJr.,eds.,AmericanDefensePolicy,8thed.(Baltimore:Johns

HopkinsUniversityPress,2005),157–58.

B:Foley,DouglasE.LearningCapitalistCulture:DeepintheHeartofTejas.2nded.Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvania

Press,2010.

Levitt,StevenD.,andStephenJ.Dubner.Freakonomics:ARogueEconomistExplorestheHiddenSideofEverything.Rev.ed.

NewYork:WilliamMorrow,2006.

17.1.3.2REPRINTEDITIONS.Manybooksarereissuedorpublishedinmorethanoneformat forexample,inapaperbackedition(by

theoriginalpublisheroradifferentpublisher)orinelectronicform(see17.1.10).Alwaysrecordthefactsofpublicationforthe

versionyouconsulted.Iftheeditionyouconsultedwaspublishedmorethanayearortwoaftertheoriginaleditionorisamodern

printingofaclassicwork,youmayincludethepublicationdatesofboththeoriginalandtheeditionyouareciting(see17.1.6.3).

N:23.RandallJarrell,PicturesfromanInstitution:AComedy(1954;repr.,Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2010),79–80.

B:Dickens,Charles.PicturesfromItaly.1846.Reprint,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2011.

17.1.4Volume

Ifabookispartofamultivolumework,includethisinformationinyourcitations.

109

17.1.4.1SPECIFICVOLUME.Tociteaspecificvolumethatcarriesitsowntitle,listthetitleforthemultivolumeworkasawhole,followed

bythevolumenumberandtitleofthespecificvolume.Abbreviatevol.andusearabicnumbersforvolumenumbers.

N:10.HamidNaficy,ASocialHistoryofIranianCinema,vol.2,TheIndustrializingYears,1941–1978(Durham,NC:Duke

UniversityPress,2011),16.

B:Naficy,Hamid.ASocialHistoryofIranianCinema.Vol.2,TheIndustrializingYears,1941–1978.Durham,NC:DukeUniversity

Press,2011.

Ifthevolumesarenotindividuallytitled,listeachvolumethatyouciteinthebibliography(seealso17.1.4.2).Inanote,putthe

specificvolumenumber(withoutvol.)immediatelybeforethepagenumber,separatedbyacolonandnointerveningspace.

N:36.MurielSt.ClareByrne,ed.,TheLisleLetters(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1981),4:243.

B:Byrne,MurielSt.Clare,ed.TheLisleLetters.Vols.1and4.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1981.

Somemultivolumeworkshavebothageneraleditorandindividualeditorsorauthorsforeachvolume.Whencitingpartsofsuch

works,putinformationaboutindividualeditorsorauthors(see17.1.1)afterthetitlesforwhichtheyareresponsible.Thefirst

examplebelowalsoshowshowtociteavolumepublishedinmorethanonephysicalpart(vol.2,bk.3).

N:40.BarbaraE.Mundy,“MesoamericanCartography,”inTheHistoryofCartography,ed.J.BrianHarleyandDavid

Woodward,vol.2,bk.3,CartographyintheTraditionalAfrican,American,Arctic,Australian,andPacificSocieties,ed.David

WoodwardandG.MalcolmLewis(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1998),233.

B:Donne,John.TheVariorumEditionofthePoetryofJohnDonne.EditedbyGaryA.Stringer.Vol.7,TheHolySonnets,editedby

GaryA.StringerandPaulA.Parrish.Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress,2005.

17.1.4.2MULTIVOLUMEWORKASAWHOLE.Tociteamultivolumeworkasawhole,givethetitle,thetotalnumberofvolumes,and,ifthe

volumeshavebeenpublishedoverseveralyears,thefullspanofpublicationdates.

B:Aristotle.CompleteWorksofAristotle:TheRevisedOxfordTranslation.EditedbyJ.Barnes.2vols.Princeton,NJ:Princeton

UniversityPress,1983.

Tillich,Paul.SystematicTheology.3vols.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1951–63.

Forworksthatincludeindividualvolumetitlesorvolumeeditors(see17.1.4.1),itisusuallybesttocitethevolumesindividually.

17.1.5Series

Ifabookbelongstoaseries,youmaychoosetoincludeinformationabouttheseriestohelpreaderslocateorjudgethecredibilityof

thesource.Placetheseriesinformationafterthetitle(andanyvolumeoreditionnumberoreditor sname)andbeforethefactsof

publication.

Puttheseriestitleinromantypewithheadline-stylecapitalization,omittinganyinitialThe.Ifthevolumesintheseriesare

numbered,includethenumberoftheworkcitedfollowingtheseriestitle.Thenameoftheserieseditorisoftenomitted,butyoumay

includeitaftertheseriestitle.Ifyouincludebothaneditorandavolumenumber,thenumberisprecededbyvol.

N:7.BlakeM.Hausman,RidingtheTrailofTears,NativeStoriers:ASeriesofAmericanNarratives(Lincoln:Universityof

NebraskaPress,2011),25.

B:Lunning,Frenchy,ed.Fanthropologies.Mechademia5.Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,2010.

Stein,Gertrude.Selections.EditedbyJoanRetallack.PoetsfortheMillennium,editedbyPierreJorisandJeromeRothenberg,

vol.6.Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2008.

17.1.6FactsofPublication

Thefactsofpublicationusuallyincludethreeelements:theplace(city)ofpublication,thepublisher sname,andthedate(year)of

publication.Innotestheseelementsareenclosedinparentheses;inbibliographyentriestheyarenot.

N:1.MalcolmGladwell,TheTippingPoint:HowLittleThingsCanMakeaBigDifference(Boston:Little,Brown,2000),64–65.

B:Gladwell,Malcolm.TheTippingPoint:HowLittleThingsCanMakeaBigDifference.Boston:Little,Brown,2000.

Forbookspublishedbeforethetwentiethcentury,youmayomitthepublisher sname.

N:32.CharlesDarwin,TheDescentofMan,andSelectioninRelationtoSex(London,1871),1:2.

B:Darwin,Charles.TheDescentofMan,andSelectioninRelationtoSex.2vols.London,1871.

17.1.6.1PLACEOFPUBLICATION.Theplaceofpublicationisthecitywherethebookpublisher smaineditorialofficesarelocated.Ifyou

donotseeitlistedonthetitlepage,lookforitonthecopyrightpageinstead.Wheretwoormorecitiesaregiven( Chicagoand

London, forexample),includeonlythefirst.

110

LosAngeles:GettyPublications

NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress

Ifthecityofpublicationmightbeunknowntoreadersorconfusedwithanothercityofthesamename,addtheabbreviationof

thestate(see24.3.1),province,or(ifnecessary)country.Whenthepublisher snameincludesthestatename,nostateabbreviation

isneeded.

Cheshire,CT:GraphicsPress

Harmondsworth,UK:PenguinBooks

Cambridge,MA:MITPress

ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress

Usecurrent,commonlyusedEnglishnamesforforeigncities.

Belgrade(notBeograd)

Milan(notMilano)

Whentheplaceofpublicationisnotknown,youmayusetheabbreviationn.p.inanote(orN.p.inabibliographyentry)before

thepublisher sname.Iftheplacecanbesurmised,includeitwithaquestionmark,inbrackets.

(n.p.:Windsor,1910)

[LakeBluff,IL?]:VlietandEdwards,1920

17.1.6.2PUBLISHERʼSNAME.Givethepublisher snameforeachbookexactlyasitappearsonthetitlepage,evenifyouknowthatthe

namehassincechangedorisprinteddifferentlyindifferentbooksinyourbibliography.

HarcourtBraceandWorld

HarcourtBraceJovanovich

Harcourt,Brace

Youmay,however,omitaninitialTheandsuchabbreviationsasInc.,Ltd.,S.A.,Co.,&Co.,andPublishingCo.(andthespelled-out

formsofsuchcorporateabbreviations).

UniversityofTexasPress

insteadof

TheUniversityofTexasPress

HoughtonMifflin

insteadof

HoughtonMifflinCo.

Little,Brown

insteadof

Little,Brown&Co.

Forforeignpublishers,donottranslateorabbreviateanypartofthepublisher sname,butgivethecitynameinitsEnglishform

(asnotedin17.1.6.1).Whenthepublisherisunknown,usejusttheplace(ifknown)anddateofpublication.

17.1.6.3DATEOFPUBLICATION.Thepublicationdateforabookconsistsonlyofayear,notamonthorday,andisusuallyidenticalto

thecopyrightdate.Itgenerallyappearsonthecopyrightpageandsometimesonthetitlepage.

Revisededitionsandreprintsmayincludemorethanonecopyrightdate.Inthiscase,themostrecentindicatesthepublication

date forexample,2010inthestring 1992,2003,2010. See17.1.3forcitingpublicationdatesinsuchworks.

Ifyoucannotdeterminethepublicationdateofaprintedwork,usetheabbreviationn.d.inplaceoftheyear.Ifnodateis

providedbutyoubelieveyouknowit,youmayadditinbrackets,withaquestionmarktoindicateuncertainty.

B:Agnew,John.ABookofVirtues.Edinburgh,n.d.

Miller,Samuel.AnotherBookofVirtues.Boston,[1750?].

Ifabookisundercontractwithapublisherandisalreadytitledbutthedateofpublicationisnotyetknown,useforthcomingin

placeofthedate.Treatanybooknotyetundercontractasanunpublishedmanuscript(see17.6).

N:91.JaneQ.Author,BookTitle(PlaceofPublication:PublisherʼsName,forthcoming).

17.1.7PageNumbersandOtherLocators

Pagenumbersandotherinformationusedtoidentifythelocationofacitedpassageorelementgenerallyappearinnotesbutnotin

bibliographies.Oneexception:ifyouciteachapterorothersectionofabookinabibliography,givethepagerangeforthatchapter

orsection(see17.1.8forexamples).

Forguidelinesonexpressingaspanofnumbers,see23.2.4.

111

17.1.7.1PAGE,CHAPTER,ANDDIVISIONNUMBERS.Thelocatorisusuallythelastiteminanote.Beforepagenumbers,thewordpageor

theabbreviationp.orpp.isgenerallyomitted.Usearabicnumbersexceptforpagesnumberedwithromannumeralsintheoriginal.

N:14.RichardArumandJosipaRoksa,AcademicallyAdrift:LimitedLearningonCollegeCampuses(Chicago:Universityof

ChicagoPress,2011),145–46.

17JacquelineJones,prefacetotheneweditionofLaborofLove,LaborofSorrow:BlackWomen,Work,andtheFamily,

fromSlaverytothePresent,rev.ed.(NewYork:BasicBooks,2010),xiv–xv.

Sometimesyoumaywanttorefertoafullchapter(abbreviatedchap.),part(pt.),book(bk.),orsection(sec.)insteadofaspanof

pagenumbers.

N:22.SrikantM.Datar,DavidA.Garvin,andPatrickG.Cullen,RethinkingtheMBA:BusinessEducationataCrossroads

(Boston:HarvardBusinessPress,2010),pt.2.

Somebooksprintedbefore1800donotcarrypagenumbersbutaredividedintosignaturesandthenintoleavesorfolios,each

withafrontside(recto,orr)andabackside(verso,orv).Tocitesuchpages,includetherelevantstringofnumbersandidentifiers,

runtogetherwithoutspacesoritalics:forexample,G6v,176r,232r V,or(ifyouarecitingentirefolios)fol.49.

17.1.7.2OTHERTYPESOFLOCATORS.Sometimesyouwillwanttociteaspecificnote,afigureortable,oranumberedline(asinsome

worksofpoetry).

■Notenumbers.Usetheabbreviationn(plural,nn)tocitenotes.Ifthenotecitedistheonlyfootnoteonitspageorisan

unnumberedfootnote,addnafterthepagenumber(withnointerveningspaceorpunctuation).Ifthereareotherfootnotesor

endnotesonthesamepageasthenotecited,listthepagenumberfollowedbynor(iftwoormoreconsecutivenotesarecited)nn

andthenotenumber(s).

N:45.AnthonyGrafton,TheFootnote:ACuriousHistory(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,1997),72n.

46.DwightBolinger,Language:TheLoadedWeapon(London:Longman,1980),192n23,192n30,199n14,201nn16–17

■Illustrationandtablenumbers.Usetheabbreviationfig.forfigure,butspellouttable,map,plate,andnamesofothertypesof

illustrations.Givethepagenumberbeforetheillustrationnumber.

N:50.RichardSobel,PublicOpinioninU.S.ForeignPolicy:TheControversyoverContraAid(Boston:RowmanandLittlefield,

1993),87,table5.3.

■Linenumbers.Forpoetryandotherworksbestidentifiedbylinenumber,avoidtheabbreviationsl.(line)andll.(lines);theyare

tooeasilyconfusedwiththenumerals1and11.Uselineorlines,orusenumbersalonewhereyouhavemadeitclearthatyouare

referringtolines.

N:44.OgdenNash,“SongforDitherers,”lines1–4.

17.1.8ChaptersandOtherPartsofaBook

Inmostcasesyoushouldcitethemaintitleofanybookthatoffersasingle,continuousargumentornarrative,evenifyouactually

useonlyasectionofit.Butsometimesyouwillwanttociteanindependentessayorchapterifthatisthepartmostrelevanttoyour

research.Bydoingso,youhelpreadersseehowthesourcefitsintoyourproject.

B:Demos,John.“RealLivesandOtherFictions:ReconsideringWallaceStegnerʼsAngleofRepose.”InNovelHistory:Historians

andNovelistsConfrontAmericaʼsPast(andEachOther),editedbyMarkC.Carnes,132–45.NewYork:Simonand

Schuster,2001.

insteadof

Carnes,MarkC.,ed.NovelHistory:HistoriansandNovelistsConfrontAmericaʼsPast(andEachOther).NewYork:Simonand

Schuster,2001.

17.1.8.1PARTSOFSINGLE-AUTHORBOOKS.Ifyouciteachapterorothertitledpartofasingle-authorbook,includethetitleofthepart

first,inromantypeandenclosedinquotationmarks.Afterthedesignationin,givethebooktitle.Inabibliographyentry,includethe

fullspanofpagenumbersforthatpartfollowingthebooktitle;inanote,givethepagenumber(s)foraspecificreferenceasyou

wouldforanyotherquotation.

N:1.SusanGreenhalgh,“StrengtheningChinaʼsParty-StateandPlaceintheWorld,”inCultivatingGlobalCitizens:Population

intheRiseofChina(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,2010),82.

B:Greenhalgh,Susan.“StrengtheningChinaʼsParty-StateandPlaceintheWorld.”InCultivatingGlobalCitizens:Populationinthe

RiseofChina,79–114.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,2010.

Ifyouciteapartwithagenerictitlesuchasintroduction,preface,orafterword,addthattermbeforethetitleofthebookin

romantypewithoutquotationmarks.Ifthepartiswrittenbysomeoneotherthanthemainauthorofthebook,givethepartauthor s

namefirstandthebookauthor snameafterthetitle.

112

N:7.AlfredW.Crosby,prefacetotheneweditionofEcologicalImperialism:TheBiologicalExpansionofEurope,900–1900,

newed.(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,2004),xv.

16.CraigCalhoun,forewordtoMulticulturalPolitics:Racism,Ethnicity,andMuslimsinBritain,byTariqModood

(Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,2005),xii.

Iftheauthorofthegenericpartisthesameastheauthorofthebook,citebookasawholeinthebibliography,notjustthepart.

B:Crosby,AlfredW.EcologicalImperialism:TheBiologicalExpansionofEurope,900–1900.Newed.NewYork:Cambridge

UniversityPress,2004.

Calhoun,Craig.ForewordtoMulticulturalPolitics:Racism,Ethnicity,andMuslimsinBritain,byTariqModood,ix-xv.

Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,2005.

17.1.8.2PARTSOFEDITEDCOLLECTIONS.Ifyoucitepartofaneditedcollectionwithcontributionsbymultipleauthors,listthepart

authorandtitle(inromantype,enclosedinquotationmarks)first.Afterthedesignationin,givethebooktitleandthenameofthe

editor.Inabibliographyentry,includethefullspanofpagenumbersforthatpartfollowingthebooktitle;inanote,givethepage

number(s)foraspecificreferenceasyouwouldforanyotherquotation.

N:3.CameronBinkley,“SavingRedwoods:ClubwomenandConservation,1900–1925,”inCaliforniaWomenandPolitics:From

theGoldRushtotheGreatDepression,ed.RobertW.Cherny,MaryAnnIrwin,andAnnMarieWilson(Lincoln:Universityof

NebraskaPress,2011),155.

B:Binkley,Cameron.“SavingRedwoods:ClubwomenandConservation,1900–1925.”InCaliforniaWomenandPolitics:Fromthe

GoldRushtotheGreatDepression,editedbyRobertW.Cherny,MaryAnnIrwin,andAnnMarieWilson,151–74.Lincoln:

UniversityofNebraskaPress,2011.

Ifyoucitetwoormorecontributionstothesameeditedcollection,youmayuseoneofthespace-savingshortenedforms

discussedin16.4.1.Thefirsttimeyouciteanypartfromthebookinanote,givefullbibliographicalinformationaboutboththepart

andthebookasawhole.Thereafter,ifyouciteanotherpartfromthebook,providethefullauthor snameandtitleofthepart,but

givetheinformationaboutthebookinshortenedform.Subsequentnotesforindividualpartsfollowoneoftheshortenednoteforms

(author-only,shownhere,orauthor-title).

N:4.RobertBruegmann,“BuiltEnvironmentoftheChicagoRegion,”inChicagoNeighborhoodsandSuburbs:AHistorical

Guide,ed.AnnDurkinKeating(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2008),259.

12.JaniceL.Reiff,“ContestedSpaces,”inKeating,55.

14.Bruegmann,299–300.

15.Reiff,57.

Inyourbibliography,provideafullcitationforthewholebookandavariationontheshortenednoteformforindividualparts.

B:Keating,AnnDurkin,ed.ChicagoNeighborhoodsandSuburbs:AHistoricalGuide.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2008.

Bruegmann,Robert.“BuiltEnvironmentoftheChicagoRegion.”InKeating,76–314.

Reiff,Janice,L.“ContestedSpaces.”InKeating,55–63.

17.1.8.3WORKSINANTHOLOGIES.Citeashortstory,poem,essay,orotherworkpublishedinananthologyinthesamewayyouwoulda

contributiontoaneditedcollectionwithmultipleauthors.Givethetitlesofmostworkspublishedinanthologiesinromantype,

enclosedinquotationmarks.Anexceptionisthetitleofanexcerptfromabook-lengthpoemorprosework,whichshouldbe

italicized(see22.3.2).

N:2.IsabelAllende,“TheSpiritsWereWilling,”inTheOxfordBookofLatinAmericanEssays,ed.IlanStavans(NewYork:

OxfordUniversityPress,1997),463–64.

B:Wigglesworth,Michael.ExcerptfromTheDayofDoom.InTheNewAnthologyofAmericanPoetry,vol.1,Traditionsand

Revolutions,Beginningsto1900,editedbyStevenGouldAxelrod,CamilleRoman,andThomasTravisano,68–74.New

Brunswick,NJ:RutgersUniversityPress,2003.

Iftheoriginalpublicationdateofaworkisimportantinthecontextofyourpaper,includeitafterthetitleoftheworkandbefore

thetitleoftheanthologyinbothyournotesandyourbibliography.

N:2.IsabelAllende,“TheSpiritsWereWilling”(1984),inTheOxfordBook…

B:Wigglesworth,Michael.ExcerptfromTheDayofDoom.1662.InTheNewAnthology…

17.1.9LettersandOtherCommunicationsinPublishedCollections

Tocitealetter,memorandum,orothersuchitemcollectedinabook,givethenamesofthesenderandrecipientfollowedbythedate

ofthecorrespondence.(Forunpublishedpersonalcommunications,see17.6.3;forunpublishedlettersinmanuscriptcollections,see

17.6.4.)Thewordletterisunnecessary,butlabelotherforms,suchasareportormemorandum.Givethetitleandotherdataforthe

collectionintheusualformforaneditedbook.Subsequentnotestothesameitemcanbeshortenedtothenamesofthesenderand

recipient(plusadateifnecessary).

113

N:1.HenryJamestoEdithWharton,November8,1905,inLetters,ed.LeonEdel,vol.4,1895–1916(Cambridge,MA:Belknap

PressofHarvardUniversityPress,1984),373.

2.JamestoWharton,375.

5.EBWtoHaroldRoss,memorandum,May2,1946,inLettersofE.B.White,ed.DorothyLobranoGuth(NewYork:Harper

andRow,1976),273.

Inthebibliography,citethewholecollection.

B:James,Henry.Letters.EditedbyLeonEdel.Vol.4,7895–7976.Cambridge,MA:BelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress,

1984.

White,E.B.LettersofE.B.White.EditedbyDorothyLobranoGuth.NewYork:HarperandRow,1976.

17.1.10ElectronicBooks

Electronicbooksarecitedliketheirprintedcounterparts,asdiscussedthroughout17.1.Inaddition,youwillneedtoinclude

informationabouttheformatyouconsulted.Ifyoureadthebookonline,includebothanaccessdateandaURL.Ifarecommended

URLislistedalongwiththebook,usethatinsteadoftheoneinyourbrowser saddressbar.Ifyouconsultedthebookinalibraryor

commercialdatabase,youmaygivethenameofthedatabaseinstead.Ifyoudownloadedthebookinadedicatede-bookformat,

specifytheformatanddonotincludeanaccessdate.See15.4.1formoredetails.

N:1.GeorgePattison,GodandBeing:AnEnquiry(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2011),103–4,accessedSeptember2,

2012,http://dx.doi.Org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199588688.001.0001.

2.JosephP.Quinlan,TheLastEconomicSuperpower.TheRetreatofGlobalization,theEndofAmericanDominance,and

WhatWeCanDoaboutIt(NewYork:McGraw-Hill,2010),211,accessedNovember1,2011,ProQuestEbrary.

4.ErinHogan,SpiralJetta:ARoadTripthroughtheLandArtoftheAmericanWest(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,

2008),86–87,AdobePDFeBook.

8.MalcolmGladwell,Outliers:TheStoryofSuccess(Boston:Little,Brown,2008),193,Kindle.

B:Pattison,George.GodandBeing:AnEnquiry.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2011.AccessedSeptember2,2012.

http://dx.doi.Org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199588688.001.0001.

Quinlan,JosephP.TheLastEconomicSuperpower:TheRetreatofGlobalization,theEndofAmericanDominance,andWhat

WeCanDoaboutIt.NewYork:McGraw-Hill,2010.AccessedNovember1,2011.ProQuestEbrary.

Hogan,Erin.SpiralJetta:ARoadTripthroughtheLandArtoftheAmericanWest.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2008.

AdobePDFeBook.

Gladwell,Malcolm.Outliers:TheStoryofSuccess.Boston:Little,Brown,2008.Kindle.

Somee-bookformatshavestablepagenumbersthatarethesameforeveryreader(forexample,PDF-basede-books),butin

formatsthatallowindividualreaderstoadjusttypesizeandothersettings,pagenumberswillvaryfromoneperson sversionto

another s.Includingthenameoftheformatordatabaseyouusedwillhelpyourreadersdeterminewhetherthepagenumbersin

yourcitationsarestableornot.Anotheroptionifthepagenumbersarenotstableistocitebychapteroranothernumbereddivision

(see17.1.7.1)or,iftheseareunnumbered,bythenameofthechapterorsection(see17.1.1).Thefollowingsourcealsolacksthe

originalfactsofpublication.

N:11.FyodorDostoevsky,CrimeandPunishment,trans.ConstanceGarnett(ProjectGutenberg,2011),pt.6,chap.1,

accessedSeptember13,2011,http://gutenberg.org/files/2554/2554-h/2554-h.htm.

17.2JournalArticles

Journalsarescholarlyorprofessionalperiodicalsavailableprimarilyinacademiclibrariesandbysubscription.Theyofteninclude

thewordjournalintheirtitle(JournalofModernHistory),butnotalways(Signs).Journalsarenotthesameasmagazines,which

areusuallyintendedforamoregeneralreadership.Thisdistinctionisimportantbecausejournalarticlesandmagazinearticlesare

citeddifferently(see17.3).Ifyouareunsurewhetheraperiodicalisajournaloramagazine,seewhetheritsarticlesincludecitations;

ifso,treatitasajournal.

Manyjournalarticlesareavailableonline,oftenthroughyourschool slibrarywebsiteorfromacommercialdatabase.Tocitean

articlethatyoureadonline,includebothanaccessdateandaURL.IfaURLislistedalongwiththearticle,usethatinsteadofthe

oneinyourbrowser saddressbar.Ifyouconsultedthearticleinalibraryorcommercialdatabase,youmaygivethenameofthe

databaseinstead.See15.4.1formoredetails.

17.2.1Author sName

Giveauthors namesexactlyastheyappearattheheadsoftheirarticles.Namesinthenotesarelistedinstandardorder(firstname

first).Inthebibliography,thenameofthefirst-listedauthorisinverted.Forsomespecialcases,see16.2.2.2and17.1.1.

17.2.2ArticleTitle

Listcompletearticletitlesandsubtitles.Useromantype,separatethetitlefromthesubtitlewithacolon,andenclosebothin

quotationmarks.Useheadline-stylecapitalization(see22.3.3).

N:12.SaskiaE.Wieringa,“PortraitofaWomenʼsMarriage:NavigatingbetweenLesbophobiaandIslamophobia,”Signs36,no.

4(Summer2011):785–86,accessedFebruary15,2012,http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/658500.

114

B:SaskiaE.Wieringa.“PortraitofaWomenʼsMarriage:NavigatingbetweenLesbophobiaandIslamophobia.”Signs36,no.4

(Summer2011):785–93.AccessedFebruary15,2012.http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/658500.

Termsnormallyitalicizedintext,suchasspeciesnamesandbooktitles,remainitalicizedwithinanarticletitle;termsnormally

quotedintextareenclosedinsinglequotationmarksbecausethetitleitselfiswithindoublequotationmarks.Donotaddeithera

colonoraperiodafteratitleorsubtitlethatendsinaquestionmarkoranexclamationpoint.Ifthetitlewouldnormallybefollowed

byacomma,asintheshortenednoteexamplebelow(see16.4.1),usebothmarks.Seealso21.12.1.

N:23.LisaA.Twomey,“TabooorTolerable?HemingwayʼsForWhomtheBellTollsinPostwarSpain,”HemingwayReview30,

no.2(Spring2011):55.

25.Twomey,“TabooorTolerable?,”56.

B:Lewis,Judith.““TisaMisfortunetoBeaGreatLadieʼ:MaternalMortalityintheBritishAristocracy,1558–1959.”JournalofBritish

Studies37,no.1(January1998):26–53.AccessedAugust29,2011.http://www.jstor.org/stable/176034.

Foreign-languagetitlesshouldgenerallybecapitalizedsentencestyle(see22.3.1)accordingtotheconventionsoftheparticular

language.IfyouaddanEnglishtranslation,encloseitinbrackets,withoutquotationmarks.

N:22.AntonioCarreño-RodrÍguez,“Modernidadenlaliteraturagauchesca:CarnavalizaciónyparodiaenelFaustode

EstanislaodelCampo,”Hispania92,no.1(March2009):13–14,accessedDecember8,2011,

http://www.jstor.org/stable/40648253.

B:Kern,W.“WaarverzameldePigafettazijnMaleisewoorden?”[WheredidPigafettacollecthisMalaysianwords?]Tijdschriftvoor

Indischetaal-,land-envolkenkunde78(1938):271–73.

17.2.3JournalTitle

Afterthearticletitle,listthejournaltitleinitalics,withheadline-stylecapitalization(see22.3.1).Givethetitleexactlyasitappears

onthetitlepageoronthejournalwebsite;donotuseabbreviations,althoughyoucanomitaninitialThe.Iftheofficialtitleisan

initialismsuchasPMLA,donotexpandit.Forforeign-languagejournals,youmayuseeitherheadline-styleorsentence-style

capitalization,butretainallinitialarticles(DerSpiegel).

17.2.4IssueInformation

Mostjournalcitationsincludevolumenumber,issuenumber,monthorseason,andyear.Readersmaynotneedallofthese

elementstolocateanarticle,butincludingthemallguardsagainstapossibleerrorinoneofthem.

17.2.4.1VOLUMEANDISSUENUMBERS.Thevolumenumberfollowsthejournaltitlewithoutinterveningpunctuationandisnot

italicized.Usearabicnumeralsevenifthejournalitselfusesromannumerals.Ifthereisanissuenumber,itfollowsthevolume

number,separatedbyacommaandprecededbyno.

N:2.CampbellBrown,“ConsequentializeThis,”Ethics121,no.4(July2011):752,accessedAugust29,2011,

http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/660696.

B:lonescu,Felicia.“RiskyHumanCapitalandAlternativeBankruptcyRegimesforStudentLoans.”JournalofHumanCapital5,no.

2(Summer2011):153–206.AccessedOctober13,2011.http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/661744.

Whenajournalusesissuenumbersonly,withoutvolumenumbers,acommafollowsthejournaltitle.

B:Beattie,J.M.“ThePatternofCrimeinEngland,1660–1800.”PastandPresent,no.62(February1974):47–95.

17.2.4.2DATEOFPUBLICATION.Thedateofpublicationappearsinparenthesesafterthevolumenumberandissueinformation.Follow

thepracticeofthejournalregardingdateinformation;itmustincludetheyearandmayincludeaseason,amonth,oranexactday.

Capitalizeseasonsinjournalcitations,eventhoughtheyarenotcapitalizedintext.

N:27.SusanGubar,“IntheChemoColony,”CriticalInquiry37,no.4(Summer2011):652,accessedAugust29,2011,

http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/660986.

B:Bartfeld,Judi,andMyoungKim.“ParticipationintheSchoolBreakfastProgram:NewEvidencefromtheECLS-K.”Social

ServiceReview84,no.4(December2010):541–62.AccessedOctober31,2012.http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/657109.

Ifanarticlehasbeenacceptedforpublicationbuthasnotyetappeared,useforthcominginplaceofthedateandpagenumbers.

Treatanyarticlenotyetacceptedforpublicationasanunpublishedmanuscript(see17.6).

N:4.MargaretM.Author,“ArticleTitle,”JournalName98(forthcoming).

B:Author,MargaretM.“ArticleTitle.”JournalName98(forthcoming).

17.2.5PageNumbers

Ifyouciteaparticularpassageinanote,giveonlythespecificpage(s)cited.Forabibliographyentryoranotethatcitestheentire

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article,givethefullspanofpagenumbersforthearticle(see23.2.4).Byconvention,pagenumbersofjournalarticlesfollowcolons

ratherthancommas.

N:4.TimHitchcock,“BeggingontheStreetsofEighteenth-CenturyLondon,”JournalofBritishStudies44,no.3(July2005):

478,accessedJanuary11,2012,http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/429704.

B:Gold,AnnGrodzins.“GrainsofTruth:ShiftingHierarchiesofFoodandGraceinThreeRajasthaniTales.”HistoryofReligions

38,no.2(November1998):150–71.AccessedApril8,2012.http://www.jstor.org/stable/3176672.

17.2.6SpecialIssuesandSupplements

Ajournalissuedevotedtoasinglethemeisknownasaspecialissue.Itcarriesanormalvolumeandissuenumber.Ifaspecialissue

hasatitleandaneditorofitsown,includebothinthecitations.Thetitleisgiveninromantypeandenclosedinquotationmarks.

N:67.GertrudKoch,“CarnivoreorChameleon:TheFateofCinemaStudies,”in“TheFateofDisciplines,”ed.JamesChandler

andArnoldI.Davidson,specialissue,CriticalInquiry35,no.4(Summer2009):921,accessedAugust30,2011,

http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/599582.

B:Koch,Gertrud.“CarnivoreorChameleon:TheFateofCinemaStudies.”In“TheFateofDisciplines,”editedbyJamesChandler

andArnoldI.Davidson.Specialissue,CriticalInquiry35,no.4(Summer2009):918–28.AccessedAugust30,2011.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/599582.

Ifyouneedtocitetheissueasawhole,omitthearticleinformation.

B:Chandler,James,andArnoldI.Davidson,eds.“TheFateofDisciplines.”Specialissue,CriticalInquiry35,no.4(Summer2009).

Ajournalsupplementmayalsohaveatitleandanauthororeditorofitsown.Unlikeaspecialissue,itisnumberedseparately

fromtheregularissuesofthejournal,oftenwithSaspartofitspagenumbers.Useacommabetweenthevolumenumberandthe

supplementnumber.

N:4.IvarEkeland,JamesJ.Heckman,andLarsNesheim,“IdentificationandEstimationofHedonicModels,”in“Papersin

HonorofSherwinRosen,”JournalofPoliticalEconomy112,S1(February2004):S72,accessedDecember23,2011,

http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/379947.

B:Ekeland,Ivar,JamesJ.Heckman,andLarsNesheim.“IdentificationandEstimationofHedonicModels.”In“PapersinHonorof

SherwinRosen,”JournalofPoliticalEconomy112,S1(February2004):S60–S109.AccessedDecember23,2011.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/379947.

17.3MagazineArticles

Articlesinmagazinesarecitedmuchlikejournalarticles(see17.2),butdatesandpagenumbersaretreateddifferently.

Citemagazinesbydateonly,eveniftheyarenumberedbyvolumeandissue.Donotenclosethedateinparentheses.Ifyoucitea

specificpassageinanote,includeitspagenumber.Butyoumayomitthearticle sinclusivepagenumbersinabibliographyentry,

sincemagazinearticlesoftenspanmanypagesthatincludeextraneousmaterial.Ifyouincludepagenumbers,useacommarather

thanacolontoseparatethemfromthedateofissue.Aswithjournals,omitaninitialThefromthemagazinetitle(see17.2.3).

N:11.JillLepore,“DickensinEden,”NewYorker,August29,2011,52.

B:Lepore,Jill.“DickensinEden.”NewYorker,August29,2011.

Ifyouciteadepartmentorcolumnthatappearsregularly,capitalizeitheadlinestyleanddonotencloseitinquotationmarks.

N:2.BarbaraWallraff,WordCourt,AtlanticMonthly,June2005,128.

MagazinesconsultedonlineshouldincludeanaccessdateandaURL(see15.4.1.3).Typicallytherewillbenopagenumbersto

cite.

N:7.RobinBlack,“PresidentObama:WhyDonʼtYouReadMoreWomen?,”Salon,August24,2011,accessedOctober30,

2011,http://www.salon.com/books/writing/index.html?story=/books/feature/2011/08/24/obama_summer_reading.

B:Black,Robin.“PresidentObama:WhyDonʼtYouReadMoreWomen?”Salon,August24,2011.AccessedOctober30,2011.

http://www.salon.com/books/writing/index.html?story=/books/feature/2011/08/24/obama_summer_reading.

17.4NewspaperArticles

17.4.1NameofNewspaper

ForEnglish-languagenewspapers,omitaninitialTheinthenameofthenewspaper.Ifthenamedoesnotincludeacity,addittothe

officialtitle,exceptforwell-knownnationalpaperssuchastheWallStreetJournalandtheChristianScienceMonitor.Ifanameis

sharedbymanycitiesorisobscure,youmayaddthestateorprovinceinparentheses(usuallyabbreviated;see24.3.1).Forforeign

116

newspapers,retainaninitialarticleifitisformallypartofthename,andaddcitynamesaftertitlesforclarity,ifnecessary.

ChicagoTribune

SaintPaul(AlbertaorAB)Journal

LeMonde

Times(London)

17.4.2CitingNewspapersinNotes

Inmostcases,citearticlesandotherpiecesfromnewspapersonlyinnotes.Includeaspecificarticleinyourbibliographyonlyifitis

criticaltoyourargumentorfrequentlycitedorboth.

Followthegeneralpatternforcitationofarticlesinmagazines(see17.3).Omitpagenumbers,evenforaprintededition,because

anewspapermayhaveseveraleditionsinwhichitemsmayappearondifferentpagesormayevenbedropped.Youmayclarifywhich

editionyouconsultedbyaddingfinaledition,Midwestedition,orsomesuchidentifier.Articlesreadonlineshouldincludeanaccess

dateandaURL.Forarticlesobtainedthroughacommercialdatabase,youmaygivethenameofthedatabaseinstead.See15.4.1for

moredetails.

N:4.Editorial,MilwaukeeJournalSentinel,March31,2012.

5.ChristopherO.Ward,lettertotheeditor,NewYorkTimes,August28,2011.

10.MelGussow,obituaryforElizabethTaylor,NewYorkTimes,March24,2011,NewYorkedition.

13.Saifal-lslamGaddafi,interviewbySimonDenyer,WashingtonPost,April17,2011,accessedSeptember3,2011,

http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/an-interview-with-saif-al-islam-gaddafi-son-of-the-libyan-

leader/2011/04/17/AF4RXVwD_story.html.

18.AssociatedPress,“Ex-IMFChiefReturnsHometoFrance,”USAToday,September4,2011,accessedSeptember4,

2011,http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/story/2011-09-04/Ex-IMF-chief-returns-home-to-France/50254614/1.

22.RichardSimon,“RedistrictingCouldCostCaliforniaSomeCloutinWashington,”LosAngelesTimes,August28,2011,

accessedAugust30,2011,http://www.latimes.com/news/local/la-me-california-congress-20110829,0,1873016.story

29.MarkLepage,“Armageddon,Apocalypse,theRapture:PeopleHaveBeenPredictingtheEndsincetheBeginning,”

Gazette(Montreal),May21,2011,accessedDecember20,2012,LexisNexisAcademic.

ArticlesfromSunday magazine supplementsorotherspecialsectionsshouldbetreatedasyouwouldmagazinearticles(see

17.3).

17.4.3CitingNewspapersinText

Often,youwillbeabletociteanarticlebyweavingseveralkeyelementsintoyourtext.Ataminimum,includethenameanddateof

thepaperandtheauthorofthearticle(ifany).Someofthisinformationcanappearinparentheses,evenifitdoesnotfollowthe

formforparentheticalnotesdescribedin16.4.3.

InaNewYorkTimesarticleonthebrawlinBeijing(August19,2011),AndrewJacobscomparestheofficialresponseswith

thosepostedtosocialmedianetworks.

InanarticlepublishedintheNewYorkTimesonAugust19,2011,AndrewJacobscomparestheofficialresponsestothebrawl

inBeijingwiththosepostedtosocialmedianetworks.

17.5AdditionalTypesofPublishedSources

Thereareseveraladditionaltypesofpublishedmaterialthathavespecialrequirementsforcitations.

17.5.1Classical,Medieval,andEarlyEnglishLiteraryWorks

LiteraryworksproducedinclassicalGreeceandRome,medievalEurope,andRenaissanceEnglandareciteddifferentlyfrom

modernliteraryworks.Thesesourcesareoftenorganizedintonumberedsections(books,lines,stanzas,andsoforth)thatare

generallycitedinplaceofpagenumbers.Becausesuchworkshavebeenpublishedinsomanyversionsandtranslationsoverthe

centuries,thefactsofpublicationformoderneditionsaregenerallylessimportantthaninothertypesofcitations.

Forthisreason,classical,medieval,andearlyEnglishliteraryworksshouldusuallybecitedonlyinfootnotesor,forfrequently

citedworks,inparentheticalnotes(see16.4.3),asinthefirstexamplebelow.Includetheauthor sname,thetitle,andthesection

number(giveninarabicnumerals).Seebelowregardingdifferencesinpunctuation,abbreviations,andnumbersamongdifferent

typesofworks.

TheeightydaysofinactivityreportedbyThucydides(8.44.4)forthePeloponnesianfleetatRhodes,terminatingbeforetheend

ofwinter(8.60.2–3),suggests…

N:3.Ovid,Amores1.7.27.

8.Beowulf,lines2401–7

11.Spenser,TheFaerieQueene,bk.2,canto8,st.14.

Ifyourpaperisinliterarystudiesoranotherfieldconcernedwithcloseanalysisoftexts,orifdifferencesintranslationsare

relevant,includesuchworksinyourbibliography.Followtherulesforothertranslatedandeditedbooksin17.1.1.1.

117

N:35.Propertius,Elegies,ed.andtrans.G.P.Goold,LoebClassicalLibrary18(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,

1990),45.

B:Aristotle.CompleteWorksofAristotle:TheRevisedOxfordTranslation.EditedbyJ.Barnes.2vols.Princeton,NJ:Princeton

UniversityPress,1983.

17.5.1.1CLASSICALWORKS.Inadditiontothegeneralprincipleslistedabove,thefollowingrulesapplytocitationsofclassicalworks.

Usenopunctuationbetweenthetitleofaworkandalineorsectionnumber.Numericaldivisionsareseparatedbyperiods

withoutspaces.Usearabicnumerals(andlowercaseletters,ifneeded)forsectionnumbers.Putcommasbetweentwoormore

citationsofthesamesourceandsemicolonsbetweencitationsofdifferentsources.

N:5.Aristophanes,Frogs1019–30.

6.Cicero,InVerrem2.1.21,2.3.120;Tacitus,Germania10.2–3.

10.Aristotle,Metaphysics3.2.996b5–8;Plato,Republic360e–361b.

Youcanabbreviatethenamesofauthors,works,collections,andsoforth.Themostwidelyacceptedabbreviationsappearinthe

OxfordClassicalDictionary.Usetheseabbreviationsratherthanibid.insucceedingreferencestothesamework.Inthefirst

example,theauthor(Thucydides)standsinforthetitlesonocommaisneeded.

N:9.Thuc.2.40.40–3.

14.Pindar,Isthm.7.43–45.

17.5.1.2MEDIEVALWORKS.Theformforclassicalreferencesworksequallywellformedievalworkswritteninlanguagesotherthan

English.

N:27.Augustine,DecivitateDei20.2.

31.Abelard,Epistle17toHeloïse(Migne,PL180.375c–378a).

17.5.1.3EARLYENGLISHWORKS.Inadditiontothegeneralprincipleslistedabove,thefollowingrulesapplytocitationsofearlyEnglish

literaryworks.

Citepoemsandplaysbybook,canto,andstanza;stanzaandline;act,scene,andline;orsimilardivisions.

N:1.Chaucer,“WifeofBathʼsPrologue,”CanterburyTales,lines105–14.

3.Milton,ParadiseLost,book1,lines83–86.

Youmayshortennumbereddivisionsbyomittingwordssuchasactandline,usingasystemsimilartotheoneforclassical

references(see17.5.1.1).Besuretoexplainyoursysteminthefirstnote.

N:3.Milton,ParadiseLost1.83–86(referencesaretobookandlinenumbers).

Ifeditionsdifferinwording,linenumbering,andevenscenedivision commoninworksofShakespeare includetheworkin

yourbibliography,witheditionspecified.Ifyoudonothaveabibliography,specifytheeditioninthefirstnote.

B:Shakespeare,William.Hamlet.EditedbyAnnThompsonandNeilTaylor.ArdenShakespeare3.London:ArdenShakespeare,

2006.

17.5.2TheBibleandOtherSacredWorks

CitetheBibleandsacredworksofotherreligioustraditionsinfootnotes,endnotes,orparentheticalnotes(see16.4.3).Youdonot

needtoincludetheseworksinyourbibliography.

ForcitationsfromtheBible,includetheabbreviatednameofthebook,thechapternumber,andtheversenumber neverapage

number.Dependingonthecontext,youmayuseeithertraditionalorshorterabbreviationsforthenamesofbooks(see24.6);

consultyourinstructorifyouareunsurewhichformisappropriate.Usearabicnumeralsforchapterandversenumbers(witha

colonbetweenthem)andfornumberedbooks.

Traditionalabbreviations:

N:4.1Thess.4:11,5:2–5,5:14.

Shorterabbreviations:

N:5.2Sm11:1–17,11:26–27;1Chr10:13–14.

Sincebooksandnumberingdifferamongversionsofthescriptures,identifytheversionyouareusinginyourfirstcitation,with

eitherthespelled-outnameoranacceptedabbreviation(see24.6.4).

N:6.2Kings11:8(NewRevisedStandardVersion).

7.1Cor.6:1–10(NAB).

Forcitationsfromthesacredworksofotherreligioustraditions,adaptthegeneralpatternforbiblicalcitationsasappropriate(see

24.6.5).

118

17.5.3ReferenceWorks

Well-knownreferenceworks,suchasmajordictionariesandencyclopedias,shouldusuallybecitedonlyinnotes.Yougenerallyneed

notincludetheminyourbibliography,althoughyoumaychoosetoincludeaspecificworkthatiscriticaltoyourargumentor

frequentlycited.Withinthenote,youmayomitthefactsofpublication,butyoumustspecifytheedition(ifnotthefirst,orunlessno

editionisspecified).ItemsconsultedonlinewillrequireanaccessdateandaURL(see15.4.1.3).Foraworkarrangedbykeyterms

suchasadictionaryorencyclopedia,citetheitem(notthevolumeorpagenumber)precededbys.v.(subverbo, undertheword ;

p1.s.vv.)

N:1.OxfordEnglishDictionary,3rded.,s.v.“mondegreen,”accessedFebruary1,2012,

http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/251801.

2.EncyclopaediaBritannica,s.v.“Sibelius,Jean,”accessedApril13,2011,http://

www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/542563/Jean-Sibelius.

Forreferenceworksthataremorespecializedorlesswellknown,includethepublicationdetailsinyournotes,andlistthework

inyourbibliography.

N:4.MLAStyleManualandGuidetoScholarlyPublishing,3rded.(NewYork:ModernLanguageAssociationofAmerica,

2008),6.8.2.

B:Aulestia,Gorka.Basque-EnglishDictionary.Reno:UniversityofNevadaPress,1989.

17.5.4Reviews

Reviewsofbooks,performances,andsoforthmayappearinavarietyofperiodicalsandshouldusuallybecitedonlyinanote.

Includeaspecificreviewinyourbibliographyonlyifitiscriticaltoyourargumentorfrequentlycited.

Includethenameofthereviewer;thewordsreviewof,followedbythenameoftheworkreviewedanditsauthor(orcomposer,

director,andsoforth);anyotherpertinentinformation(suchasfilmstudioorlocationofaperformance);and,finally,theperiodical

inwhichthereviewappeared.Ifthereviewwasconsultedonline,includeanaccessdateandURL(see15.4.1.3).

N:7.DavidMalitz,reviewofconcertperformancebyBobDylan,MerriweatherPostPavilion,Columbia,MD,WashingtonPost,

August17,2011,accessedAugust31,2011,http://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/music-review-bob-dylan-at-

merriweather-post-pavilion/2011/08/17/glQAeb1DMJ_story.htmI.

15.A.O.Scott,reviewofTheDebt,directedbyJohnMadden,MiramaxFilms,NewYorkTimes,August31,2011.

B:Mokyr,Joel.ReviewofNaturalExperimentsofHistory,editedbyJaredDiamondandJamesA.Robinson.AmericanHistorical

Review116,no.3(June2011):752–55.AccessedDecember9,2011.http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/ahr.116.3752.

17.5.5Abstracts

Youcanciteinformationintheabstractofajournalarticle,dissertation,orotherworkinanote.Includethefullcitationofthework

beingabstractedandinsertthewordabstractwithinthecitation,followingthetitle.

N:13.CampbellBrown,“ConsequentializeThis,”abstract,Ethics121,no.4(July2011):749.

Inyourbibliography,citethefullarticleorotherworkandnottheabstract.

17.5.6PamphletsandReports

Citeapamphlet,corporatereport,brochure,oranotherfreestandingpublicationasyouwouldabook.Ifyoulackdataforsomeof

theusualelements,suchasauthorandpublisher,giveenoughotherinformationtoidentifythedocument.Suchsourcesshould

usuallybecitedonlyinnotes.Includesuchaniteminyourbibliographyonlyifitiscriticaltoyourargumentorfrequentlycited.

SourcesconsultedonlineshouldincludeanaccessdateandaURL(see15.4.1.3).

N:34.HazelV.Clark,Mesopotamia:BetweenTwoRivers(Mesopotamia,OH:EndoftheCommonsGeneralStore,1957).

35.TIAA-CREFLifeFunds:2011SemiannualReport(NewYork:TIAA-CREFFinancialServices,2011),85–94,accessed

October5,2011,http://www.tiaa-cref.org/public/prospectuses/lifefunds_semi_ar.pdf.

17.5.7MicroformEditions

Worksthatyouhaveconsultedinmicroformeditionsshouldbecitedaccordingtotype(book,newspaperarticle,dissertation,andso

forth).Inaddition,specifytheformofpublication(fiche,microfilm,andsoforth)afterthefactsofpublication.Inanote,includea

locatorifpossible.Inthefirstexamplebelow,thepagenumber(identifiedwiththeabbreviationp.forclarity)appearswithinthe

printedtextonthefiche;theothernumbersindicatetheficheandframe,andtheletterindicatestherow.

N:5.BeatriceFarwell,FrenchPopularLithographicImagery,vol.12,LithographyinArtandCommerce(Chicago:Universityof

ChicagoPress,1995),text-fiche,p.67,3C12.

B:Tauber,Abraham.“SpellingReformintheUnitedStates.”PhDdiss.,ColumbiaUniversity,1958.Microfilm.

17.5.8CD-ROMsorDVD-ROMs

119

CiteworkspublishedonCD-orDVD-ROMasyouwouldanalogousprintedworks,mostoftenbooks.

N:11.CompleteNationalGeographic:EveryIssuesince1888of“NationalGeographic”Magazine,DVD-ROM(Washington,

DC:NationalGeographic,2010),disc2.

B:OxfordEnglishDictionary.2nded.CD-ROM,version4.0.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2009.

17.5.9OnlineCollections

ThenameofawebsitesuchasPerseusthatisdevotedentirelytoaspecificsubjectareaortoacollectionofsimilarresourcesmaybe

importantenoughtomentioninyourcitationofaspecificpublication.Inthisway,sucharesourceissimilartoaphysical

manuscriptcollection(see17.6.4).Inadditiontothepublicationinformation,includethenameofthecollectionandanaccessdate

andURL(see15.4.1.3).

N:1.PlinytheElder,TheNaturalHistory,ed.JohnBostockandH.T.Riley(1855),inthePerseusDigitalLibrary,accessedMay

15,2011,http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=:text:1999.02.0137.

Inthebibliography,ifyouhavecitedmorethanonesourcefromthecollection,youmayalsocitethecollectionasawhole(in

whichcaseanaccessdateisunnecessary).

B:PerseusDigitalLibrary.EditedbyGregoryR.Crane.http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/.

17.6UnpublishedSources

Sourcesthathaveneverbeenpublishedcanbemoredifficultforreaderstolocatethanpublishedones,becausetheyoftenexistin

onlyoneplaceandtypicallylackofficialpublicationinformation.Whencitingsuchsources,itisespeciallyimportanttoincludeallof

theinformationlistedbelowtogivereadersasmuchhelpaspossible.

Titlesofunpublishedworksaregiveninromantype,enclosedinquotationmarks,andnotitalicized.Thisformatdifference

distinguishesthemfromsimilarbutpublishedworks.CapitalizeEnglish-languagetitlesheadlinestyle.

17.6.1ThesesandDissertations

Thesesanddissertationsarecitedmuchlikebooksexceptforthetitle,whichisinromantypeandenclosedinquotationmarks.After

theauthorandtitle,listthekindofthesis,theacademicinstitution,andthedate.Likethepublicationdataofabook,theseare

enclosedinparenthesesinanotebutnotinabibliography.Abbreviatedissertationasdiss.Thewordunpublishedisunnecessary.If

you veconsultedthedocumentonline,includeanaccessdateandaURL.IfarecommendedURLislistedalongwiththedocument,

usethatinsteadoftheoneinyourbrowser saddressbar.Ifyouconsultedthedocumentinalibraryorcommercialdatabase,you

maygivethenameofthedatabaseinsteadoftheURL.See15.4.1formoredetails.

N:1.KarenLeighCulcasi,“CartographicRepresentationsofKurdistaninthePrintMedia”(masterʼsthesis,SyracuseUniversity,

2003),15.

3.DanaS.Levin,“LetʼsTalkaboutSex…Education:ExploringYouthPerspectives,ImplicitMessages,andUnexamined

ImplicationsofSexEducationinSchools”(PhDdiss.,UniversityofMichigan,2010),101–2,accessedMarch13,2012,

http://hdl.handle.net/2027.42/75809.

4.AfrahDaaimahRichmond,“UnmaskingtheBostonBrahmin:RaceandLiberalismintheLongStruggleforReformat

HarvardandRadcliffe,1945–1990”(PhDdiss.,NewYorkUniversity,2011),211–12,accessedSeptember25,2011,ProQuest

Dissertations&Theses.

B:Levin,DanaS.“LetʼsTalkaboutSex…Education:ExploringYouthPerspectives,ImplicitMessages,andUnexamined

ImplicationsofSexEducationinSchools.”PhDdiss.,UniversityofMichigan,2010.AccessedMarch13,2012.

http://hdl.handle.net/2027.42/75809.

17.6.2LecturesandPapersPresentedatMeetings

Aftertheauthorandtitleofthespeechorpaper,listthesponsorship,location,anddateofthemeetingatwhichitwasgiven.Enclose

thisinformationinparenthesesinanotebutnotinabibliography.Thewordunpublishedisunnecessary.Ifyouconsultedatextor

transcriptofthelectureorpaperonline,includeanaccessdateandaURL(see15.4.1.3).Ifyouwatchedorlistenedtothe

presentationonline,adapttheexamplesheretotheadviceat17.8.3.5.

N:2.GregoryR.Crane,“ContextualizingEarlyModernReligioninaDigitalWorld”(lecture,NewberryLibrary,Chicago,

September16,2011).

7.IrineudeCarvalhoFilhoandRenatoP.Colistete,“EducationPerformance:WasItAllDetermined100YearsAgo?

EvidencefromSãoPaulo,Brazil”(paperpresentedatthe70thannualmeetingoftheEconomicHistoryAssociation,Evanston,

IL,September24–26,2010),6–7,accessedJanuary22,2012,http://mpra.ub.uni-

muenchen.de/24494/1/MPRA_paper_24494.pdf.

B:Pateman,Carole.“ParticipatoryDemocracyRevisited.”Presidentialaddress,annualmeetingoftheAmericanPoliticalScience

Association,Seattle,September1,2011.

17.6.3InterviewsandPersonalCommunications

120

Unpublishedinterviews(includingthoseyouhaveconductedyourself)shouldusuallybecitedonlyinnotes.Includeaspecific

interviewinyourbibliographyonlyifitiscriticaltoyourargumentorfrequentlycited.Beginthenotewiththenamesoftheperson

interviewedandtheinterviewer;alsoincludetheplaceanddateoftheinterview(ifknown)andthelocationofanytapesor

transcripts(ifavailable).Noticetheformforashortenednote,whichdiffersfromtheusualpattern(see16.4.1).(Foranexampleofa

publishedinterview,see17.4.2.Forbroadcastinterviews,see17.8.3.3.)

N:7.DavidShields,interviewbyauthor,Seattle,February15,2011.

14.BenjaminSpock,interviewbyMiltonJ.E.Senn,November20,1974,interview67A,transcript,SennOralHistory

Collection,NationalLibraryofMedicine,Bethesda,MD.

17.Macmillan,interview;Spock,interview.

Ifyoucannotrevealthenameofthepersoninterviewed,citeitinaformappropriatetothecontext.Explaintheabsenceofa

name( Allinterviewswereconfidential;thenamesofintervieweesarewithheldbymutualagreement )inanoteorapreface.

N:10.Interviewwithahealthcareworker,March23,2010.

Citeconversations,letters,e-mailortextmessages,andthelikeonlyinnotes.Thekeyelementsarethenameoftheotherperson,

thetypeofcommunication,andthedateofthecommunication.Inmanycases,youmaybeabletouseaparentheticalnote(see

16.4.3)orincludesomeorallofthisinformationinthetext.Omite-mailaddresses.Tocitepostingstosocialnetworkingservices,

see17.7.3;fordiscussiongroupsandmailinglists,see17.7.4.

N:2.MaxineGreene,e-mailmessagetoauthor,April23,2012.

InatelephoneconversationwiththeauthoronJanuary1,2012,MayanstudiesexpertMelissaRamirezconfidedthat…

17.6.4ManuscriptCollections

Documentsfromphysicalcollectionsofunpublishedmanuscriptsinvolvemorecomplicatedandvariedelementsthanpublished

sources.Inyourcitations,includeasmuchidentifyinginformationasyoucan,formattheelementsconsistently,andadaptthe

generalpatternsoutlinedhereasneeded.

17.6.4.1ELEMENTSTOINCLUDEANDTHEIRORDER.Ifpossible,identifytheauthoranddateofeachitem,thetitleortypeofdocument,

thenameofthecollection,andthenameofthedepository.Inanote,beginwiththeauthor sname;ifadocumenthasatitlebutno

author,orthetitleismoreimportantthantheauthor,listthetitlefirst.

N:5.GeorgeCreeltoColonelHouse,September25,1918,EdwardM.HousePapers,YaleUniversityLibrary,NewHaven,CT.

23.JamesOglethorpetotheTrustees,January13,1733,PhillippsCollectionofEgmontManuscripts,14200:13,Universityof

GeorgiaLibrary,Athens(hereaftercitedasEgmontMSS).

24.BurtontoMerriam,telegram,January26,1923,box26,folder17,CharlesE.MerriamPapers,UniversityofChicago

Library.

31.MinutesoftheCommitteeforImprovingtheConditionofFreeBlacks,PennsylvaniaAbolitionSociety,1790–1803,Papers

ofthePennsylvaniaSocietyfortheAbolitionofSlavery,HistoricalSocietyofPennsylvania,Philadelphia(hereaftercitedas

Minutes,PennsylvaniaSociety).

44.MemorandumbyAlvinJohnson,1937,file36,HoraceKallenPapers,YIVOInstitute,NewYork.

45.JosephPurcell,“AMapoftheSouthernIndianDistrictofNorthAmerica”[ca.1772],MS228,AyerCollection,Newberry

Library,Chicago.

Forshortenednotes,adapttheusualpatternofelements(see16.4.1)toaccommodatetheavailableinformationandidentifythe

documentunambiguously.

N:46.R.S.BakertoHouse,November1,1919,HousePapers.

47.Minutes,April15,1795,PennsylvaniaSociety.

Ifyouciteonlyonedocumentfromacollectionanditiscriticaltoyourargumentorfrequentlycitedwithinyourpaper,youmay

choosetoincludeitinyourbibliography.Begintheentrywiththeauthor sname;ifadocumenthasatitlebutnoauthor,orthetitle

ismoreimportantthantheauthor,listthetitlefirst.

B:Dinkel,Joseph.DescriptionofLouisAgassizwrittenattherequestofElizabethCaryAgassiz.AgassizPapers.HoughtonLibrary,

HarvardUniversity,Cambridge,MA.

Ifyoucitemultipledocumentsfromacollection,listthecollectionasawholeinyourbibliography,underthenameofthe

collection,theauthor(s)oftheitemsinthecollection,orthedepository.Forsimilartypesofunpublishedmaterialthathavenotbeen

placedinarchives,replaceinformationaboutthecollectionwithsuchwordingas intheauthor spossession or privatecollection,

anddonotmentionthelocation.

B:EgmontManuscripts.PhillippsCollection.UniversityofGeorgiaLibrary,Athens.

House,EdwardM.,Papers.YaleUniversityLibrary,NewHaven,CT.

PennsylvaniaSocietyfortheAbolitionofSlavery.Papers.HistoricalSocietyofPennsylvania,Philadelphia.

Strother,French,andEdwardLowry.Undatedcorrespondence.HerbertHooverPresidentialLibrary,WestBranch,IA.

121

WomenʼsOrganizationforNationalProhibitionReform.Papers.AliceBelinduPontfiles,PierreS.duPontPapers.Eleutherian

MillsHistoricalLibrary,Wilmington,DE.

17.6.4.2HOWTOFORMATTHEELEMENTS.Herearesomespecialformattingrecommendationsfordocumentsinmanuscriptcollections.

■Specificversusgenerictitles.Usequotationmarksforspecifictitlesofdocumentsbutnotforgenerictermssuchasreportand

minutes.Capitalizegenericnamesofthiskindonlyiftheyarepartofaformalheadinginthemanuscript,notiftheyaremerely

descriptive.

■Locatinginformation.Althoughsomemanuscriptsmayincludepagenumbersthatcanbeincludedinnotes,manywillhaveother

typesoflocators,ornoneatall.Oldermanuscriptsareusuallynumberedbysignaturesonlyorbyfolios(fol.,fols.)ratherthanby

page.Somemanuscriptcollectionshaveidentifyingseriesorfilenumbersthatyoucanincludeinacitation.

■Papersandmanuscripts.Intitlesofmanuscriptcollectionsthetermspapersandmanuscriptsaresynonymous.Bothare

acceptable,asaretheabbreviationsMSandMSS(plural).

■Letters.Tocitealetterinanote,startwiththenameoftheletterwriter,followedbytoandthenameoftherecipient.Youmay

omitfirstnamesiftheidentitiesofthesenderandtherecipientareclearfromthetext.Omitthewordletter,whichisunderstood,

butforotherformsofcommunication,specifythetype(telegram,memorandum).Forlettersinpublishedcollections,see17.1.9.

17.7Websites,Blogs,SocialNetworks,andDiscussionGroups

Materialpostedorsharedonwebsites,blogs,socialnetworks,andthelikemaylackoneormoreofthestandardfactsofpublication

(author,title,publisher,ordate).InadditiontoanaccessdateandaURL(see15.4.1.3),youmustincludeenoughinformationto

positivelyidentifyand(ifpossible)locateasourceeveniftheURLchangesorbecomesobsolete.

17.7.1Websites

Fororiginalcontentfromonlinesourcesotherthanbooksorperiodicals(see15.4.1.2),includeasmuchofthefollowingasyoucan

determine:author,titleofthepage(inromantype,enclosedinquotationmarks),titleorownerofthesite(usuallyinromantype;

see22.3.2.3),andpublicationorrevisiondate.AlsoincludeanaccessdateandaURL(see15.4.1.3).Normally,youcanlimitcitations

ofwebsitecontenttothenotes.Includeaspecificiteminyourbibliographyonlyifitiscriticaltoyourargumentorfrequentlycited

orboth.

N:8.SusannahBrooks,“LongtimeLibraryDirectorReflectsonaCareerattheCrossroads,”UniversityofWisconsin-Madison

News,September1,2011,accessedMay14,2012,http://www.news.wisc.edu/19704.

15.“PrivacyPolicy,”GooglePrivacyCenter,lastmodifiedOctober3,2010,accessedMarch3,2011,

http://www.google.com/intl/en/privacypolicy.html.

18.“ToySafety,”McDonaldʼsCanada,accessedNovember30,2011,

http://www.mcdonalds.ca/en/community/toysafety.aspx.

23.“WikipediaManualofStyle,”Wikipedia,lastmodifiedSeptember2,2011,accessedSeptember3,2011,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style.

Inabibliography,wherethereisnoauthor,thesourceshouldbelistedunderthetitleofthewebsiteorthenameofitsowneror

sponsor.

B:Google.“PrivacyPolicy.”GooglePrivacyCenter.LastmodifiedOctober3,2010.AccessedMarch3,2011.

http://www.google.com/intl/en/privacypolicy.html.

17.7.2BlogEntriesandComments

Blogentriesarecitedmuchlikearticlesinnewspapers(see17.4).Includeasmuchofthefollowingasyoucandetermine:theauthor

oftheentry,atitle(inquotationmarks),thenameoftheblog(initalics),andthedatetheentrywasposted.Alsoincludeanaccess

dateandaURL(see15.4.1.3).Givetheblogger snameexactlyaslisted,evenifitisclearlyapseudonym;iftheblogger srealname

canbeeasilydetermined,includeitinbrackets.Ifthetitleoftheblogdoesnotmakethegenreclear,youmayindicate blog in

parentheses.Iftheblogispartofalargerpublication,givethenameofthepublicationafterthetitleoftheblog.Citationsofblog

entriescanusuallybelimitedtonotes.Includeaspecificentryinyourbibliographyonlyifitiscriticaltoyourargumentor

frequentlycitedorboth.

N:5.GaryBecker,“IsCapitalisminCrisis?,”TheBecker-PosnerBlog,February12,2012,accessedFebruary16,2012,

http://www.becker-posner-blog.com/2012/02/is-capitalism-in-crisis-becker.html.

7.TheSubversiveCopyEditor[CarolFisherSaller],“StillLearning:FunLanguageWords,”TheSubversiveCopyEditor

Blog,February16,2011,accessedFebruary28,2011,http://www.subversivecopyeditor.com/blog/2011/02/still-learningfun-

language-words.html.

8.DickCavett,“Flying?IncreasinglyfortheBirds,”Opinionator(blog),NewYorkTimes,August19,2011,accessedOctober

14,2011,http://www.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/08/19/flying-increasingly-for-the-birds/

12.JohnMcWhorterandJoshuaKnobe,“BlackMartianLinguists,”Bloggingheads.tv(videoblog),August26,2011,

accessedNovember7,2011,http://bloggingheads.tv/diavlogs/38530?in=:00&out=:03.

B:Becker,Gary.“IsCapitalisminCrisis?”TheBecker-PosnerBlog,February12,2012.AccessedFebruary16,2012.

http://www.becker-posner-blog.com/2012/02/is-capitalism-in-crisis-becker.html.

Tociteareader scomment,followthebasicpatternforblogentries,butfirstidentifythecommenterandthedateandtimeofthe

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comment.Givethecommenter snameexactlyaslisted,evenifitisclearlyapseudonym.Forcommentstoblogentriesalreadycited

inthenotes,useashortenedform(see16.4.1).

N:9.RomanGil,comment,September4,2011(2:14p.m.ET),on“SecondThoughtsabouttheDebtDebacle,”DanielW.

Drezner(blog),ForeignPolicy,September1,2011,accessedDecember2,2011,

http://www.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2011/09/01/second_thoughts_about_the_debt_debacle.

11.Mr.FeelGood,comment,February14,2012(1:37a.m.),onBecker,“IsCapitalisminCrisis?”

17.7.3SocialNetworkingServices

Informationpostedonsocialnetworkingservicesshouldbecitedonlyinthenotes.Listtheidentityoftheposter(ifknownandnot

mentionedinthetext),thenameoftheservice,andthedateandtimeofthepost.EndthecitationwithanaccessdateandaURL

(see15.4.1.3).

N:11.SarahPalin,Twitterpost,August25,2011(10:23p.m.),accessedSeptember4,2011,http://twitter.com/sarahpalinusa.

12.ObamaforAmerica,posttoBarackObamaʼsFacebookpage,September4,2011(6:53a.m.),accessedSeptember22,

2011,https://www.facebook.com/barackobama.

13.CommentonSarahPalinʼsFacebookpage,April1,2011(3:21p.m.),accessedDecember8,2011,

https://www.facebook.com/sarahpalin.

Aswithnewspaperarticles(see17.4.3),youmaychoosetoweavesuchinformationintothetextratherthancitingitinthenotes.

Besuretopreserveenoughinformationtoallowreaderstoidentifythesource.

InamessagepostedtoherTwittersiteonAugust25,2011(at10:23p.m.),SarahPalin(@SarahPalinUSA)notedthat…

17.7.4ElectronicDiscussionGroupsandMailingLists

Tocitematerialfromanelectronicdiscussiongroupormailinglist,includethenameofthecorrespondent,thetitleoftheforumor

subjectlineofthee-mailmessage(inquotationmarks),thenameoftheforumorlist,andthedateandtimeofthemessageorpost.

Omite-mailaddresses.Givethecorrespondent snameexactlyaslisted,evenifitisclearlyapseudonym.Ifthematerialisarchived

online,includeanaccessdateandaURL.Aswithpersonalcommunications(see17.6.3),suchitemsshouldbecitedonlyinanote.

N:17.DodgerFan,postto“TheAtomicBombingofJapan,”September1,2011(12:57:58p.m.PDT),Historyforum,

Amazon.com,accessedSeptember30,2011,http://www.amazon.com/forum/history/.

18.SharonNaylor,“RemovingaThesis,”e-mailtoEduc.&BehaviorScienceALADiscussionList,August23,2011(1:47:54

p.m.ET),accessedJanuary31,2012,http://listserv.uncc.edu/archives/ebss-l.html.

Aswithnewspaperarticles(see17.4.3),youmaychoosetoweavesuchinformationintothetextratherthancitingitinthenotes.

Besuretopreserveenoughinformationtoallowreaderstoidentifythesource.

SharonNaylor,inhere-mailofAugust23,2011,totheEduc.&BehaviorScienceALADiscussionList

(http://listserv.uncc.edu/archives/ebss-l.html),pointedoutthat…

17.8SourcesintheVisualandPerformingArts

Thevisualandperformingartsgenerateavarietyofsources,includingartworks,liveperformances,broadcasts,recordingsin

variousmedia,andtexts.Citingsomeofthesesourcescanbedifficultwhentheylackthetypesofidentifyinginformationcommonto

publishedsources.Includeasmuchidentifyinginformationasyoucan,formattheelementsconsistently,andadaptthegeneral

patternsoutlinedhereasneeded.

Someofthesourcescoveredinthissection,wherenoted,canbecitedinnotesonlyorbyweavingthekeyelementsintoyourtext,

althoughyoumaychoosetoincludeaspecificiteminyourbibliographythatiscriticaltoyourargumentorfrequentlycited.Ifyour

paperisforacourseinthearts,mediastudies,orasimilarfield,consultyourinstructor.

17.8.1ArtworksandGraphics

17.8.1.1PAINTINGS,SCULPTURES,ANDPHOTOGRAPHS.Citepaintings,sculptures,photographs,drawings,andthelikeonlyinnotes.

Includethenameoftheartist,thetitleoftheartwork(initalics)anddateofitscreation(precededbyca.[circa]ifapproximate),and

thenameoftheinstitutionthathousesit(ifany),includinglocation.Youmayalsoincludethemedium,ifrelevant.Forimages

consultedonline,includeanaccessdateandaURL.

N:7.GeorgiaOʼKeeffe,TheCliffChimneys,1938,MilwaukeeArtMuseum.

11.Michelangelo,David,1501–4,GalleriadellʼAccademia,Florence.

24.AnselAdams,NorthDome,BasketDome,MountHoffman,Yosemite,ca.1935,SmithsonianAmericanArtMuseum,

Washington,DC.

29.ErichBuchholz,Untitled,1920,gouacheonpaper,MuseumofModernArt,NewYork,accessedDecember4,2011,

http://www.moma.org/collection/browse_results.php?object_id=38187.

Insteadofusinganote,youcansometimesciteartworksbyweavingtheelementsintoyourtext.Someoftheelementscan

appearinparentheses,eveniftheydonotfollowtheformforparentheticalnotesdescribedin16.4.3.

OʼKeeffefirstdemonstratedthistechniqueinTheCliffChimneys(1938,MilwaukeeArtMuseum).

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Ifyouviewedtheartworkinapublishedsourceandyourlocalguidelinesrequireyoutoidentifythissource,givethepublication

informationinplaceoftheinstitutionalnameandlocation.

N:7.GeorgiaOʼKeeffe,TheCliffChimneys,1938,inBarbaraBuhlerLynes,LesleyPoling-Kempes,andFrederickW.Turner,

GeorgiaOʼKeeffeandNewMexico:ASenseofPlace(Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,2004),25.

17.8.1.2GRAPHICARTS.Citegraphicsourcessuchasprintadvertisements,maps,cartoons,andsoforthonlyinnotes,adaptingthe

basicpatternsforartworksandgivingasmuchinformationaspossible.Giveanytitleorcaptioninromantype,enclosedin

quotationmarks,andidentifythetypeofgraphic,inparentheses,ifitisunclearfromthetitle.Foritemsconsultedonline,includean

accessdateandaURL.

N:12.Toyota,“WeSeebeyondCars”(advertisement),ArchitecturalDigest,January2010,57.

15.“RepublicofLetters:1700–1750”(interactivemap),MappingtheRepublicofletters,accessedFebruary28,2012,

https://republicofletters.stanford.edu/.

18.“DividebyZero”(Internetmeme),YoDawgPics,accessedDecember2,2012,http://yodawgpics.com/yo-dawg-

pictures/divide-by-zero.

17.8.2LivePerformances

Citelivetheatrical,musical,ordanceperformancesonlyinnotes.Includethetitleoftheworkperformed,theauthor,anykey

performersandanindicationoftheirroles,thevenueanditslocation,andthedate.Italicizethetitlesofplaysandlongmusical

compositions,butsetthetitlesofshorterworksinromantype,enclosedinquotationmarksexceptformusicalworksreferredtoby

genre(see22.3.2.3).Ifthecitationisfocusedonanindividual sperformance,listthatperson snamebeforethetitleofthework.

N:14.Spider-Man:TurnOfftheDark,byGlenBergerandJulieTaymor,musicandlyricsbyBonoandTheEdge,directedby

JulieTaymor,FoxwoodsTheater,NewYork,September10,2011.

16.SimoneDinnerstein,pianist,IntermezzoinA,op.118,no.2,byJohannesBrahms,PortlandCenterforthePerforming

Arts,Portland,OR,January15,2012.

Insteadofusinganote,youcansometimesciteliveperformancesbyweavingtheelementsintoyourtext.Someoftheelements

canappearinparentheses,eveniftheydonotfollowtheformforparentheticalnotesdescribedin16.4.3.

SimoneDinnersteinʼsperformanceofBrahmsʼsIntermezzoinA,op.118,no.2(January15,2012,atPortlandCenterforthe

PerformingArts),wasanythingbutintermediate…

Tociterecordingsandbroadcastsofliveperformances,addinformationaboutthemedium.See17.8.3 5forsimilartypesof

examples.

N:17.ArturRubinstein,pianist,“SpinningSong,”byFelixMendelssohn,AmbassadorCollege,Pasadena,CA,January15,

1975,onTheLastRecitalforIsrael,BMGClassics,1992,VHS.

17.8.3Movies,Television,Radio,andtheLike

Citationsofmovies,televisionshows,radioprograms,andthelikewillvarydependingonthetypeofsource.Ataminimum,identify

thetitleofthework,thedateitwasreleasedorbroadcastorotherwisemadeavailable,andthenameofthestudioorotherentity

responsibleforproducingordistributingorbroadcastingthework.Ifyouwatchedavideoorlistenedtoarecording,include

informationaboutthemedium.Ifyouconsultedthesourceonline,includeanaccessdateandaURL(see15.4.1.3).

17.8.3.1MOVIES.Inthenotes,listthetitleofthemovie(initalics)followedbythenameofthedirector,thenameofthecompanythat

producedordistributedthemovie,andyearthemoviewasreleased.Youmayalsoincludeinformationaboutwriters,actors,

producers,andsoforthifitisrelevanttoyourdiscussion.Unlessyouwatchedthemovieinatheater,includeinformationaboutthe

medium.

N:12.Crumb,directedbyTerryZwigoff(SuperiorPictures,1994),DVD(SonyPictures,2006).

14.FastTimesatRidgemontHigh,directedbyAmyHeckerling,screenplaybyCameronCrowe,featuringJenniferJason

LeighandSeanPenn(UniversalPictures,1982),DVD(2002).

15.HighArt,directedbyLisaCholodenko(OctoberFilms,1998),accessedSeptember6,2011,http://movies.netflix.com/.

18.A.E.Weed,AttheFootoftheFlatiron(AmericanMutoscopeandBiograph,1903),35mmfilm,fromLibraryofCongress,

TheLifeofaCity:EarlyFilmsofNewYork,1898–1906,MPEGvideo,2:19,accessedFebruary4,2011,

http://www.loc.gov/ammem/papr/nychome.html.

Inthebibliography,youcanlistthemovieeitherunderthenameofthedirector(followedbydir.)orunderthetitle.

B:Crumb.DirectedbyTerryZwigoff.SuperiorPictures,1994.DVD.SonyPictures,2006.

Zwigoff,Terry,dir.Crumb.SuperiorPictures,1994.DVD.SonyPictures,2006.

Informationaboutancillarymaterialincludedwiththemovieshouldbewovenintothetext.

124

Intheiraudiocommentary,producedtwentyyearsafterthereleaseoftheirfilm,HeckerlingandCroweagreethat…

17.8.3.2TELEVISIONANDRADIOPROGRAMS.Tociteatelevisionorradioprogram,include,ataminimum,thetitleoftheprogram,the

nameoftheepisodeorsegment,thedateonwhichitwasfirstairedormadeavailable,andtheentitythatproducedorbroadcastthe

work.Youmayalsoincludeanepisodenumber,thenameofthedirectororauthoroftheepisodeorsegment,and(ifrelevanttoyour

discussion)thenamesofkeyperformers.Italicizethetitlesofprograms,butsetthetitlesofepisodesorsegmentsinromantype,

enclosedinquotationmarks.Ifyouwatchedorlistenedtoarecordinginanythingotherthanitsoriginalbroadcastmedium,include

informationaboutthemedium.

N:2.“BumpsontheRoadBacktoWork,”TamaraKeith,AllThingsConsidered,airedSeptember5,2011,onNPR.

16.MadMen,season1,episode12,“Nixonvs.Kennedy,”directedbyAlanTaylor,airedOctober11,2007,onAMC,DVD

(LionsGateTelevision,2007),disc4.

19.30Rock,season5,episode22,“EverythingFunnyAlltheTimeAlways,”directedbyJohnRiggi,featuringTinaFey,Tracy

Morgan,JaneKrakowski,JackMcBrayer,ScottAd-sit,JudahFriedlander,andAlecBaldwin,airedApril28,2011,onNBC,

accessedMarch21,2012,http://www.hulu.com/30-rock/.

Insteadofusinganote,youcanoftencitesuchprogramsbyweavingthekeyelementsintoyourtext,especiallyifsomeorallof

theadditionalelementsarenotavailableorrelevanttothecitation.

MadMenuseshistoryandflashbackin“Nixonvs.Kennedy”(AMC,October11,2007),withacombinationofarchivaltelevision

footageand…

Inthebibliography,radioandtelevisionprogramsarenormallycitedbythetitleoftheprogramorseries.

B:MadMen.Season1,episode12,“Nixonvs.Kennedy.”DirectedbyAlanTaylor.AiredOctober11,2007,onAMC.DVD.Lions

GateTelevision,2007,disc4.

17.8.3.3INTERVIEWS.Tociteinterviewsontelevision,radio,andthelike,treatthepersoninterviewedastheauthor,andidentifythe

interviewerinthecontextofthecitation.Alsoincludetheprogramorpublicationanddateoftheinterview(orpublicationorair

date).Interviewsarenormallycitedonlyinthenotes.Listtheinterviewinyourbibliographyonlyifitiscriticaltoyourpaperor

frequentlycited.Forunpublishedinterviews,see17.6.3.

N:10.CondoleezzaRice,interviewbyJimLehrer,PBSNewsHour,July28,2005,accessedJuly7,2012,

http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/politics/jan-june05/rice_3-4.html.

12.LauraPoitras,interviewbyLorneManly,“The9/11Decade:ACulturalView”(video),NewYorkTimes,September2,

2011,accessedMarch11,2012,http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2011/09/02/us/sept-11-reckoning/artists.html.

17.8.3.4ADVERTISEMENTS.Citeadvertisementsfromtelevision,radio,andthelikeonlyinnotesorbyweavingtheelementsintoyour

text.

N:18.Doritos,“HealingChips,”advertisementairedonFoxSports,February6,2011,30seconds.

Aswithtelevisionshows(17.8.3.2),youcanoftenciteadvertisementsbyweavingthekeyelementsintoyourtextratherthan

usinganote,especiallyifsomeoralloftheadditionalelementsarenotavailableorrelevanttothecitation.

TheDoritosad“HealingChips,”whichairedduringSuperBowlXLV(FoxSports,February6,2011)…

17.8.3.5VIDEOSANDPODCASTS.Tociteavideoorapodcast,include,ataminimum,thenameanddescriptionoftheitemplusan

accessdateandaURL(see15.4.1.3).Theexamplesaboveformovies,television,andradio(17.8.3.1 4)maybeusedastemplatesfor

includinganyadditionalinformation.Givethecreator snameexactlyaslisted,evenifitisclearlyapseudonym;ifthecreator sreal

namecanbeeasilydetermined,includeitinbrackets.

N:13.Adele,“SomeonelikeYou”(musicvideo),directedbyJakeNava,postedOctober1,2011,accessedFebruary28,2012,

http://www.mtv.com/videos/adele/693356/someone-like-you.jhtml.

18.FredDonner,“HowIslamBegan”(videooflecture,AlumniWeekend2011,UniversityofChicago,June3,2011),

accessedJanuary5,2012,http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5RFK5u5lkhA.

40.MichaelShear,host,“TheSpatoverPresidentObamaʼsUpcomingJobsSpeech,”TheCaucus(MP3podcast),New

YorkTimes,September1,2011,accessedSeptember6,2011,http://www.nytimes.com/pages/podcasts/.

4.Luminosity,“WomensWork_SPN”(video),March5,2009,accessedApril22,2011,http://www.viddler.com/v/lf6d7f1f.

Citationsofvideosandpodcastscannormallybelimitedtothenotesor,likecitationsofnewspaperarticles,wovenintothetext

(see17.4.3).Ifasourceiscriticaltoyourpaperorfrequentlycited,however,youmayincludeitinyourbibliography.

B.Adele.“SomeonelikeYou”(musicvideo).DirectedbyJakeNava.PostedOctober1,2011.AccessedFebruary28,2012.

http://www.mtv.com/videos/adele/693356/someone-like-you.jhtml.

17.8.4SoundRecordings

Tocitearecording,includeasmuchinformationasyoucantodistinguishitfromsimilarrecordings,includingthedateofthe

recording,thenameoftherecordingcompany,theidentifyingnumberoftherecording,thecopyrightdate(ifdifferentfromtheyear

125

oftherecording),andthemedium.Titlesofalbumsshouldbeinitalics;individualselectionsshouldbeinquotationmarksexcept

formusicalworksreferredtobygenre(see22.3.2.3).AbbreviatecompactdiscasCD.Recordingsconsultedonlineshouldincludean

accessdateandaURL(see15.4.1.3).

N:11.BillieHoliday,“IʼmaFooltoWantYou,”byJoelHerron,FrankSinatra,andJackWolf,recordedFebruary20,1958,with

RayEllis,onLadyinSatin,ColumbiaCL1157,33⅓rpm.

14.LudwigvanBeethoven,PianoSonatano.29(“Hammerklavier”),RudolfSerkin,recordedDecember8–10,1969,and

December14–15,1970,SonyClassics,2005,MP3.

19.RichardStrauss,DonQuixote,withEmanuelFeuermann(violoncello)andthePhiladelphiaOrchestra,conductedby

EugeneOrmandy,recordedFebruary24,1940,BiddulphLAB042,1991,CD.

22.PinkFloyd,“AtomHeartMother,”recordedApril29,1970,FillmoreWest,SanFrancisco,streamingaudio,accessedJuly

7,2011,http://www.wolfgangsvault.com/pink-floyd/concerts/fillmore-west-april-29-1970.html.

Inthebibliographyyoucanlisttherecordingunderthenameofthecomposerortheperformer,dependingonwhichismore

relevanttoyourdiscussion.

B:Rubinstein,Artur.TheChopinCollection.Recorded1946,1958–67.RCAVictor/BMG60822–2-RG,1991.11CDs.

Shostakovich,Dmitri.Symphonyno.5/Symphonyno.9.ConductedbyLeonardBernstein.RecordedwiththeNewYork

Philharmonic,October20,1959(no.5),andOctober19,1965(no.9).SonySMK61841,1999.CD.

Treatrecordingsofdrama,proseorpoetryreadings,lectures,andthelikeasyouwouldmusicalrecordings.

N:6.DylanThomas,UnderMilkWood,performedbyDylanThomasetal.,recordedMay14,1953,onDylanThomas:The

CaedmonCollection,Caedmon,2002,11CDs,discs9and10.

B:Schlosser,Eric.FastFoodNation:TheDarkSideoftheAmericanMeal.ReadbyRickAdam-son.NewYork:RandomHouse,

RHCD493,2004.8CDs.

17.8.5TextsintheVisualandPerformingArts

17.8.5.1ARTEXHIBITIONCATALOGS.Citeanartexhibitioncatalogasyouwouldabook.Inthebibliographyentryonly,include

informationabouttheexhibitionfollowingthepublicationdata.

N:6.SusanDackerman,ed.,PrintsandthePursuitofKnowledgeinEarlyModernEurope(NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversity

Press,2011),43.

B:Dackerman,Susan,ed.PrintsandthePursuitofKnowledgeinEarlyModernEurope.NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,

2011.PublishedinconjunctionwiththeexhibitionsshownattheHarvardArtMuseums,Cambridge,MA,andtheBlock

MuseumofArt,NorthwesternUniversity,Evanston,IL.

17.8.5.2PLAYS.Insomecasesyoucancitewell-knownEnglish-languageplaysinnotesonly.(Seealso17.5.1.)Omitpublicationdata,

andcitepassagesbyactandscene(orotherdivision)insteadofbypagenumber.

N:22.EugeneOʼNeill,LongDayʼsJourneyintoNight,act2,scene1.

Ifyourpaperisinliterarystudiesoranotherfieldconcernedwithcloseanalysisoftexts,orifyouarecitingatranslationoran

obscurework,citeeveryplayasyouwouldabook,andincludeeachinyourbibliography.Citepassageseitherbydivisionorbypage,

accordingtoyourlocalguidelines.

N:25.EnidBagnold,TheChalkGarden(NewYork:RandomHouse,1956),8–9.

B:Anouilh,Jean.Becket,orTheHonorofGod.TranslatedbyLucienneHill.NewYork:River-headBooks,1996.

17.8.5.3MUSICALSCORES.Citeapublishedmusicalscoreasyouwouldabook.

N:1.GiuseppeVerdi,GiovannadʼArco,drammaliricoinfouracts,librettobyTemistocleSolera,ed.AlbertoRizzuti,2vols.,

WorksofGiuseppeVerdi,ser.1,Operas(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress;Milan:G.Ricordi,2008).

B:Mozart,WolfgangAmadeus.SonatasandFantasiesforthePiano.Preparedfromtheautographsandearliestprintedsourcesby

NathanBroder.Rev.ed.BrynMawr,PA:TheodorePresser,1960.

Citeanunpublishedscoreasyouwouldunpublishedmaterialinamanuscriptcollection.

N:2.RalphShapey,“PartitaforViolinandThirteenPlayers,”score,1966,SpecialCollections,JosephRegensteinLibrary,

UniversityofChicago.

17.9PublicDocuments

Publicdocumentsincludeawidearrayofsourcesproducedbygovernmentsatalllevelsthroughouttheworld.Thissectionpresents

basicprinciplesforsomecommontypesofpublicdocumentsavailableinEnglish;ifyouneedtociteothertypes,adapttheclosest

model.

126

Suchdocumentsinvolvemorecomplicatedandvariedelementsthanmosttypesofpublishedsources.Inyourcitations,include

asmuchidentifyinginformationasyoucan,formattheelementsconsistently,andadaptthegeneralpatternsoutlinedhereas

needed.

ThebulkofthissectionisconcernedwithdocumentspublishedbyUSgovernmentalbodiesandagencies.Fordocuments

publishedbythegovernmentsofCanadaandtheUnitedKingdomandbyinternationalbodies,see17.9.9 11.Forunpublished

governmentdocuments,see17.9.12.

17.9.1ElementstoInclude,TheirOrder,andHowtoFormatThem

Inyourcitations,includeasmanyofthefollowingelementsasyoucan:

■nameofthegovernment(country,state,city,county,orotherdivision)andgovernmentbody(legislativebody,executive

department,courtbureau,board,commission,orcommittee)thatissuedthedocument

■title,ifany,ofthedocumentorcollection

■nameofindividualauthor,editor,orcompiler,ifgiven

■reportnumberorotheridentifyinginformation(suchasplaceofpublicationandpublisher,forcertainfreestandingpublications

orforitemsinsecondarysources)

■dateofpublication

■pagenumbersorotherlocators,ifrelevant

■anaccessdateandeitheraURLorthenameofthedatabase,forsourcesconsultedonline(see15.4.1and,forexamples,17.9.13)

Ingeneral,listtherelevantelementsintheordergivenabove.Certainelementsmaybeleftoutofthenotesbutshouldbe

includedinthebibliography.Othertypesofexceptionsareexplainedinthefollowingsectionsof17.9.

N:1.SelectCommitteeonHomelandSecurity,HomelandSecurityActof2002,107thCong.,2dsess.,2002,HRRep.107-609,

pt.1,11–12.

B:USCongress.HouseofRepresentatives.SelectCommitteeonHomelandSecurity.HomelandSecurityActof2002.107thCong.,

2dsess.,2002.HRRep.107-609,pt.1.

Notethat,byconvention,ordinalsinpublicdocumentsendindinsteadofnd(2dinsteadof2nd).

17.9.2CongressionalPublications

Forcongressionalpublications,bibliographyentriesusuallybeginwiththedesignationUSCongress,followedbySenateorHouseof

Representatives(orHouse).(YoumayalsosimplifythistoUSSenateorUSHouse.)Innotes,USisusuallyomitted.Othercommon

elementsincludecommitteeandsubcommittee,ifany;titleofdocument;numberoftheCongressandsession(abbreviatedCong.

andsess.respectivelyinthisposition);dateofpublication;andnumberanddescriptionofthedocument(forexample,H.Doc.487),

ifavailable.

17.9.2.1DEBATES.Since1873,congressionaldebateshavebeenpublishedbythegovernmentintheCongressionalRecord(innotes,

oftenabbreviatedasCong.Rec.).Wheneverpossible,citethepermanentvolumes,whichoftenreflectchangesfromthedaily

editionsoftheRecord.(ForcitationsofthedailyHouseorSenateedition,retaintheHorSinpagenumbers.)

N:16.Cong.Rec.,110thCong.,1stsess.,2008,vol.153,pt.8:11629–30.

B:USCongress.CongressionalRecord.110thCong.,1stsess.,2008.Vol.153,pt.8.

Occasionallyyoumayneedtoidentifyaspeakerinadebate,thesubject,andadateinanote.

N:4.SenatorKennedyofMassachusetts,speakingfortheJointResolutiononNuclearWeaponsFreezeandReductions,on

March10,1982,totheCommitteeonForeignRelations,SJRes.163,97thCong.,1stsess.,Cong.Rec.128,pt.3:3832–34.

Before1874,congressionaldebateswerepublishedinAnnalsoftheCongressoftheUnitedStates(alsoknownbyothernames

andcoveringtheyears1789 1824),RegisterofDebates(1824 37),andCongressionalGlobe(1833 73).Citetheseworkssimilarlyto

theCongressionalRecord.

17.9.2.2REPORTSANDDOCUMENTS.WhenyoucitereportsanddocumentsoftheSenate(abbreviatedS.)andtheHouse(H.orHR),

includeboththeCongressandsessionnumbersand,ifpossible,theseriesnumber.Noticetheformforashortenednote,which

differsfromtheusualpattern(see16.4.1).

N:9.SelectCommitteeonHomelandSecurity,HomelandSecurityActof2002,107thCong.,2dsess.,2002,HRRep.107-609,

pt.1,11–12.

14.DeclarationsofaStateofWarwithJapan,Germany,andItaly,77thCong.,1stsess.,1941,S.Doc.148,serial10575,2–

15.SelectCommittee,HomelandSecurityAct,11.

22.ReorganizationoftheFederalJudiciary,75thCong.,1stsess.,1937,S.Rep.711.

B:USCongress.House.ExpansionofNationalEmergencywithRespecttoProtectingtheStabilizationEffortsinIraq.112thCong.,

1stsess.,2011.H.Doc.112–25.

127

17.9.2.3BILLSANDRESOLUTIONS.Congressionalbills(proposedlaws)andresolutionsarepublishedinpamphletform.Incitations,

billsandresolutionsoriginatingintheHouseofRepresentativesareabbreviatedHRorH.Res.,andthoseoriginatingintheSenate

S.orS.Res.IncludepublicationdetailsintheCongressionalRecord(ifavailable).Ifabillhasbeenenacted,citeitasastatute(see

17.9.2.5).

N:16.NoTaxpayerFundingforAbortionAct,H.Res.237,112thCong.,1stsess.,CongressionalRecord,vol.157,dailyed.

(May4,2011):H3014.

B:USCongress.House.NoTaxpayerFundingforAbortionAct.H.Res.237.112thCong.,1stsess.CongressionalRecord157,

dailyed.(May4,2011):H3014–37.

17.9.2.4HEARINGS.Recordsoftestimonygivenbeforecongressionalcommitteesareusuallypublishedwithtitles,whichshouldbe

includedincitations(initalics).Therelevantcommitteeisnormallylistedaspartofthetitle.Noticetheformforashortenednote,

whichdiffersfromtheusualpattern(see16.4.1).

N:13.HearingbeforetheSelectCommitteeonHomelandSecurity,HR5005,HomelandSecurityActof2002,day3,107th

Cong.,2dsess.,July17,2002,119–20.

14.HR5005,Hearing,203.

B:USCongress.Senate.FamineinAfrica:HearingbeforetheCommitteeonForeignRelations.99thCong.,1stsess.,January17,

1985.

17.9.2.5STATUTES.Statutes,whicharebillsorresolutionsthathavebeenpassedintolaw,arefirstpublishedseparatelyandthen

collectedintheannualboundvolumesoftheUnitedStatesStatutesatLarge,whichbeganpublicationin1874.Latertheyare

incorporatedintotheUnitedStatesCode.CiteUSStatutes,theUSCode,orboth.SectionnumbersintheCodeareprecededbya

sectionsymbol( ;use andetseq.toindicatemorethanonesection).

Citestatutesinnotesonly;youdonotneedtoincludetheminyourbibliography.Noticetheformforashortenednote,which

differsfromtheusualpattern(see16.4.1).

N:18.AtomicEnergyActof1946,PublicLaw585,79thCong.,2dsess.(August1,1946),12,19.

19.FairCreditReportingActof1970,USCode15(2000),§§1681etseq.

25.HomelandSecurityActof2002,PublicLaw107-296,USStatutesatLarge116(2002):2163–64,codifiedatUSCode6

(2002),§§101etseq.

27.HomelandSecurityAct,2165.

Before1874,lawswerepublishedintheseventeen-volumeStatutesatLargeoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica,1789 1873.Citationsof

thiscollectionincludethevolumenumberanditspublicationdate.

17.9.3PresidentialPublications

Presidentialproclamations,executiveorders,vetoes,addresses,andthelikearepublishedintheWeeklyCompilationofPresidential

DocumentsandinPublicPapersofthePresidentsoftheUnitedStates.Proclamationsandexecutiveordersarealsocarriedinthe

dailyFederalRegisterandthenpublishedintitle3oftheCodeofFederalRegulations.OncetheyhavebeenpublishedintheCode,

usethatasyoursource.Putindividualtitlesinquotationmarks.

N:2.BarackObama,Proclamation8621,“NationalSlaveryandHumanTraffickingPreventionMonth,2011,”FederalRegister

75,no.250(December30,2010):82215.

21.WilliamJ.Clinton,ExecutiveOrder13067,“BlockingSudaneseGovernmentPropertyandProhibitingTransactionswith

Sudan,”CodeofFederalRegulations,title3(1997comp.):230.

B:USPresident.Proclamation8621.“NationalSlaveryandHumanTraffickingPreventionMonth,2011.”FederalRegister75,no.

250(December30,2010):82215–16.

ThepublicpapersofUSpresidentsarecollectedintwomultivolumeworks:CompilationoftheMessagesandPapersofthe

Presidents,1789 1897,and,startingwiththeHooveradministration,PublicPapersofthePresidentsoftheUnitedStates.(Papers

notcoveredbyeitheroftheseworksarepublishedelsewhere.)Tociteitemsinthesecollections,followtherecommendationsfor

multivolumebooks(see17.1.4).

17.9.4PublicationsofGovernmentDepartmentsandAgencies

Executivedepartments,bureaus,andagenciesissuereports,bulletins,circulars,andothermaterials.Italicizethetitle,andinclude

thenameofanyidentifiedauthor(s)afterthetitle.

N:30.USDepartmentoftheTreasury,ReportoftheSecretaryoftheTreasuryTransmittingaReportfromtheRegisterofthe

TreasuryoftheCommerceandNavigationoftheUnitedStatesfortheYearEndingthe30thofJune,1850,31stCong.,2d

sess.,HouseExecutiveDocument8(Washington,DC,1850–51).

B:USDepartmentoftheInterior.MineralsManagementService.EnvironmentalDivision.Oil-SpillRiskAnalysis:GulfofMexico

OuterContinentalShelf(OCS)LeaseSales,CentralPlanningAreaandWesternPlanningArea,2007–2012,andGulfwide

OCSProgram,2007–2046,byZhen-GangJi,WalterR.Johnson,andCharlesF.Marshall.EditedbyEileenM.Lear.MMS

128

2007-040,June2007.

17.9.5USConstitution

TheUSConstitutionshouldbecitedonlyinnotes;youneednotincludeitinyourbibliography.Includethearticleoramendment,

section,and,ifrelevant,clause.Usearabicnumeralsand,ifyouprefer,abbreviationsfortermssuchasamendmentandsection.

N:32.USConstitution,art.2,sec.1,cl.3.

33.USConstitution,amend.14,sec.2.

Inmanycases,youcanuseaparentheticalnote(see16.4.3)orevenincludetheidentifyinginformationinyourtext.Spelloutthe

partdesignationsintext.Capitalizethenamesofspecificamendmentswhenusedinplaceofnumbers.

TheUSConstitution,inarticle1,section9,forbidssuspensionofthewrit“unlesswheninCasesofRebellionorInvasionthe

publicSafetymayrequireit.”

TheFirstAmendmentprotectstherightoffreespeech.

17.9.6Treaties

Thetextsoftreatiessignedbefore1950arepublishedinUnitedStatesStatutesatLarge;theunofficialcitationistotheTreatySeries

(TS)ortheExecutiveAgreementSeries(EAS).Thosesignedin1950orlaterappearinUnitedStatesTreatiesandOther

InternationalAgreements(UST,1950 )orTreatiesandOtherInternationalActsSeries(TIAS,1945 ).Treatiesinvolvingmorethan

twonationsmaybefoundintheUnitedNationsTreatySeries(UNTS,1946 )or,from1920to1946,intheLeagueofNationsTreaty

Series(LNTS).

Italicizetitlesofthepublicationsmentionedaboveandtheirabbreviatedforms.Unlesstheyarenamedinthetitleofthetreaty,

listthepartiessubjecttotheagreement,separatedbyhyphens.Anexactdateindicatesthedateofsigningandisthereforepreferable

toayearalone,whichmaydifferfromtheyearthetreatywaspublished.Noticetheformforashortenednote,whichdiffersfromthe

usualpattern(see16.4.1).

N:4.TreatyBanningNuclearWeaponTestsintheAtmosphere,inOuterSpace,andUnderWater,US-UK-USSR,August5,

1963,UST14,pt.2,1313.

15.ConventionconcerningMilitaryService,Denmark-Italy,July15,1954,TIAS250,no.3516,45.

39.NuclearTestBanTreaty,1317–18.

B:UnitedStates.NavalArmamentLimitationTreatywiththeBritishEmpire,France,Italy,andJapan.February6,1922.US

StatutesatLarge43,pt.2.

17.9.7LegalCases

Citationsoflegalcasesgenerallytakethesameformforcourtsatalllevels.Innotes,givethefullcasename(includingthe

abbreviationv.)initalics.Includethevolumenumber(arabic),nameofthereporter(abbreviated;seebelow),ordinalseriesnumber

(ifapplicable),openingpagenumberofthedecision,abbreviatednameofthecourtanddate(togetherinparentheses),andother

relevantinformation,suchasthenameofthestateorlocalcourt(ifnotidentifiedbytheseriestitle).Actualpagescitedfollowthe

openingpagenumber,separatedbyacomma.

Citestatutesinnotesonly;youdonotneedtoincludetheminyourbibliography.

N:18.UnitedStatesv.Christmas,222F.3d141,145(4thCir.2000).

21.ProfitSharingPlanv.MBankDallas,N.A.,683F.Supp.592(NDTex.1988).

Ashortenednotemayconsistofthecasenameand,ifneeded,apagenumber.

N:35.Christmas,146.

Theoneelementthatdependsonthelevelofthecourtisthenameofthereporter.Themostcommononesareasfollows.

■USSupremeCourt.ForSupremeCourtdecisions,citeUnitedStatesSupremeCourtReports(abbreviatedUS)or,ifnotyet

publishedthere,SupremeCourtReporter(abbreviatedS.Ct.).

N:21.AT&TCorp.v.IowaUtilitiesBd.,525US366(1999).

39.Brendlinv.California,127S.Ct.2400(2007).

■Lowerfederalcourts.Forlowerfederal-courtdecisions,citeFederalReporter(F.)orFederalSupplement(F.Supp.).

N:3.UnitedStatesv.Dennis,183F.201(2dCir.1950).

15.Eatonv.IBMCorp.,925F.Supp.487(SDTex.1996).

■Stateandlocalcourts.Forstateandlocalcourtdecisions,citeofficialstatereporterswheneverpossible.Ifyouuseacommercial

reporter,citeitasinthesecondexamplebelow.Ifthereporterdoesnotidentifythecourt sname,includeitbeforethedate,

withintheparentheses.

129

N:6.Williamsv.Davis,27Cal.2d746(1946).

8.Bivensv.Mobley,724So.2d458,465(Miss.Ct.App.1998).

17.9.8StateandLocalGovernmentDocuments

Citestateandlocalgovernmentdocumentsasyouwouldfederaldocuments.Useromantype(noquotationmarks)forstatelawsand

municipalordinances;useitalicsforcodes(compilations)andthetitlesoffreestandingpublications.

N:39.IllinoisInstituteforEnvironmentalQuality(IIEQ),ReviewandSynopsisofPublicParticipationregardingSulfurDioxide

andParticulateEmissions,bySidneyM.Marder,IIEQDocumentno.77/21(Chicago,1977),44–45.

42.MethamphetamineControlandCommunityProtectionAct,IllinoisCompiledStatutes,ch.720,no.646,sec.10(2005).

44.PageʼsOhioRevisedCodeAnnotated,title35,sec.3599.01(2011).

47.NewMexicoConstitution,art.4,sec.7.

B:IllinoisInstituteforEnvironmentalQuality(IIEQ).ReviewandSynopsisofPublicParticipationregardingSulfurDioxideand

ParticulateEmissions,bySidneyM.Marder.IIEQDocument77/21.Chicago,1977.

17.9.9CanadianGovernmentDocuments

CiteCanadiangovernmentdocumentssimilarlytoUSpublicdocuments.EndcitationswiththewordCanada(inparentheses)unless

itisobviousfromthecontext.

CanadianstatutesarefirstpublishedintheannualStatutesofCanada,afterwhichtheyappearintheRevisedStatutesofCanada,

aconsolidationpublishedeveryfifteenortwentyyears.Whereverpossible,usethelattersourceandidentifythestatutebytitle,

reporter,yearofcompilation,chapter,andsection.

N:4.CanadaWildlifeAct,RevisedStatutesofCanada1985,chap.W-9,sec.1.

5.AssistedHumanReproductionAct,StatutesofCanada2004,chap.2,sec.2.

CanadianSupremeCourtcasessince1876arepublishedinSupremeCourtReports(SCR);casesafter1974shouldincludethe

volumenumberofthereporter.FederalcourtcasesarepublishedinFederalCourtsReports(FC,1971 )orExchequerCourtReports

(Ex.CR,1875 1971).CasesnotfoundinanyofthesesourcesmaybefoundinDominionLawReports(DLR).Includethenameofthe

case(initalics),followedbythedate(inparentheses),thevolumenumber(ifany),theabbreviatednameofthereporter,andthe

openingpageofthedecision.

N:10.Robertsonv.ThomsonCorp.,(2006)2SCR363(Canada).

11.Boldyv.RoyalBankofCanada,(2008)FC99.

17.9.10BritishGovernmentDocuments

CiteBritishgovernmentdocumentssimilarlytoUSpublicdocuments.EndcitationswiththephraseUnitedKingdom(in

parentheses)unlessitisobviousfromthecontext.

ActsofParliamentshouldusuallybecitedonlyinanote.Includeaspecificactinyourbibliographyonlyifitiscriticaltoyour

argumentorfrequentlycited.Identifyactsbytitle,date,andchapternumber(arabicnumeralfornationalnumber,lowercaseroman

forlocal).Actsfrombefore1963arecitedbyregnalyearandmonarch sname(abbreviated)andordinal(arabicnumeral).

N:8.ActofSettlement,1701,12&13Will.3,chap.2.

15.ConsolidatedFundAct,1963,chap.1(UnitedKingdom).

16.ManchesterCorporationAct,1967,chap.xl.

MostBritishlegalcasescanbefoundintheapplicablereportintheLawReports,amongthesetheAppealCases(AC),Queen s

(King s)Bench(QB,KB),Chancery(Ch.),Family(Fam.),andProbate(P.)reports.Untilrecently,thecourtsofhighestappealinthe

UnitedKingdom(exceptforcriminalcasesinScotland)hadbeentheHouseofLords(HL)andtheJudicialCommitteeofthePrivy

Council(PC).In2005,theSupremeCourtoftheUnitedKingdom(UKSC)wasestablished.

Includethenameofthecase,initalics(casesinvolvingtheCrownrefertoRexorRegina);thedate,inparentheses;thevolume

number(ifany)andabbreviatednameofthereporter;andtheopeningpageofthedecision.Ifthecourtisnotapparentfromthe

nameofthereporter,orifthejurisdictionisnotclearfromcontext,includeeitherorboth,asnecessary,inparentheses.

N:10.Reginav.DudleyandStephens,(1884)14QBD273(DC).

11.Regal(Hastings)Ltd.v.GulliverandOrs,(1967)2AC134(HL)(Eng.).

12.NMLCapitalLimited(Appellant)v.RepublicofArgentina(Respondent),(2011)UKSC31.

17.9.11PublicationsofInternationalBodies

DocumentspublishedbyinternationalbodiessuchastheUnitedNationscanbecitedmuchlikebooks.Identifytheauthorizingbody

(andanyauthororeditor),thetopicortitleofthedocument,thepublisherorplaceofpublication(orboth),andthedate,followed

byapagereferenceinthenotes.Alsoincludeanyseriesorotheridentifyingpublicationinformation.

N:1.LeagueofArabStatesandUnitedNations,TheThirdArabReportontheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals2010andthe

ImpactoftheGlobalEconomicCrises(Beirut:EconomicandSocialCommissionforWesternAsia,2010),82.

B:UnitedNationsGeneralAssembly.ReportoftheGoverningCouncil/GlobalMinisterialEnvironmentForumontheWorkofIts

130

EleventhSpecialSession.OfficialRecords,65thsess.,supplementno.25,A/65/25.NewYork:UN,2010.

17.9.12UnpublishedGovernmentDocuments

Ifyouciteunpublishedgovernmentdocuments,followthepatternsgivenforunpublishedmanuscriptsin17.6.4.

MostunpublisheddocumentsoftheUSgovernmentarehousedintheNationalArchivesandRecordsAdministration(NARA)in

Washington,DC,orinoneofitsbranches.Citethemall,includingfilms,photographs,andsoundrecordingsaswellaswritten

materials,byrecordgroup(RG)number.

ThecomparableinstitutionforunpublishedCanadiangovernmentdocumentsistheLibraryandArchivesCanada(LAC)in

Ottawa,Ontario.TheUnitedKingdomhasanumberofdepositoriesofunpublishedgovernmentdocuments,mostnotablythe

NationalArchives(NA)andtheBritishLibrary(BL),bothinLondon.

17.9.13OnlinePublicDocuments

Tociteonlinepublicdocuments,followtherelevantexamplespresentedelsewherein17.9.Inaddition,includethedateyouaccessed

thematerialandaURL.Foritemsobtainedthroughacommercialdatabase,youmaygivethenameofthedatabaseinstead.See

15.4.1formoredetails.Notethatdatabasesforlegalcasesmaymarkpage(screen)divisionswithanasterisk.Theseshouldbe

retainedinspecificreferences(seealso17.9.7).

N:1.SelectCommitteeonHomelandSecurity,HomelandSecurityActof2002,107thCong.,2dsess.,2002,HRRep.107-609,

pt.1,11–12,accessedSeptember8,2011,http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CRPT-107hrpt609/pdf/CRPT-107hrpt609-pt1.pdf.

12.UnitedNationsSecurityCouncil,Resolution2002,July29,2011,accessedOctober10,2011,

http://www.un.org/Docs/sc/unsc_resolutions11.htm.

17.McNameev.DepartmentoftheTreasury,488F.3d100,*3(2dCir.2007),accessedSeptember25,2011,LexisNexis

Academic.

B:USCongress.HouseofRepresentatives.SelectCommitteeonHomelandSecurity.HomelandSecurityActof2002.107thCong.,

2dsess.,2002.HRRep.107-609,pt.1.AccessedSeptember8,2011.http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CRPT-

107hrpt609/pdf/CRPT-107hrpt609-pt1.pdf.

17.10OneSourceQuotedinAnother

Responsibleresearchersavoidrepeatingquotationsthattheyhavenotactuallyseenintheoriginal.Ifonesourceincludesauseful

quotationfromanothersource,readersexpectyoutoobtaintheoriginaltoverifynotonlythatthequotationisaccuratebutalsothat

itfairlyrepresentswhattheoriginalmeant.

Iftheoriginalsourceisunavailable,however,citeitas quotedin thesecondarysourceinyournote.Forthebibliographyentry,

adaptthe quotedin formatasneeded.

N:8.LouisZukofsky,“SincerityandObjectification,”Poetry37(February1931):269,quotedinBonnieCostello,Marianne

Moore:ImaginaryPossessions(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,1981),78.

B:Zukofsky,Louis.“SincerityandObjectification.”Poetry37(February1931):269.QuotedinBonnieCostello,MarianneMoore:

ImaginaryPossessions.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,1981.

Thesamesituationmayarisewithaquotationyoufindinasecondarysourcedrawnfromaprimarysource(see3.1.1).Oftenyou

willnotbeabletoconsulttheprimarysource,especiallyifitisinanunpublishedmanuscriptcollection.Inthiscase,followthe

principlesoutlinedabove.

131

18Author-DateStyle:TheBasicForm
18.1BasicPatterns
18.1.1OrderofElements
18.1.2Punctuation
18.1.3Capitalization
18.1.4ItalicsandQuotationMarks
18.1.5Numbers
18.1.6Abbreviations
18.1.7Indentation
18.2ReferenceLists
18.2.1ArrangementofEntries
18.2.2SourcesThatMayBeOmitted
18.3ParentheticalCitations
18.3.1PlacementinText
18.3.2SpecialElementsandFormatIssues
18.3.3FootnotesandParentheticalCitations
Acitationstyleusedwidelyinmostsocialsciencesandinthenaturalandphysicalsciencesistheauthor-datestyle,socalledbecause
theauthor snameandthedateofpublicationarethecriticalelementsforidentifyingsources.Thischapterpresentsanoverviewof
thebasicpatternforcitationsinauthor-datestyle,includingbothreferencelistentriesandparentheticalcitations.Examplesof
parentheticalcitationsareidentifiedwithaP;examplesofreferencelistentriesareidentifiedwithanR.
Inauthor-datestyle,yousignalthatyouhaveusedasourcebyplacingaparentheticalcitation(includingauthor,date,and
relevantpagenumbers)nexttoyourreferencetothatsource:
Accordingtoonescholar,“TherailroadshadmadeChicagothemostimportantmeetingplacebetweenEastandWest”(Cronon
1991,92–93).
Attheendofthepaper,youlistallsourcesinareferencelist.Thatlistnormallyincludeseverysourceyoucitedinaparenthetical
citationandsometimesothersyouconsultedbutdidnotcite.Sinceparentheticalcitationsdonotincludecompletebibliographical
informationforasource,youmustincludethatinformationinyourreferencelist.Allreferencelistentrieshavethesamegeneral
form:
R:Cronon,William.1991.NatureʼsMetropolis:ChicagoandtheGreatWest.NewYork:W.W.Norton.
Readersexpectyoutofollowtherulesforcorrectcitationsexactly.Theserulescovernotonlywhatdatayoumustincludeand
theirorderbutalsopunctuation,capitalization,italicizing,andsoon.Togetyourcitationsright,youmustpaycloseattentionto
manyminutedetailsthatfewresearcherscaneasilyremember.Chapter19providesareadyreferenceguidetothosedetails.
18.1BasicPatterns
Althoughsourcesandtheircitationscomeinalmostendlessvariety,youarelikelytouseonlyafewkinds.Whileyoumayneedto
lookupdetailstocitesomeunusualsources,youcaneasilylearnthebasicpatternsforthefewkindsyouwillusemostoften.Youcan
thencreatetemplatesthatwillhelpyourecordbibliographicaldataquicklyandreliablyasyouread.
Therestofthissectiondescribesthebasicpatterns,andfigure18.1providestemplatesforseveralcommontypesofsources.
Chapter19includesexamplesofawiderangeofsources,includingexceptionstothepatternsdiscussedhere.
18.1.1OrderofElements
Theorderofelementsinreferencelistentriesfollowsthesamegeneralpatternforalltypesofsources:author,date(year)of
publication,title,otherfactsofpublication.Parentheticalcitationsincludeonlythefirsttwooftheseelements.Iftheycitespecific
passages,theyalsoincludepagenumbersorotherlocatinginformation;referencelistentriesdonot,thoughtheydoincludeafull
spanofpagenumbersforasourcethatispartofalargerwhole,suchasanarticleorachapter.
18.1.2Punctuation
Inreferencelistentries,separatemostelementswithperiods;inparentheticalcitations,donotuseapunctuationmarkbetweenthe
authorandthedate,butseparatethedatefromapagenumberwithacomma.
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18.1.3Capitalization

Capitalizemosttitlesheadlinestyle,butcapitalizetitlesinforeignlanguagessentencestyle.(See22.3.1forbothstyles.)Capitalize

propernounsintheusualway(seechapter22).Insomefields,youmayberequiredtousesentencestyleformosttitlesexceptfor

titlesofjournals,magazines,andnewspapers;checkyourlocalguidelines.

Figure18.1.Templatesforreferencelistentriesandparentheticalcitations

Thefollowingtemplatesshowwhatelementsshouldbeincludedinwhatorderwhencitingseveralcommontypesofsourcesin

referencelists(R)andparentheticalcitations(P).Theyalsoshowpunctuation,capitalizationoftitles,andwhentouseitalicsor

quotationmarks.Grayshadingshowsabbreviations(ortheirspelled-outversions)andothertermsastheywouldactuallyappearin

acitation.XXstandsinforpagenumbersactuallycited,YYforafullspanofpagenumbersforanarticleorachapter.

Books

1.SingleAuthororEditor

R:AuthorʼsLastName,AuthorʼsFirstName.YearofPublication.TitleofBook:SubtitleofBook.PlaceofPublication:PublisherʼsName.

Gladwell,Malcolm.2000.TheTippingPoint:HowLittleThingsanMakeaBigDifference.Boston:Little,Brown.

P:(AuthorʼsLastNameYearofPublication,XX–XX)

(Gladwell2000,64 65)

Forabookwithaneditorinsteadofanauthor,adaptthepatternasfollows:

R:EditorʼsLastName,EditorʼsFirstName,ed.YearofPublication…

Greenberg,Joel,ed.2008

P:(EditorʼsLastNameYearofPublication,XX–XX)

(Greenberg2008,75 80)

2.MultipleAuthors

Forabookwithtwoauthors,usethefollowingpattern:

R:Author#1ʼsLastName,Author#1ʼsFirstName,andAuthor#2ʼsFirstandLastNames.YearofPublication.TitleofBook:SubtitleofBook.Placeof

PublicationPublisherʼsName.

Morey,Peter,andAminaYaqin.2011.FramingMuslims:StereotypingandRepresentationafter9/11.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress.

P:(Author#1ʼsLastNameandAuthor#2ʼsLastNameYearofPublication,XX–XX)

(MoreyandYaqin2011,52)

Forabookwiththreeauthors,adaptthepatternasfollows:

R:Author#1ʼsLastName,Author#1ʼsFirstName,Author#2ʼsFirstandLastNamesandAuthor#3ʼsFirstandLastNames.YearofPublication…

Soss,Joe,RichardC.Fording,andSanfordF.Schram.2011

P:(Author#1ʼsLastName,Author#2ʼsLastName,andAuthor#3ʼsLastNameYeaofPublication,XX–XX)

(Soss,Fording,andSchram2011,135 36)

Forabookwithfourormoreauthors,adapttheparentheticalcitationpatternonlyasfollows:

P:(Author#1ʼsLastNameetal.YearofPublication,XX–XX)

(Bernsteinetal.2010,114 15)

3.Author(s)PlusEditororTranslator

Forabookwithanauthorplusaneditor,usethefollowingpattern:

R:AuthorʼsLastName,AuthorʼsFirstName.YearofPublication.TitleofBook:SubtitleofBook.EditedbyEditorʼsFirstandLastNames.PlaceofPublication:

PublisherʼsName.

Austen,Jane.2011.Persuasion:AnAnnotatedEdition.EditedbyRobertMorrison.Cambridge,MA:BelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress.

P:(AuthorʼsLastNameYearofPublication,XX–XX)

(Austen2011,311 12)

Ifabookhasatranslatorinsteadofaneditor,substitutethephraseTranslatedbyandthetranslatorʼsnamefortheeditordatainthereferencelistentry.

4.EditionNumber

133

R:AuthorʼsLastName,AuthorʼsFirstName.YearofPublication.TitleofBook:SubtitleofBook.EditionNumbered.PlaceofPublication:PublisherʼsName.

VanMaanen,John.2011.TalesoftheField:OnWritingEthnography.2nded.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.

P:(AuthorʼsLastNameYearofPublication,XX–XX)

(VanMaanen2011,84)

5.SingleChapterinanEditedBook

R:ChapterAuthorʼsLastName,ChapterAuthorʼsFirstName.YearofPublication.“TitleofChapter:SubtitleofChapter.”InTitleofBook:SubtitleofBook,edited

byEditorʼsFirstandLastNames,YY–YY.PlaceofPublication:PublisherʼsName.

Ramirez,Angeles.2010. MuslimWomenintheSpanishPress:ThePersistenceofSubalternImages. InMuslimWomeninWarandCrisis:Representationand

Reality,editedbyFaeghehShirazi,227 14.Austin:UniversityofTexasPress.

P:(ChapterAuthorʼsLastNameYearofPublication,XX–XX)

(Ramirez2010,231)

JournalArticles

6.JournalArticleinPrint

R:AuthorʼsLastName,AuthorʼsFirstName.YearofPublication.“TitleofArticle:SubtitleofArticle.”TitleofJournalVolumeNumber,IssueNumber(Additional

DateInformation):YY–YY.

Bogren,Alexandra.2011. GenderandAlcohol:TheSwedishPressDebate. JournalofGenderStudies20,no.2(June):155 69.

P:(AuthorʼsLastNameYearofPublication,XX–XX)

(Bogren2011,156)

Foranarticlewithmultipleauthors,followtherelevantpatternforauthorsʼnamesintemplate2.

7.JournalArticleOnline

Forajournalarticleconsultedonline,includeanaccessdateandaURL.ForarticlesthatincludeaDOI,formtheURLbyappending

theDOItohttp://dx.doi.org/ratherthanusingtheURLinyouraddressbar.TheDOIfortheKiserarticleintheexamplebelowis

10.1086/658052.

DateInformation):YY–YY.AccessedDateofAccess.URL.

Kiser,LisaJ.2011. SilencingtheLambs:Economics,Ethics,andAnimalLifeinMedievalFranciscanHagiography. ModernPhilology108,no.3(February):

323 42.AccessedSeptember18,2011.http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/658052.

P:(AuthorʼsLastNameYearofPublication,xx)

(Kiser2011,340)

See15.4.1formoredetails.

18.1.4ItalicsandQuotationMarks

Titlesoflargerentities(books,journals)areprintedinitalics;titlesofsmallerentities(chapters,articles)areprintedinromantype

andenclosedinquotationmarks.Titlesofunpublishedworks(suchasdissertations)areprintedinromantypeandenclosedin

quotationmarks,eveniftheyarebooklength.Seealso22.3.2.

18.1.5Numbers

Intitles,anynumbersarespelledoutorgiveninnumeralsexactlyastheyareintheoriginal.Pagenumbersthatareinroman

numeralsintheoriginalarepresentedinlowercaseromannumerals.Allothernumbers(suchaschapternumbersorfigure

numbers)aregiveninarabicnumerals,eveniftheyareinromannumeralsorspelledoutintheoriginal.

18.1.6Abbreviations

Abbreviatetermssuchaseditorandtranslator(ed.andtrans.)whentheycomeafteraname,butspellthemoutwhentheyintroduce

it(Editedby).Thepluralisusuallyformedbyaddings(eds.)unlesstheabbreviationendsinans(usetrans.forbothsingularand

plural).Termssuchasvolume,edition,andnumber(vol.,ed.,andno.)arealwaysabbreviated.

18.1.7Indentation

Referencelistentrieshaveahangingindentation:thefirstlineisflushleftandallfollowinglinesareindentedthesameamountas

thefirstlineofaparagraph.Parentheticalcitationsareplacedwithinthetextandarenotindented.

134

18.2ReferenceLists

Inpapersthatuseauthor-datestyle,thereferencelistpresentsfullbibliographicalinformationforallthesourcescitedin

parentheticalcitations(otherthanafewspecialtypesofsources;see18.2.2).Youmayalsoincludeworksthatwereimportantto

yourthinkingbutthatyoudidnotspecificallymentioninthetext.Inadditiontoprovidingbibliographicalinformation,reference

listsshowreaderstheextentofyourresearchanditsrelationshiptopriorwork,andtheyhelpreadersuseyoursourcesintheirown

research.Ifyouusetheauthor-datecitationstyle,youmustincludeareferencelistinyourpaper.

LabelthelistReferences.SeefigureA.16intheappendixforasamplepageofareferencelist.

18.2.1ArrangementofEntries

18.2.1.1ALPHABETICALANDCHRONOLOGICALBYAUTHOR.Areferencelistisnormallyasinglelistofallsourcesarrangedalphabetically

bythelastnameoftheauthor,editor,orwhoeverisfirstineachentry.(Foralphabetizingforeignnames,compoundnames,and

otherspecialcases,see18.2.1.2.)Mostwordprocessorsprovideanalphabeticalsortingfunction;ifyouuseit,firstmakesureeach

entryisfollowedbyahardreturn.Ifyouarewritingathesisordissertation,yourdepartmentoruniversitymayspecifythatyou

shouldalphabetizetheentriesletterbyletterorwordbyword;see16.58 61ofTheChicagoManualofStyle,16thedition(2010),for

anexplanationofthesetwosystems.

Ifyourreferencelistincludestwoormoreworkswritten,edited,ortranslatedbythesameindividual,arrangetheentries

chronologicallybypublicationdate.Forallentriesafterthefirst,replacetheindividual snamewithalongdash,calleda3-emdash

(see21.7.3).Foreditedortranslatedworks,putacommaandtheappropriatedesignation(ed.,trans.,andsoon)afterthedash.List

allsuchworksbeforeanythattheindividualcoauthoredorcoedited.Notethatitisbesttomakealltheseadjustmentsmanually

afteryouhavesortedyourcompletereferencelistalphabeticallybyname.

R:Gates,HenryLouis,Jr.1988.TheSignifyingMonkey:ATheoryofAfrican-AmericanLiteraryCriticism.NewYork:Oxford

UniversityPress.

_______

,ed.2002.TheClassicSlaveNarratives.NewYork:PenguinPutnam.

_______

.2004.AmericabehindtheColorLine:DialogueswithAfricanAmericans.NewYork:WarnerBooks.

_______

.2010.TraditionandtheBlackAtlantic:CriticalTheoryintheAfricanDiaspora.NewYork:BasicCivitas.

_______

.2011.BlackinLatinAmerica.NewYork:NewYorkUniversityPress.

Gates,HenryLouis,Jr.,andCornelWest.2000.TheAfrican-AmericanCentury:HowBlackAmericansHaveShapedOur

Country.NewYork:FreePress.

Thesameprinciplesapplytoworksbyasinglegroupofauthorsnamedinthesameorder.

R:Marty,MartinE.,andR.ScottAppleby.1992.TheGloryandthePower:TheFundamentalistChallengetotheModernWorld.

Boston:BeaconPress.

_______

,eds.2004.AccountingforFundamentalisms.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.

Marty,MartinE.,andMicahMarty.1998.WhenTrueSimplicityIsGained:FindingSpiritualClarityinaComplexWorld.Grand

Rapids,Ml:WilliamB.Eerdmans.

Ifyourreferencelistincludesmorethanoneworkpublishedinthesameyearbyanauthororgroupofauthorsnamedinthe

sameorder,arrangetheentriesalphabeticallybytitle(ignoringarticlessuchasaorthe).Addthelettersa,b,c,andsoforthtothe

year,setinromantypewithoutaninterveningspace.Yourparentheticalcitationstotheseworksshouldincludetheletters(see

18.3.2).

R:Fogel,RobertWilliam.2004a.TheEscapefromHungerandPrematureDeath,1700–2100:Europe,America,andtheThird

World.NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress.

_______

.2004b.“TechnophysioEvolutionandtheMeasurementofEconomicGrowth.”JournalofEvolutionaryEconomics14,no.

2:217–21.

Ifabookorjournalarticledoesnothaveanauthororeditor(orothernamedcompiler,suchasatranslator),putthetitlefirstin

yourreferencelistentryandalphabetizebasedonit,ignoringarticlessuchasaorthe.

R:AccountoftheOperationsoftheGreatTrigonometricalSurveyofIndia.1870–1910.22vols.DehraDun:SurveyofIndia.

“TheGreatTrigonometricalSurveyofIndia.”1863.CalcuttaReview38:26-62.

“StateandProspectsofAsia.”1839.QuarterlyReview63,no.126(March):369–402.

Formagazineandnewspaperarticleswithoutauthors,usethetitleofthemagazineornewspaperinplaceoftheauthor(see19.3

and19.4).Forothertypesofsources,seetherelevantsectioninchapter19forguidance;ifnotstatedotherwise,useatitleinthis

position.

18.2.1.2SPECIALTYPESOFNAMES.Someauthors namesconsistofmorethanareadilyidentifiable firstname and lastname. In

manycasesyoucandeterminethecorrectorderbyconsultingyourlibrary scatalog.Forhistoricalnames,agoodsourceisMerriam-

Webster sBiographicalDictionary.Thissectionoutlinessomegeneralprinciplesforalphabetizingsuchnamesinyourreferencelist.

Inshortenedorparentheticalnotes,usethelastnameexactlyasinverted(shownbelowinboldface).Ifyourpaperinvolvesmany

namesfromaparticularforeignlanguage,followtheconventionsforthatlanguage.

■Compoundnames.Alphabetizecompoundlastnames,includinghyphenatednames,bythefirstpartofthecompound.Ifawoman

usesbothherownfamilynameandherhusband sbutdoesnothyphenatethem,generallyalphabetizebythesecondsurname.

135

Whilemanyforeignlanguageshavepredictablepatternsforcompoundnames(seebelow),others suchasFrenchandGerman

donot.

Kessler-Harris,Alice

Hine,DarleneClark



MiesvanderRohe,Ludwig

TeilharddeChardin,Pierre

■Nameswithparticles.Dependingonthelanguage,particlessuchasde,di,D, andvanmayormaynotbeconsideredthefirstpart

ofalastnameforalphabetizing.Consultoneoftheresourcesnotedaboveifyouareunsureaboutaparticularname.Notethat

particlesmaybeeitherlowercasedorcapitalized,andsomearefollowedbyanapostrophe.

deGaulle,Charles

diLeonardo,Micaela

VanRensselaer,Stephen



Beauvoir,Simonede

Kooning,Willemde

Medici,Lorenzodeʼ

■Namesbeginningwith Mac,  Saint, or O . NamesthatbeginwithMac,Saint,orO canhavemanyvariationsinabbreviations

(Mc,St.),spelling(Sainte,San),capitalization(Macmillan,McAllister),andhyphenationorapostrophes(O NeillorOdell;Saint-

GaudensorSt.Denis).Alphabetizeallsuchnamesbasedonthelettersactuallypresent;donotgroupthembecausetheyare

similar.

■Spanishnames.ManySpanishlastnamesarecompoundnamesconsistingofanindividual spaternalandmaternalfamilynames,

sometimesjoinedbytheconjunctiony.Alphabetizesuchnamesunderthefirstpart.

OrtegayGasset,José

SanchezMendoza,Juana

■Arabicnames.AlphabetizeArabiclastnamesthatbeginwiththeparticleal-orel-( the )undertheelementfollowingtheparticle.

NamesthatbeginwithAbu,Abd,andIbn,likeEnglishnamesbeginningwithMacorSaint,shouldbealphabetizedunderthese

terms.

Hakim,Tawfiqal-

Jamal,MuhammadHamidal-



AbuZafarNadvi,Syed

IbnSaud,Aziz

■ChineseandJapanesenames.IfanauthorwithaChineseorJapanesenamefollowstraditionalusage(familynamefollowedby

givenname),donotinvertthenameorinsertacommabetweenthe first and last names.IftheauthorfollowsWesternized

usage(givennamefollowedbyfamilyname),treatthenameasyouwouldanEnglishname.

Traditionalusage Westernizedusage

ChaoWu-chi Tsou,Tang

YoshidaShigeru Kurosawa,Noriaki

18.2.1.3CATEGORIZEDLISTINGS.Becausereadersfollowingaparentheticalcitationwillhaveonlyanauthorandadatetohelpthem

identifytherelevantreferencelistentry,organizethelistasdescribedaboveexceptinrarecases.Underthefollowingcircumstances,

youmayconsiderdividingthelistintoseparatecategories:

■Ifyouhavemorethanthreeorfourentriesforaspecialtypeofsource,suchasmanuscripts,archivalcollections,recordings,and

soon,listthemseparatelyfromtherestofyourentries.

■Ifitiscriticaltodistinguishprimarysourcesfromsecondaryandtertiaryones,listtheentriesinseparatesections.

Ifyoucategorizesources,introduceeachseparatesectionwithasubheadingand,ifnecessary,aheadnote.Ordertheentrieswithin

eachsectionaccordingtotheprinciplesgivenabove,anddonotlistasourceinmorethanonesectionunlessitclearlycouldbe

categorizedintwoormoreways.

18.2.2SourcesThatMayBeOmitted

Byconvention,youmayomitthefollowingtypesofsourcesfromareferencelist:

■classical,medieval,andearlyEnglishliteraryworks(19.5.1)and(insomecases)well-knownEnglish-languageplays(19.8.5.2)

■theBibleandothersacredworks(19.5.2)

■well-knownreferenceworks,suchasmajordictionariesandencyclopedias(19.5.3)

136

■anonymousunpublishedinterviewsandpersonalcommunications(19.6.3),individualblogentriesandcomments(19.7.2),and
postingstosocialnetworks(19.7.3)orelectronicdiscussiongroupsormailinglists(19.7.4)
■somesourcesinthevisualandperformingarts,includingartworks(19.8.1)andliveperformances(19.8.2)
■theUSConstitution(19.9.5)andsomeotherpublicdocuments(19.9)
Youmaychoosetoincludeinyourreferencelistaspecificworkfromoneofthesecategoriesthatiscriticaltoyourargumentor
frequentlycited.
18.3ParentheticalCitations
Parentheticalcitationsincludeenoughinformationforreaderstofindthefullcitationinyourreferencelist usuallytheauthor s
name,thedateofpublication,and(ifyouarecitingaspecificpassage),apagenumberorotherlocatinginformation.Thenameand
datemustmatchthoseintherelevantreferencelistentryexactly.(Notethatboththeelementsandthepunctuationinparenthetical
citationsareslightlydifferentfromthoseusedinbibliography-styleparentheticalnotes,whicharedescribedin16.4.3;donot
confuseorcombinethetwostyles.)
18.3.1PlacementinText
Wheneveryourefertoorotherwiseusematerialfromasource,youmustinsertintoyourtextaparentheticalcitationwithbasic
identifyinginformationaboutthatsource.Normally,theparentheticalcitationshouldbeplacedattheendofthesentenceorclause
containingthequotationorothermaterial.Butiftheauthor snameismentionedinthetext,puttherestofthecitation(in
parentheses)immediatelyaftertheauthor sname.Theclosingparenthesisprecedesacomma,period,orotherpunctuationmark
whenthequotationisrunintothetext.Seealso25.2.
“Whatonintrospectionseemstohappenimmediatelyandwithouteffortisoftenacomplexsymphonyofprocessesthattaketimeto
complete”(LeDoux2003,116).
Whileoneschoolclaimsthat“materialculturemaybethemostobjectivesourceofinformationwehaveconcerningAmericaʼspast”
(Deetz1996,259),othersdisagree.
Thecolorbluebecamemoreprominentintheeighteenthcentury(Pastoureau2001,124).
AccordingtoGould(2007,428),thesong“spreadsadeadpanLiverpudlianironyoverthemostclichédsentimentinallofpopular
music.”
Withablockquotation,however,theparentheticalcitationfollowstheterminalpunctuationmark.
Heconcludeswiththefollowingobservation:
ThenewsocietythatIsoughttodepictandthatIwishtojudgeisonlybeingborn.Timehasnotyetfixeditsform;thegreat
revolutionthatcreateditstillendures,andinwhatishappeninginourdayitisalmostimpossibletodiscernwhatwillpassaway
withtherevolutionitselfandwhatwillremainafterit.(Tocqueville2000,673)
SeefigureA.11forasamplepageoftextwithparentheticalcitations.
18.3.2SpecialElementsandFormatIssues
Thebasicpatternforparentheticalcitationsisdescribedin18.1,andtemplatesforseveralcommontypesofsourcesappearinfigure
18.1.Thissectioncoversspecialelementsthatmayneedtobeincludedandspecialformatissuesthatmayariseinparenthetical
citationsofalltypes.
Inthefollowingsituations,treatthenameofaneditor,translator,orothercompilerofaworkasyouwouldanauthor sname,
unlessotherwisespecified.
18.3.2.1AUTHORSWITHSAMELASTNAME.Ifyouciteworksbymorethanoneauthorwiththesamelastname,addtheauthor sfirst
initialtoeachparentheticalcitation,evenifthedatesaredifferent.Iftheinitialsarethesame,spelloutthefirstnames.
(J.Smith2011,140)
(T.Smith2008,25–26)

(HowardBloom2005,15)
(HaroldBloom2010,270)
18.3.2.2WORKSWITHSAMEAUTHORANDDATE.Ifyoucitemorethanoneworkpublishedinthesameyearbyanauthororgroupof
authorsnamedinthesameorder,arrangetheentriesalphabeticallybytitleinyourreferencelistandaddthelettersa,b,c,andso
forthtotheyear(see18.2.1.1).Usethesamedesignationsinyourparentheticalcitations(letterssetinromantype,withoutan
interveningspaceafterthedate).
(Davis2009a,74)
(Davis2009b,59–60)
18.3.2.3NOAUTHOR.Ifyouciteabookorjournalarticlewithoutanauthor,usethetitleinplaceoftheauthorinyourreferencelist(see
137

18.2.1).Inparentheticalcitations,useashortenedtitlecomposedofuptofourdistinctivewordsfromthefulltitle,andprintthetitle
initalicsorromanasinthereferencelist.
(AccountofOperations1870–1910)
(“GreatTrigonometricalSurvey”1863,26)
Formagazineandnewspaperarticleswithoutauthors,usethetitleofthemagazineornewspaperinplaceoftheauthorinboth
locations(see19.3and19.4).Forothertypesofsources,seetherelevantsectioninchapter19forguidance;ifnotstatedotherwise,
useashortenedtitleinthisposition.
18.3.2.4NODATE.Ifyouciteapublishedworkwithoutadate,usethedesignationn.d.( nodate )inplaceofthedateinbothyour
referencelistandparentheticalcitations.Useromantypeandlowercaseletters.
(Smithn.d.,5)
Forothertypesofsources,seetherelevantsectioninchapter19forguidance.
18.3.2.5MORETHANONEWORKCITED.Ifyouciteseveralsourcestomakeasinglepoint,groupthemintoasingleparentheticalcitation.
Listthemalphabetically,chronologically,orinorderofimportance(dependingonthecontext),andseparatethemwithsemicolons.
Severaltheoristsdisagreedstronglywiththisposition(ArmstrongandMalacinski2003;PickettandWhite2009;Beigl2010).
18.3.3FootnotesandParentheticalCitations
Ifyouwishtomakesubstantivecommentsonthetext,usefootnotesinsteadofparentheticalcitations.See16.3.2 16.3.4fornote
placement,numbering,andformat.Tociteasourcewithinafootnote,usethenormalparentheticalcitationform.
N:10.AsMichaelPollan(2007,374)observed,“Wedonʼtknowthemostbasicthingsaboutmushrooms.”
138

19Author-DateStyle:CitingSpecificTypesofSources
1Books
1.1AuthorʼsName
1.2DateofPublication
1.3Title
1.4Edition
1.5Volume
1.6Series
1.7FactsofPublication
1.8PageNumbersandOtherLocators
1.9ChaptersandOtherPartsofaBook
1.10ElectronicBooks
2JournalArticles
2.1AuthorʼsName
2.2DateofPublication
2.3ArticleTitle
2.4JournalTitle
2.5IssueInformation
2.6PageNumbers
2.7SpecialIssuesandSupplements
3MagazineArticles
4NewspaperArticles
4.1NameofNewspaper
4.2CitingNewspapersinReferenceListsandParentheses
4.3CitingNewspapersinText
5AdditionalTypesofPublishedSources
5.1Classical,Medieval,andEarlyEnglishLiteraryWorks
5.2TheBibleandOtherSacredWorks
5.3ReferenceWorks
5.4Reviews
5.5Abstracts
5.6PamphletsandReports
5.7MicroformEditions
5.8CD-ROMsorDVD-ROMs
5.9OnlineCollections
6UnpublishedSources
6.1ThesesandDissertations
6.2LecturesandPapersPresentedatMeetings
6.3InterviewsandPersonalCommunications
6.4ManuscriptCollections
7Websites,Blogs,SocialNetworks,andDiscussionGroups
7.1Websites
7.2BlogEntriesandComments
7.3SocialNetworkingServices
7.4ElectronicDiscussionGroupsandMailingLists
8SourcesintheVisualandPerformingArts
8.1ArtworksandGraphics
8.2LivePerformances
8.3Movies,Television,Radio,andtheLike
8.4SoundRecordings
139

19.8.5TextsintheVisualandPerformingArts
19.9PublicDocuments
19.9.1ElementstoInclude,TheirOrder,andHowtoFormatThem
19.9.2CongressionalPublications
19.9.3PresidentialPublications
19.9.4PublicationsofGovernmentDepartmentsandAgencies
19.9.5USConstitution
19.9.6Treaties
19.9.7LegalCases
19.9.8StateandLocalGovernmentDocuments
19.9.9CanadianGovernmentDocuments
19.9.10BritishGovernmentDocuments
19.9.11PublicationsofInternationalBodies
19.9.12UnpublishedGovernmentDocuments
19.9.13OnlinePublicDocuments
19.10OneSourceQuotedinAnother
Chapter18presentsanoverviewofthebasicpatternforcitationsintheauthor-datestyle,includingbothreferencelistentriesand
parentheticalcitations.Ifyouarenotfamiliarwiththiscitationstyle,readthatchapterbeforeconsultingthisone.
Thischapterprovidesdetailedinformationontheformofreferencelistentries(and,toalesserextent,parentheticalcitations)
forawiderangeofsources.Itstartswiththemostcommonlycitedsources booksandjournalarticles beforeaddressingawide
varietyofothersources.Thesectionsonbooks(19.1)andjournalarticles(19.2)discussvariationsinsuchelementsasauthors
namesandtitlesofworksingreaterdepththansectionsonlesscommonsources.
Examplesofelectronicversionsofmosttypesofsourcesareincludedalongsideothertypesofexamples.Electronicbooksare
discussedat19.1.10.Websites,blogs,andsocial-networkingservicesarediscussedin19.7.
Mostsectionsincludeguidelinesandexamplesforreferencelistentries(identifiedwithanR).Sincemostparentheticalcitations
followthebasicpatterndescribedinchapter18,theyarediscussedhere(P)onlyforclarificationorifunusualelementsmightcause
confusioninpreparingaparentheticalcitation(forexample,whenaworkhasnoauthor).
Ifyoucannotfindanexampleinthischapter,consultchapter15ofTheChicagoManualofStyle,16thedition(2010).Youmay
alsocreateyourownstyle,adaptedfromtheprinciplesandexamplesgivenhere.Mostinstructors,departments,anduniversities
acceptsuchadaptations,aslongasyouusethemconsistently.
19.1Books
Citationsofbooksmayincludeawiderangeofelements.Manyofthevariationsinelementsdiscussedinthissectionarealso
relevanttoothertypesofsources.
19.1.1Author sName
Inyourreferencelist,givethenameofeachauthor(andeditor,translator,orothercontributor)exactlyasitappearsonthetitle
page,andinthesameorder.Ifanameincludesmorethanoneinitial,usespacesbetweenthem(see24.2.1).Putthefirst-listed
author snameininvertedorder(lastnamefirst),exceptforsomenon-Englishnamesandothercasesexplainedin18.2.1.2.Names
ofanyadditionalauthorsshouldfollowbutshouldnotbeinverted.
R:Murav,Harriet.2011.MusicfromaSpeedingTrain:JewishLiteratureinPost-revolutionRussia.Stanford,CA:Stanford
UniversityPress.
Barker-Benfield,G.J.2010.AbigailandJohnAdams:TheAmericanizationofSensibility.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.
Kinder,DonaldR.,andAllisonDale-Riddle.2012.TheEndofRace?Obama,2008,andRacialPoliticsinAmerica.NewHaven,
CT:YaleUniversityPress.
Inparentheticalcitations,useonlytheauthor slastname,exactlyasgiveninthereferencelist.Forworkswiththreeormore
authors,seefigure18.1.
P:(Murav2011,219–20)
(Barker-Benfield2010,499)
(KinderandDale-Riddle2010,47)
19.1.1.1EDITORORTRANSLATORINADDITIONTOANAUTHOR.Ifatitlepagelistsaneditororatranslatorinadditiontoanauthor,treat
theauthor snameasdescribedabove.Addtheeditorortranslator snameafterthebook stitle.Ifthereisatranslatoraswellasan
editor,listthenamesinthesameorderasonthetitlepageoftheoriginal.
Inreferencelistentries,insertthephraseEditedbyorTranslatedbybeforetheeditor sortranslator sname.
R:ElizabethI.2000.CollectedWorks.EditedbyLeahS.Marcus,JanelMueller,andMaryBethRose.Chicago:Universityof
ChicagoPress.
140

Hegel,GeorgWilhelmFriedrich.2010.TheScienceofLogic.EditedandtranslatedbyGeorgediGiovanni.Cambridge:

CambridgeUniversityPress.

Jitrik,Noé.2005.TheNoéJitrikReader.SelectedEssaysonLatinAmericanLiterature.EditedbyDanielBalderston.Translated

bySusanE.Benner.Durham,NC:DukeUniversityPress.

Whenatitlepageidentifiesaneditorortranslatorwithacomplicateddescription,suchas EditedwithanIntroductionand

Notesby or TranslatedwithaForewordby, youcansimplifythisphrasetoeditedbyortranslatedbyandfollowtheabove

examples.Ingeneral,ifaforewordoranintroductioniswrittenbysomeoneotherthantheauthor,youneednotmentionthat

personunlessyoucitethatpartspecifically(see19.1.9).

Inparentheticalcitations,donotincludethenameofaneditorortranslatoriftheworkappearsinyourreferencelistunderthe

author sname.

P:(ElizabethI2000,102–4)

(Hegel2010,642–43)

(Jitrik,189)

19.1.1.2EDITORORTRANSLATORINPLACEOFANAUTHOR.Whenaneditororatranslatorislistedonabook stitlepageinsteadofan

author,usethatperson snameintheauthor sslot.Treatitasyouwouldanauthor sname(seeabove),butinthereferencelist,add

theabbreviationed.ortrans.followingthename.Iftherearemultipleeditorsortranslators,useeds.ortrans.(singularandplural)

andfollowtheprinciplesformultipleauthorsshowninfigure18.1.

R:Heaney,Seamus,trans.2000.Beowulf:ANewVerseTranslation.NewYork:W.W.Norton.

Makhulu,Anne-Maria,BethA.Buggenhagen,andStephenJackson,eds.2010.HardWork,HardTimes:GlobalVolatilityand

AfricanSubjectivities.Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.

P:(Heaney2000,55)

(Makhulu,Buggenhagen,andJackson2010,viii–ix)

19.1.1.3ORGANIZATIONASAUTHOR.Ifapublicationissuedbyanorganization,association,commission,orcorporationhasnopersonal

author snameonthetitlepage,listtheorganizationitselfasauthor,evenifitisalsogivenaspublisher.Forpublicdocuments,see

19.9.

R:AmericanBarAssociation.2010.The2010FederalRulesBook.Chicago:AmericanBarAssociation.

P:(AmericanBarAssociation2010,221)

19.1.1.4PSEUDONYM.Treatawidelyrecognizedpseudonymasifitweretheauthor srealname.Ifthenamelistedastheauthor sis

knowntobeapseudonymbuttherealnameisunknown,addpseud.inbracketsafterthepseudonyminareferencelistentry,

thoughnotinaparentheticalcitation.

R:Twain,Mark.1899.ThePrinceandthePauper:ATaleforYoungPeopleofAllAges.NewYork:HarperandBrothers.

Centinel[pseud.].1981.“Letters.”InTheCompleteAnti-Federalist,editedbyHerbertJ.Storing.Chicago:UniversityofChicago

Press.

P:(Twain1899,34)

(Centinel1981,2)

19.1.1.5ANONYMOUSAUTHOR.Iftheauthorshipisknownorguessedatbutomittedfromthebook stitlepage,includethenamein

brackets(withaquestionmarkifthereisuncertainty).Iftheauthororeditorisunknown,avoidtheuseofAnonymousinplaceofa

nameandbeginthereferencelistentrywiththetitle.Inparentheticalcitations,useashortenedtitle(see18.3.2).

R:[Cook,Ebenezer?].1730.SofweedRedivivus,orThePlanterʼsLooking-Glass.Annapolis.

ATrueandSincereDeclarationofthePurposeandEndsofthePlantationBeguninVirginia,oftheDegreesWhichItHath

Received,andMeansbyWhichItHathBeenAdvanced.1610.London.

P:([EbenezerCook?]1730,5–6)

(TrueandSincereDeclaration1610,17)

19.1.2DateofPublication

Thepublicationdateforabookconsistsonlyofayear,notamonthorday,andisusuallyidenticaltothecopyrightdate.Itgenerally

appearsonthecopyrightpageandsometimesonthetitlepage.

Inareferencelistentry,setoffthedateasitsownelementwithperiods.Inaparentheticalcitation,putitaftertheauthor sname

withoutinterveningpunctuation.

R:Franzén,Johan.2011.RedStaroverIraq:IraqiCommunismbeforeSaddam.NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress.

P:(Franzén2011,186)

Revisededitionsandreprintsmayincludemorethanonecopyrightdate.Inthiscase,themostrecentindicatesthepublication

141

date forexample,2010inthestring 1992,2003,2010. See19.1.4forcitingpublicationdatesinsuchworks.

Ifyoucannotdeterminethepublicationdateofaprintedwork,usetheabbreviationn.d.inplaceoftheyear.Ifnodateis

providedbutyoubelieveyouknowit,youmayadditinbrackets,withaquestionmarktoindicateuncertainty.

R:Agnew,John.n.d.ABookofVirtues.Edinburgh.

Miller,Samuel.[1750?].AnotherBookofVirtues.Boston.

P:(Agnewn.d.,5)

(Miller[1750?],5)

Ifabookisundercontractwithapublisherandisalreadytitledbutthedateofpublicationisnotyetknown,useforthcomingin

placeofthedate.Toavoidconfusion,includeacommaaftertheauthor snameinaparentheticalcitationofthistype.Treatanybook

notyetundercontractasanunpublishedmanuscript(see19.6).

R:Author,JaneQ.Forthcoming.BookTitle.PlaceofPublication:PublisherʼsName.

P:(Author,forthcoming,16)

19.1.3Title

Listcompletebooktitlesandsubtitlesinreferencelistentries.Italicizeboth,andseparatethetitlefromthesubtitlewithacolon.If

therearetwosubtitles,useacolonbeforethefirstandasemicolonbeforethesecond.

R:Goldmark,Daniel,andCharlieKeil.2011.FunnyPictures:AnimationandComedyinStudio-EraHollywood.Berkeley:University

ofCaliforniaPress.

Ahmed,Leila.1999.ABorderPassage:FromCairotoAmerica;AWomanʼsJourney.NewYork:Farrar,StrausandGiroux,

1999.

Capitalizealltitlesandsubtitlesheadlinestyle;thatis,capitalizethefirstletterofthefirstandlastwordsofthetitleandsubtitle

andallmajorwords.Forforeign-languagetitles,usesentence-stylecapitalization;thatis,capitalizeonlythefirstletterofthefirst

wordofthetitleandsubtitleandanypropernounsandproperadjectivesthatwouldbecapitalizedundertheconventionsofthe

originallanguage(insomeRomancelanguages,properadjectivesandsomepropernounsarenotcapitalized).(See22.3.1foramore

detaileddiscussionofthetwostyles.)

(headlinestyle)HowtoDoIt:GuidestoGoodLivingforRenaissanceItalians

(sentencestyle)Desermoneamatorioapudlatinoselegiarumscriptores

Preservethespelling,hyphenation,andpunctuationoftheoriginaltitle,withtwoexceptions:changewordsinfullcapitals

(exceptforinitialismsoracronyms;seechapter24)toupper-andlowercase,andchangeanampersand(&)toand.Spellout

numbersorgivethemasnumeralsaccordingtotheoriginal(twelfthcenturyor12thcentury)unlessthereisagoodreasontomake

themconsistentwithothertitlesinthelist.

Fortitlesofchaptersandotherpartsofabook,see19.1.9.

19.1.3.1SPECIALELEMENTSINTITLES.Severalelementsintitlesrequirespecialtypography.

■Dates.Useacommatosetoffdatesattheendofatitleorsubtitle,evenifthereisnopunctuationintheoriginalsource.Butifthe

sourceintroducesthedateswithapreposition(forexample, from1920to1945 )oracolon,donotaddacomma.

R:Hayes,Romain.2011.SubhasChandraBoseinNaziGermany:Politics,Intelligence,andPropaganda,1941–43.NewYork:

ColumbiaUniversityPress.

Sorenson,JohnL.,andCarlL.Johannessen.2009.WorldTradeandBiologicalExchangesbefore1492.Bloomington,IN:

iUniverse.

■Titleswithintitles.Whenthetitleofaworkthatwouldnormallybeitalicizedappearswithintheitalicizedtitleofanother,enclose

thequotedtitleinquotationmarks.Ifthetitle-within-a-titlewouldnormallybeenclosedinquotationmarks,keepthequotation

marks.

R:Ladenson,Elisabeth.2007.DirtforArtʼsSake:BooksonTrialfrom“MadameBovary”to“Lolita.”Ithaca,NY:CornellUniversity

Press.

McHugh,Roland.1991.Annotationsto“FinnegansWake.”2nded.Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress.

However,whentheentiremaintitleofabookconsistsofaquotationoratitlewithinatitle,donotencloseitinquotationmarks.

R:Swope,Sam.2004.IAmaPencil:ATeacher,HisKids,andTheirWorldofStories.NewYork:HenryHolt.

Wilde,Oscar.2011.ThePictureofDorianGray:AnAnnotated,UncensoredEdition.EditedbyNicholasFrankel.Cambridge,

MA:HarvardUniversityPress.

■Italicizedterms.Whenanitalicizedtitleincludestermsnormallyitalicizedintext,suchasspeciesnamesornamesofships,setthe

termsinromantype.

142

R:Pennington,T.Hugh.2003.WhenFoodKills:BSE,E.coli,andDisasterScience.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.

Lech,RaymondB.2001.TheTragicFateoftheU.S.S.Indianapolis:TheU.S.NavyʼsWorstDisasteratSea.NewYork:Cooper

SquarePress.

■Questionmarksandexclamationpoints.Whenatitleorasubtitleendswithaquestionmarkoranexclamationpoint,noother

punctuationnormallyfollows(butsee21.12.1).

R:Allen,JafariS.2011.iVenceremos?TheEroticsofBlackSelf-MakinginCuba.Durham,NC:DukeUniversityPress.

Wolpert,Stanley.2010.IndiaandPakistan:ContinuedConflictorCooperation?Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.

19.1.3.2OLDERTITLES.Fortitlesofworkspublishedintheeighteenthcenturyorearlier,retaintheoriginalpunctuationandspelling.

Alsoretaintheoriginalcapitalization,evenifitdoesnotfollowheadlinestyle.Wordsinallcapitalletters,however,shouldbegiven

inupper-andlowercase.Ifthetitleisverylong,youmayshortenit,butprovideenoughinformationforreaderstofindthefulltitle

inalibraryorpublisher scatalog.Indicateomissionsinsuchtitlesbythreeellipsisdots.Iftheomissioncomesattheendofatitle,

useaperiodandthreeellipsisdots.

R:Ray,John.1673.ObservationsTopographical,Moral,andPhysiological:MadeinaJourneyThroughpartoftheLow-Countries,

Germany,Italy,andFrance:withACatalogueofPlantsnotNativeofEngland…WhereuntoisaddedABriefAccountof

FrancisWillughby,Esq.,hisVoyagethroughagreatpartofSpain.[London].

Escalante,Bernardino.1579.ADiscourseoftheNavigationwhichthePortugalesdoemaketotheRealmesandProvincesof

theEastPartesoftheWorlde.…TranslatedbyJohnFrampton.London.

19.1.3.3NON-ENGLISHTITLES.Usesentence-stylecapitalizationfornon-Englishtitles,followingthecapitalizationprinciplesforproper

nounswithintherelevantlanguage.Ifyouareunfamiliarwiththeseprinciples,consultareliablesource.

R:Gouguenheim,Sylvain.2008.AristoteauMont-Saint-Michel:LesracinesgrecquesdeIʼEuropechrétienne.Paris:Éditionsdu

Seuil.

PiletićStojanović,Ljiljana,ed.1971.Gutfreundi eškikubizam.Belgrade:Muzejsavremeneumetnosti.

Kelek,Necla.2006.DiefremdeBraut:EinBerichtausdemInnerendestürkischenLebensinDeutschland.Munich:Goldmann

Verlag.

IfyouaddtheEnglishtranslationofatitle,placeitaftertheoriginal.Encloseitinbrackets,withoutitalicsorquotationmarks,

andcapitalizeitsentencestyle.

R:Wereszycki,Henryk.1977.Koniecsojuszutrzechcesarzy[TheendoftheThreeEmperorsʼLeague].Warsaw:PWN.

YuGuoming.2011.Zhongguochuanmeifazhanqianyantansuo[Newperspectivesonnewsandcommunication].Beijing:Xin

huachubanshe.

Ifyouneedtociteboththeoriginalandatranslation,useoneofthefollowingforms,dependingonwhetheryouwanttofocus

readersontheoriginalorthetranslation.

R:Furet,Francois.1995.Lepassédʼuneillusion.Paris:ÉditionsRobertLaffont.TranslatedbyDeborahFuretasThePassingofan

Illusion(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1999).



Furet,François.1999.ThePassingofanIllusion.TranslatedbyDeborahFuret.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.Originally

publishedasLepassédʼuneillusion(Paris:EditionsRobertLaffont,1995).

19.1.4Edition

Someworksarepublishedinmorethanoneedition.Eacheditiondiffersincontentorformatorboth.Alwayscitetheeditionyou

actuallyconsulted(unlessitisafirstedition,whichisusuallynotlabeledassuch).

19.1.4.1REVISEDEDITIONS.Whenabookisreissuedwithsignificantcontentchanges,itmaybecalleda revised editionora second

(orsubsequent)edition.Thisinformationusuallyappearsonthebook stitlepageandisrepeated,alongwiththedateoftheedition,

onthecopyrightpage.

Whenyouciteaneditionotherthanthefirst,includethenumberordescriptionoftheeditionafterthetitle.Abbreviatesuch

wordingas SecondEdition,RevisedandEnlarged as2nded.;abbreviate RevisedEdition asRev.ed.Includethepublicationdate

onlyoftheeditionyouareciting,notofanypreviouseditions(see19.1.2).

R:Foley,DouglasE.2010.LearningCapitalistCulture:DeepintheHeartofTejas.2nded.Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvania

Press.

Levitt,StevenD.,andStephenJ.Dubner.2006.Freakonomics:ARogueEconomistExplorestheHiddenSideofEverything.

Rev.ed.NewYork:WilliamMorrow.

19.1.4.2REPRINTEDITIONS.Manybooksarereissuedorpublishedinmorethanoneformat forexample,inapaperbackedition(by

theoriginalpublisheroradifferentpublisher)orinelectronicform(see19.1.10).Alwaysrecordthefactsofpublicationforthe

versionyouconsulted.Iftheeditionyouconsultedwaspublishedmorethanayearortwoaftertheoriginaledition,youmayinclude

143

thedateoftheoriginal(see19.1.2)inparenthesesinthereferencelistentry.

R:Jarrell,Randall.2010.PicturesfromanInstitution:AComedy.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.(Orig.pub.1954.)

P:(Jarrell2010,79–80)

Ifthereprintisamodernprintingofaclassicwork,youshouldstillcitethereprintedition,butiftheoriginalpublicationdateis

importantinthecontextofyourpaper,includeitinbracketsbeforethereprintdateinbothyourreferencelistandyour

parentheticalcitations.

R:Dickens,Charles.2011.PicturesfromItaly.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.(Orig.pub.1846.)

P:(Dickens2011,10)

R:Dickens,Charles.[1846]2011.PicturesfromItaly.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

P:(Dickens[1846]2011,10)

19.1.5Volume

Ifabookispartofamultivolumework,includethisinformationinyourcitations.

19.1.5.1SPECIFICVOLUME.Tociteaspecificvolumethatcarriesitsowntitle,listthetitleforthemultivolumeworkasawhole,followed

bythevolumenumberandtitleofthespecificvolume.Abbreviatevol.andusearabicnumbersforvolumenumbers.

R:Naficy,Hamid.2011.ASocialHistoryofIranianCinema.Vol.2,TheIndustrializingYears,1941–1978.Durham,NC:Duke

UniversityPress.

Ifthevolumesarenotindividuallytitled,listeachvolumethatyouciteinthereferencelist(seealso19.1.5.2).Inaparenthetical

citation,putthespecificvolumenumberimmediatelybeforethepagenumber,separatedbyacolonandnointerveningspace.

R:Byrne,MurielSt.Clare,ed.1981.TheLisleLetters.Vols.1and4.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.

P:(Byrne1981,4:243)

Somemultivolumeworkshavebothageneraleditorandindividualeditorsorauthorsforeachvolume.Whencitingpartsofsuch

works,putinformationaboutindividualeditorsorauthors(see19.1.1)afterthetitlesforwhichtheyareresponsible.Thisexample

alsoshowshowtociteavolumepublishedinmorethanonephysicalpart(vol.2,bk.3).Inaparentheticalcitation,listonlythe

authorofthepartcited.

R:Mundy,BarbaraE.1998.“MesoamericanCartography.”InTheHistoryofCartography,editedbyJ.BrianHarleyandDavid

Woodward,vol.2,bk.3,CartographyintheTraditionalAfrican,American,Arctic,Australian,andPacificSocieties,editedby

DavidWoodwardandG.MalcolmLewis,183–256.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.

P:(Mundy1998,233)

19.1.5.2MULTIVOLUMEWORKASAWHOLE.Tociteamultivolumeworkasawhole,givethetitleandthetotalnumberofvolumes.Ifthe

volumeshavebeenpublishedoverseveralyears,listthefullspanofpublicationdatesinbothyourreferencelistandyour

parentheticalcitations.

R:Aristotle.1983.CompleteWorksofAristotle:TheRevisedOxfordTranslation.EditedbyJ.Barnes.2vols.Princeton,NJ:

PrincetonUniversityPress.

Tillich,Paul.1951–63.SystematicTheology.3vols.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.

P:(Tillich1951–63,2:41)

Forworksthatincludeindividualvolumetitlesorvolumeeditors(see19.1.5.1),itisusuallybesttociteeachvolumeinthereference

listindividually.

19.1.6Series

Ifabookbelongstoaseries,youmaychoosetoincludeinformationabouttheseriestohelpreaderslocateorjudgethecredibilityof

thesource.Placetheseriesinformationafterthetitle(andanyvolumeoreditionnumberoreditor sname)andbeforethefactsof

publication.

Puttheseriestitleinromantypewithheadline-stylecapitalization,omittinganyinitialThe.Ifthevolumesintheseriesare

numbered,includethenumberoftheworkcitedfollowingtheseriestitle.Thenameoftheserieseditorisoftenomitted,butyoumay

includeitaftertheseriestitle.Ifyouincludebothaneditorandavolumenumber,thenumberisprecededbyvol.

R:Hausman,BlakeM.2011.RidingtheTrailofTears.NativeStoriers:ASeriesofAmericanNarratives.Lincoln:Universityof

144

NebraskaPress.

Lunning,Frenchy,ed.2010.Fanthropologies.Mechademia5.Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress.

Stein,Gertrude.2008.Selections.EditedbyJoanRetallack.PoetsfortheMillennium,editedbyPierreJorisandJerome

Rothenberg,vol.6.Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.

19.1.7FactsofPublication

Thefactsofpublicationusuallyincludetwoelements:theplace(city)ofpublicationandthepublisher sname.(Athirdfactof

publication,thedate,appearsasaseparateelementfollowingtheauthor snameinthiscitationstyle;see19.1.2.)

R:Gladwell,Malcolm.2000.TheTippingPoint:HowLittleThingsCanMakeaBigDifference.Boston:Little,Brown.

Forbookspublishedbeforethetwentiethcentury,orforwhichtheinformationdoesnotappearwithinthework,youmayomit

thepublisher sname.

R:Darwin,Charles.1871.TheDescentofMan,andSelectioninRelationtoSex.2vols.London.

19.1.7.1PLACEOFPUBLICATION.Theplaceofpublicationisthecitywherethebookpublisher smaineditorialofficesarelocated.Ifyou

donotseeitlistedonthetitlepage,lookforitonthecopyrightpageinstead.Wheretwoormorecitiesaregiven( Chicagoand

London, forexample),includeonlythefirst.

LosAngeles:GettyPublications

NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress

Ifthecityofpublicationmightbeunknowntoreadersorconfusedwithanothercityofthesamename,addtheabbreviationof

thestate(see24.3.1),province,or(ifnecessary)country.Whenthepublisher snameincludesthestatename,nostateabbreviation

isneeded.

Cheshire,CT:GraphicsPress

Harmondsworth,UK:PenguinBooks

Cambridge,MA:MITPress

ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress

Usecurrent,commonlyusedEnglishnamesforforeigncities.

Belgrade(notBeograd)

Milan(notMilano)

Whentheplaceofpublicationisnotknown,youmayusetheabbreviationN.p.beforethepublisher sname.Iftheplacecanbe

surmised,includeitwithaquestionmark,inbrackets.

N.p.:Windsor.

[LakeBluff,IL?]:VlietandEdwards.

19.1.7.2PUBLISHERʼSNAME.Givethepublisher snameforeachbookexactlyasitappearsonthetitlepage,evenifyouknowthatthe

namehassincechangedorisprinteddifferentlyindifferentbooksinyourreferencelist.

HarcourtBraceandWorld

HarcourtBraceJovanovich

Harcourt,Brace

Youmay,however,omitaninitialTheandsuchabbreviationsasInc.,Ltd,S.A.,Co.,&Co.,andPublishingCo.(andthespelled-out

formsofsuchcorporateabbreviations).

UniversityofTexasPress

insteadof

TheUniversityofTexasPress

HoughtonMifflin

insteadof

HoughtonMifflinCo.

Little,Brown

insteadof

Little,Brown&Co.

Forforeignpublishers,donottranslateorabbreviateanypartofthepublisher sname,butgivethecitynameinitsEnglishform

(asnotedin19.1.7.1).Whenthepublisherisunknown,usejusttheplace(ifknown).

19.1.8PageNumbersandOtherLocators

145

Pagenumbersandotherinformationusedtoidentifythelocationofacitedpassageorelementgenerallyappearinparenthetical

citationsbutnotinreferencelists.Oneexception:ifyouciteachapterorothersectionofabookinareferencelist,givethepage

rangeforthatchapterorsection(see19.1.9forexamples).

Forguidelinesforexpressingaspanofnumbers,see23.2.4.

19.1.8.1PAGE,CHAPTER,ANDDIVISIONNUMBERS.Thelocatorisusuallythelastiteminaparentheticalcitation.Beforepagenumbers,

thewordpageortheabbreviationp.orpp.isgenerallyomitted.Usearabicnumbersexceptforpagesnumberedwithroman

numeralsintheoriginal.

P:(ArumandRoksa2011,145–46)

(Jones2010,xiv–xv)

Sometimesyoumaywanttorefertoafullchapter(abbreviatedchap.),part(pt.),book(bk.),orsection(sec.)insteadofaspanof

pagenumbers.

P:(Datar,Garvin,andCullen2010,pt.2)

Somebooksprintedbefore1800donotcarrypagenumbersbutaredividedintosignaturesandthenintoleavesorfolios,each

withafrontside(recto,orr)andabackside(verso,orv).Tocitesuchpages,includetherelevantstringofnumbersandidentifiers,

runtogetherwithoutspacesoritalics:forexample,G6v,176r,232r v,or(ifyouarecitingentirefolios)fol.49.

19.1.8.2OTHERTYPESOFLOCATORS.Sometimesyouwillwanttociteaspecificnote,afigureortable,oranumberedline(asinsome

worksofpoetry).

■Notenumbers.Usetheabbreviationn(pluralnn)tocitenotes.Ifthenotecitedistheonlyfootnoteonitspageorisan

unnumberedfootnote,addnafterthepagenumber(withnointerveningspaceorpunctuation).Ifthereareotherfootnotesor

endnotesonthesamepageasthenotecited,listthepagenumberfollowedbynor(iftwoormoreconsecutivenotesarecited)nn

andthenotenumber(s).

P:(Grafton1997,72n)

(Bolinger1980,192n23,192n30,199n14,201nn16–17)

■Illustrationandtablenumbers.Usetheabbreviationfig.forfigure,butspellouttable,map,plate,andnamesofothertypesof

illustrations.Givethepagenumberbeforetheillustrationnumber.

P:(Sobel1993,87,table5.3)

■Linenumbers.Forpoetryandotherworksbestidentifiedbylinenumber,avoidtheabbreviationsl.(line)andll.(lines);theyare

tooeasilyconfusedwiththenumeralsIandII.Uselineorlines,orusenumbersalonewhereyouhavemadeitclearthatyouare

referringtolines.

P:(Nash1945,lines1–4)

19.1.9ChaptersandOtherPartsofaBook

Inmostcases,youshouldcitethemaintitleofanybookthatoffersasingle,continuousargumentornarrative,evenifyouactually

useonlyasectionofit.Butsometimesyouwillwanttociteanindependentessayorchapterifthatisthepartmostrelevanttoyour

research.Bydoingso,youhelpreadersseehowthesourcefitsintoyourproject.

R:Demos,John.2001.“RealLivesandOtherFictions:ReconsideringWallaceStegnerʼsAngleofRepose.”InNovelHistory:

HistoriansandNovelistsConfrontAmericaʼsPast(andEachOther),editedbyMarkC.Carnes,132–45.NewYork:Simon

andSchuster.

P:(Demos2001,137)

insteadof

R:Carnes,MarkC.,ed.2001.NovelHistory:HistoriansandNovelistsConfrontAmericaʼsPast(andEachOther).NewYork:Simon

andSchuster.

P:(Carnes2001,137)

19.1.9.1PARTSOFSINGLE-AUTHORBOOKS.Ifyouciteachapterorothertitledpartofasingle-authorbook,thereferencelistshould

includethetitleofthepartfirst,inromantypeandenclosedinquotationmarks.AfterthedesignationIn,givethebooktitle,

followedbythefullspanofpagenumbersforthatpart.

R:Greenhalgh,Susan.2010.“StrengtheningChinaʼsParty-StateandPlaceintheWorld.”InCultivatingGlobalCitizens:Population

intheRiseofChina,79–114.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress.

Somebooksattributedtoasingleauthorincludeaseparatelyauthoredpartwithagenerictitlesuchasprefaceorafterword.To

146

citesuchapart,addthattermbeforethetitleofthebookinromantypewithoutquotationmarks,andcapitalizethefirstwordonly.

Parentheticalcitationsmentiononlythepartauthor sname.

R:Calhoun,Craig.2005.ForewordtoMulticulturalPolitics:Racism,Ethnicity,andMuslimsinBritain,byTariqModood,ix–xv.

Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress.

P:(Calhoun2005,xii)

Iftheauthorofthegenericpartisthesameastheauthorofthebook,however,citethebookasawholeinthereferencelist,notjust

thepart.

19.1.9.2PARTSOFEDITEDCOLLECTIONS.Inareferencelist,ifyoucitepartofaneditedcollectionwithcontributionsbymultiple

authors,firstlistthepartauthor,thedate,andtheparttitle(inromantype,enclosedinquotationmarks).AfterthedesignationIn,

givethebooktitle,thenameoftheeditor,andthefullspanofpagenumbersforthatpart.Parentheticalcitationsmentiononlythe

partauthor sname.

R:Binkley,Cameron.2011.“SavingRedwoods:ClubwomenandConservation,1900–1925.”InCaliforniaWomenandPolitics:

FromtheGoldRushtotheGreatDepression,editedbyRobertW.Cherny,MaryAnnIrwin,andAnnMarieWilson,151–74.

Lincoln:UniversityofNebraskaPress.

P:(Binkley2011,155)

Ifyoucitetwoormorecontributionstothesameeditedcollection,youmayuseaspace-savingshortenedform.Inyourreference

list,provideafullcitationforthewholebookandshortenedcitationsforeachindividualpart.Forthelatter,providethefullauthor s

name,thepublicationdate,andthefulltitleofthepart;afterthedesignationIn,addtheshortenednameofthebook seditor,the

publicationdate,andthefullspanofpagenumbersforthatpart.

R:Keating,AnnDurkin,ed.2008.ChicagoNeighborhoodsandSuburbs:AHistoricalGuide.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.

Bruegmann,Robert.2008.“BuiltEnvironmentoftheChicagoRegion.”InKeating2008,76–314.

Reiff,Janice,L.2008.“ContestedSpaces.”InKeating2008,55–63.

Ifyouusethisform,yourparentheticalcitationsshouldrefertothepartsonly,nottothebookasawhole.

P:(Bruegmann2008,299–300)

not

(Keating2008,299–300)

(Reiff2008,57)

not

(Keating2008,57)

19.1.9.3WORKSINANTHOLOGIES.Citeashortstory,poem,essay,orotherworkpublishedinananthologyinthesamewayyouwoulda

contributiontoaneditedcollectionwithmultipleauthors.Givethetitlesofmostworkspublishedinanthologiesinromantype,

enclosedinquotationmarks.Anexceptionisthetitleofanexcerptfromabook-lengthpoemorprosework,whichshouldbe

italicized(see22.3.2).

R:Allende,Isabel.1997.“TheSpiritsWereWilling.”InTheOxfordBookofLatinAmericanEssays,editedbyIIanStavans,461–67.

NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.

Wigglesworth,Michael.2003.ExcerptfromTheDayofDoom.InTheNewAnthologyofAmericanPoetry,vol.1,Traditionsand

Revolutions,Beginningsto1900,editedbyStevenGouldAxelrod,CamilleRoman,andThomasTravisano,68–74.New

Brunswick,NJ:RutgersUniversityPress.

P:(Allende1997,463–64)

(Wigglesworth2003,68)

Iftheoriginalpublicationdateofaworkisimportantinthecontextofyourpaper,includeitinbracketsbeforetheanthology s

publicationdateinbothyourreferencelistandyourparentheticalcitations.

R:Wigglesworth,Michael.[1662]2003.Excerptfrom…

P:(Wigglesworth[1662]2003,68)

19.1.10ElectronicBooks

Electronicbooksarecitedliketheirprintedcounterparts,asdiscussedthroughout19.1.Inaddition,youwillneedtoinclude

informationabouttheformatyouconsulted.Ifyoureadthebookonline,includebothanaccessdateandaURL.Ifarecommended

URLislistedalongwiththebook,usethatinsteadoftheoneinyourbrowser saddressbar.Ifyouconsultedthebookinalibraryor

commercialdatabase,youmaygivethenameofthedatabaseinstead.Ifyoudownloadedthebookinadedicatede-bookformat,

specifytheformatanddonotincludeanaccessdate.See15.4.1formoredetails.

147

R:Pattison,George.2011.GodandBeing:AnEnquiry.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.AccessedSeptember2,2012.

http://dx.doi.Org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199588688.001.0001.

Quinlan,JosephP.2010.TheLastEconomicSuperpower:TheRetreatofGlobalization,theEndofAmericanDominance,and

WhatWeCanDoaboutIt.NewYork:McGraw-Hill.AccessedNovember1,2011.ProQuestEbrary.

Hogan,Erin.2008.SpiralJetta:ARoadTripthroughtheLandArtoftheAmericanWest.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.

AdobePDFeBook.

Gladwell,Malcolm.2008.Outliers:TheStoryofSuccess.Boston:Little,Brown.Kindle.

P:(Pattison2011,103–4)

(Gladwell2008,193)

Somee-bookformatshavestablepagenumbersthatarethesameforeveryreader(forexample,PDF-basede-books),butin

formatsthatallowindividualreaderstoadjusttypesizeandothersettings,pagenumberswillvaryfromoneperson sversionto

another s.Includingthenameoftheformatordatabaseyouusedwillhelpyourreadersdeterminewhetherthepagenumbersin

yourcitationsarestableornot.Anotheroptionifthepagenumbersarenotstableistocitebychapteroranothernumbereddivision

(see19.1.8.1)or,iftheseareunnumbered,bythenameofthechapterorsection(see19.1.9).Thefollowingsourcealsolacksthe

originalfactsofpublication.

R:Dostoevsky,Fyodor.2011.CrimeandPunishment.TranslatedbyConstanceGarnett.ProjectGutenberg.AccessedSeptember

13,2011.http://gutenberg.org/files/2554/2554-h/2554-h.htm.

P:(Dostoevsky2011,pt.6,chap.1)

19.2JournalArticles

Journalsarescholarlyorprofessionalperiodicalsavailableprimarilyinacademiclibrariesandbysubscription.Theyofteninclude

thewordjournalintheirtitle(JournalofModernHistory),butnotalways(Signs).Journalsarenotthesameasmagazines,which

areusuallyintendedforamoregeneralreadership.Thisdistinctionisimportantbecausejournalarticlesandmagazinearticlesare

citeddifferently(see19.3).Ifyouareunsurewhetheraperiodicalisajournaloramagazine,seewhetheritsarticlesinclude

citations;ifso,treatitasajournal.

Manyjournalarticlesareavailableonline,oftenthroughyourschool slibrarywebsiteorfromacommercialdatabase.Tocitean

articlethatyoureadonline,includebothanaccessdateandaURL.IfaURLislistedalongwiththearticle,usethatinsteadofthe

oneinyourbrowser saddressbar.Ifyouconsultedthearticleinalibraryorcommercialdatabase,youmaygivethenameofthe

databaseinstead.See15.4.1formoredetails.

19.2.1Author sName

Giveauthors namesexactlyastheyappearattheheadsoftheirarticles.Uselastnamesinparentheticalcitations.Inthereference

list,thenameofthefirst-listedauthorisinverted.Forsomespecialcases,see18.2.1.2and19.1.1.

19.2.2DateofPublication

Themaindateofpublicationforajournalarticleconsistsonlyofayear.Inareferencelistentry,setitoffasitsownelementwith

periodsfollowingtheauthor sname.Inaparentheticalcitation,putitaftertheauthor snamewithoutinterveningpunctuation.

R:Gubar,Susan.2011.“IntheChemoColony.”CriticalInquiry37,no.4(Summer):652–71.AccessedAugust29,2011.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/660986.

Bartfeld,Judi,andMyoungKim.2010.“ParticipationintheSchoolBreakfastProgram:NewEvidencefromtheECLS-K.”Social

ServiceReview84,no.4(December):541–62.AccessedOctober31,2012.http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/657109.

P:(Gubar2011,652)

(BartfeldandKim2010,550–51)

Noticethatadditionaldateinformationappearsinparentheseslaterinareferencelistentry,afterthevolumenumberandissue

information(see19.2.5).

Ifanarticlehasbeenacceptedforpublicationbuthasnotyetappeared,useforthcominginplaceofthedate(andpagenumbers).

Toavoidconfusion,includeacommaaftertheauthor snameinaparentheticalcitationofthistype.Treatanyarticlenotyet

acceptedforpublicationasanunpublishedmanuscript(see19.6).

R:Author,MargaretM.Forthcoming.“ArticleTitle.”JournalName98.

P:(Author,forthcoming)

19.2.3ArticleTitle

Listcompletearticletitlesandsubtitles.Useromantype,separatethetitlefromthesubtitlewithacolon,andenclosebothin

quotationmarks.Useheadline-stylecapitalization(see22.3.1).

R:SaskiaE.Wieringa.2011.“PortraitofaWomenʼsMarriage:NavigatingbetweenLesbophobiaandIslamophobia.”Signs36,no.

4(Summer):785–93.AccessedFebruary15,2012.http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/658500.

Termsnormallyitalicizedintext,suchasspeciesnamesandbooktitles,remainitalicizedwithinanarticletitle;termsnormally

148

quotedintextareenclosedinsinglequotationmarksbecausethetitleitselfiswithindoublequotationmarks.Donotaddeithera

colonoraperiodafteratitleorsubtitlethatendsinaquestionmarkoranexclamationpoint.Butsee21.12.1.

R:Twomey,LisaA.2011.“TabooorTolerable?HemingwayʼsForWhomtheBellTollsinPostwarSpain.”HemingwayReview30,

no.2(Spring):54–72.

Lewis,Judith.1998.““TisaMisfortunetoBeaGreatLadieʼ:MaternalMortalityintheBritishAristocracy,1558–1959.”Journalof

BritishStudies37,no1(January):26–40.AccessedAugust29,2011.http://www.jstor.org/stable/176034.

Foreign-languagetitlesshouldgenerallybecapitalizedsentencestyle(see22.3.1)accordingtotheconventionsoftheparticular

language.IfyouaddanEnglishtranslation,encloseitinbrackets,withoutquotationmarks.

R:Carreño-Rodríguez,Antonio.2009.“Modernidadenlaliteraturagauchesca:CarnavalizaciónyparodiaenelFaustode

EstanislaodelCampo.”Hispania92,no.1(March):12–24.AccessedDecember8,2011.

http://www.jstor.org/stable/40648253.

Kern,W.1938.“WaarverzameldePigafettazijnMaleisewoorden?”[WheredidPigafettacollecthisMalaysianwords?]

TijdschriftvoorIndischetaal-,land-envolken-kunde78:271–73.

19.2.4JournalTitle

Afterthearticletitle,listthejournaltitleinitalics,withheadline-stylecapitalization(see22.3.1).Givethetitleexactlyasitappears

onthetitlepageoronthejournalwebsite;donotuseabbreviations,althoughyoucanomitaninitialThe.Iftheofficialtitleisan

initialismsuchasPMLA,donotexpandit.Forforeign-languagejournals,youmayuseeitherheadline-styleorsentence-style

capitalization,butretainallinitialarticles(DerSpiegel).

19.2.5IssueInformation

Inadditiontoadateofpublication,mostreferencelistentriesincludevolumenumber,issuenumber,andmonthorseason.Readers

maynotneedalloftheseelementstolocateanarticle,butincludingthemallguardsagainstapossibleerrorinoneofthem.

Thevolumenumberfollowsthejournaltitlewithoutinterveningpunctuationandisnotitalicized.Usearabicnumeralsevenif

thejournalitselfusesromannumerals.Ifthereisanissuenumber,itfollowsthevolumenumber,separatedbyacommaand

precededbyno.

Includeadditionaldateinformationbeyondtheyearofpublication(see19.2.2)inparenthesesafterthevolumeandissue

number.Followthepracticeofthejournalregardingsuchinformation;itmayincludeaseason,amonth,oranexactday.Capitalize

seasonsinjournalcitations,eventhoughtheyarenotcapitalizedintext.

R:Brown,Campbell.2011.“ConsequentializeThis.”Ethics121,no.4(July):749–71.AccessedAugust29,2011.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/660696.

lonescu,Felicia.2011.“RiskyHumanCapitalandAlternativeBankruptcyRegimesforStudentLoans.”JournalofHuman

Capitals5,no.2(Summer):153–206.AccessedOctober13,2011.http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/661744.

Whenajournalusesissuenumbersonly,withoutvolumenumbers,acommafollowsthejournaltitle.

R:Beattie,J.M.1974.“ThePatternofCrimeinEngland,1660–1800.”PastandPresent,no.62(February):47–95.

19.2.6PageNumbers

Forareferencelistentry,givethefullspanofpagenumbersforthearticle(see23.2.4).Byconvention,pagenumbersofjournal

articlesinreferencelistsfollowcolonsratherthancommas.

R:Hitchcock,Tim.2005.“BeggingontheStreetsofEighteenth-CenturyLondon.”JournalofBritishStudies44,no.3(July):478–

98.AccessedJanuary11,2012.http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/429704.

Gold,AnnGrodzins.1998.“GrainsofTruth:ShiftingHierarchiesofFoodandGraceinThreeRajasthaniTales.”Historyof

Religions38,no.2(November):150–71.AccessedApril8,2012.http://www.jstor.org/stable/3176672.

Ifyouciteaparticularpassageinaparentheticalcitation,giveonlythespecificpage(s)cited,precededbyacomma(notacolon).

P:(Hitchcock2005,478)

(Gold1998,152–53)

19.2.7SpecialIssuesandSupplements

Ajournalissuedevotedtoasinglethemeisknownasaspecialissue.Itcarriesanormalvolumeandissuenumber.Ifaspecialissue

hasatitleandaneditorofitsown,includebothinareferencelistentry.Thetitleisgiveninromantypeandenclosedinquotation

marks.Inaparentheticalcitation,giveonlytheauthorofthepartcited.

R:Koch,Gertrud.2009.“CarnivoreorChameleon:TheFateofCinemaStudies.”In“TheFateofDisciplines,”editedbyJames

ChandlerandArnoldI.Davidson.Specialissue,CriticalInquiry35,no.4(Summer):918–28.AccessedAugust30,2011.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/599582.

P:(Koch2009,920)

Ifyouneedtocitetheissueasawhole,omitthearticleinformation.

149

R:Chandler,James,andArnoldI.Davidson,eds.2009.“TheFateofDisciplines.”Specialissue,CriticalInquiry35,no.4

(Summer).

Ajournalsupplementmayalsohaveatitleandanauthororeditorofitsown.Unlikeaspecialissue,itisnumberedseparately

fromtheregularissuesofthejournal,oftenwithSaspartofitspagenumbers.Useacommabetweenthevolumenumberandthe

supplementnumber.

R:Ekeland,Ivar,JamesJ.Heckman,andLarsNesheim.2004.“IdentificationandEstimationofHedonicModels.”In“Papersin

HonorofSherwinRosen,”JournalofPoliticalEconomy112,S1(February):S60–S109.AccessedDecember23,2011.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/379947.

19.3MagazineArticles

Articlesinmagazinesarecitedmuchlikejournalarticles(see19.2),butdatesandpagenumbersaretreateddifferently.

Citemagazinesbydateonly,eveniftheyarenumberedbyvolumeandissue.Inreferencelistentries,puttheyearintheusual

positionandanyadditionaldateinformation(suchasmonthorexactday)afterthemagazinetitle(butnotinparentheses).Ifyou

citeaspecificpassageinaparentheticalcitation,includeitspagenumber.Butyoumayomitthearticle sinclusivepagenumbersina

referencelistentry,sincemagazinearticlesoftenspanmanypagesthatincludeextraneousmaterial.(Ifyoudoincludepage

numbers,useacommaratherthanacolontoseparatethemfromthedateofissue.)Aswithjournals,omitaninitialThefromthe

magazinetitle(see19.2.4).

R:Lepore,Jill.2011.“DickensinEden.”NewYorker,August29.

P:(Lepore2011,52)

Ifyouciteadepartmentorcolumnthatappearsregularly,capitalizeitheadlinestyleanddonotencloseitinquotationmarks.

R:Walraff,Barbara.2005.WordCourt.AtlanticMonthly,June.

P:(Walraff2005,128)

MagazinesconsultedonlineshouldincludeanaccessdateandaURLinthereferencelistentry(seealso15.4.1.3).Typicallythere

willbenopagenumberstocite.

R:Black,Robin.2011.“PresidentObama:WhyDonʼtYouReadMoreWomen?”Salon,August24.AccessedOctober30,2011.

http://www.salon.com/books/writing/index.htmI?story=/books/feature/2011/08/24/obama_summer_reading.

P:(Black2011)

19.4NewspaperArticles

19.4.1NameofNewspaper

ForEnglish-languagenewspapers,omitaninitialTheinthenameofthenewspaper.Ifthenamedoesnotincludeacity,addittothe

officialtitle,exceptforwell-knownnationalpaperssuchastheWallStreetJournalandtheChristianScienceMonitor.Ifanameis

sharedbymanycitiesorisobscure,youmayaddthestateorprovinceinparentheses(usuallyabbreviated;see24.3.1).Forforeign

newspapers,retainaninitialarticleifitisformallypartofthename,andaddcitynamesaftertitlesforclarity,ifnecessary.

ChicagoTribune

SaintPaul(AlbertaorAB)Journal

LeMonde

Times(London)

19.4.2CitingNewspapersinReferenceListsandParentheses

Inyourreferencelist,citearticlesandotherpiecesfromnewspapersgenerallyasyouwouldarticlesinmagazines(see19.3).Foran

unsignedarticle,usethenameofthenewspaperinplaceoftheauthor.Becauseanewspapermayhaveseveraleditionswithslightly

differentcontents,youmayclarifywhicheditionyouconsultedbyaddingfinaledition,Midwestedition,orsomesuchidentifier.

ArticlesreadonlineshouldincludeanaccessdateandaURL.Forarticlesobtainedthroughacommercialdatabase,youmaygivethe

nameofthedatabaseinstead.See15.4.1formoredetails.

R:MilwaukeeJournalSentinel.2012.Editorial.March31.

Ward,ChristopherO.2011.Lettertotheeditor.NewYorkTimes,August28.

Gussow,Mel.2011.ObituaryforElizabethTaylor.NewYorkTimes,March24.NewYorkedition.

Gaddafi,Saifal-lslam.2011.InterviewbySimonDenyer.WashingtonPost,April17.AccessedSeptember3,2011.

http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/an-interview-with-saif-al-islam-gaddafi-son-of-the-libyan-

leader/2011/04/17/AF4RXVwD_story.html.

AssociatedPress.2011.“Ex-IMFChiefReturnsHometoFrance.”USAToday,September4.AccessedSeptember4,2011.

http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/story/2011-09-04/Ex-IMF-chief-returns-home-to-France/50254614/1.

Simon,Richard.2011.“RedistrictingCouldCostCaliforniaSomeCloutinWashington.”LosAngelesTimes,August28.

150

AccessedAugust30,2011.http://www.latimes.com/news/local/la-me-california-congress-20110829,0,1873016.story

Lepage,Mark.2011.“Armageddon,Apocalypse,theRapture:PeopleHaveBeenPredictingtheEndsincetheBeginning.”

Gazette(Montreal),May21.AccessedDecember20,2012.LexisNexisAcademic.

Omitpagenumbersinparentheticalcitationsbecausetheitemmayappearondifferentpagesormayevenbedroppedin

differenteditionsofthenewspaper.

P:(MilwaukeeJournalSentinel2012)

(Ward2011)

(Gaddafi2011)

(AssociatedPress2004)

ArticlesfromSunday magazine supplementsorotherspecialsectionsshouldbetreatedasyouwouldmagazinearticles(see

19.3).

19.4.3CitingNewspapersinText

Insteadofusingastandardparentheticalcitation,youcanincludesomeoftheelementsofthecitationinyourtext.Youshouldstill

giveafullcitationtothearticleinyourreferencelist.

InaNewYorkTimesarticleonthebrawlinBeijing(August19,2011),AndrewJacobscomparestheofficialresponseswiththose

postedtosocialmedianetworks.

InanarticlepublishedintheNewYorkTimesonAugust19,2011,AndrewJacobscomparestheofficialresponsestothebrawlin

Beijingwiththosepostedtosocialmedianetworks.

19.5AdditionalTypesofPublishedSources

Thereareseveraladditionaltypesofpublishedmaterialthathavespecialrequirementsforcitations.

19.5.1Classical,Medieval,andEarlyEnglishLiteraryWorks

LiteraryworksproducedinclassicalGreeceandRome,medievalEurope,andRenaissanceEnglandareciteddifferentlyfrom

modernliteraryworks.Thesesourcesareoftenorganizedintonumberedsections(books,lines,stanzas,andsoforth)thatare

generallycitedinplaceofpagenumbers.Becausesuchworkshavebeenpublishedinsomanyversionsandtranslationsoverthe

centuries,thedateandotherfactsofpublicationformoderneditionsaregenerallylessimportantthaninothertypesofcitations.

Forthisreason,classical,medieval,andearlyEnglishliteraryworksshouldusuallybecitedonlyinparentheticalcitations.Ifthe

author snameandthetitlearenotalreadymentionedinthesurroundingtext,includethemalongwiththesectionnumberupon

firstreference.Ifsubsequentcitationsclearlyrefertothesamework,listonlythesectionnumber.Seebelowregardingdifferencesin

punctuation,abbreviations,andnumbersamongdifferenttypesofworks.

TheeightydaysofinactivityforthePeloponnesianfleetatRhodes(Thucydides,TheHistoryofthePeloponnesianWar8.44.4),

terminatingbeforetheendofwinter(8.60.2–3),suggests…

TheeightydaysofinactivityreportedbyThucydidesforthePeloponnesianfleetatRhodes(TheHistoryofthePeloponnesianWar

8.44.4),terminatingbeforetheendofwinter(8.60.2–3),suggests…

Ifyourpaperisinliterarystudiesoranotherfieldconcernedwithcloseanalysisoftexts,orifdifferencesintranslationsare

relevant,includesuchworksinyourreferencelist.Followtherulesforothertranslatedandeditedbooksin19.1.1.1.

R:Propertius.1990.Elegies.EditedandtranslatedbyG.P.Goold.LoebClassicalLibrary18.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversity

Press.

Aristotle.1983.CompleteWorksofAristotle:TheRevisedOxfordTranslation.EditedbyJ.Barnes.2vols.Princeton,NJ:

PrincetonUniversityPress.

19.5.1.1CLASSICALWORKS.Inadditiontothegeneralprincipleslistedabove,thefollowingrulesapplytocitationsofclassicalworks.

Usenopunctuationbetweenthetitleofaworkandalineorsectionnumber.Numericaldivisionsareseparatedbyperiods

withoutspaces.Usearabicnumerals(andlowercaseletters,ifneeded)forsectionnumbers.Putcommasbetweentwoormore

citationsofthesamesourceandsemicolonsbetweencitationsofdifferentsources.

P:(Aristophanes,Frogs1019–30)

(Cicero,InVerrem2.1.21,2.3.120;Tacitus,Germania10.2–3)

(Aristotle,Mefaphysics3.2.996b5–8;Plato,Republic36oe-361b)

Youcanabbreviatethenamesofauthors,works,collections,andsoforth.Themostwidelyacceptedabbreviationsappearinthe

OxfordClassicalDictionary.Usetheseabbreviationsratherthanibid.insucceedingreferencestothesamework.Inthefirst

example,theauthor(Thucydides)standsinforthetitlesonocommaisneeded.

151

P:(Thuc.2.40.2–3)

(Pindar,Isthm.7.43–45)

19.5.1.2MEDIEVALWORKS.Theformforclassicalreferencesworksequallywellformedievalworkswritteninlanguagesotherthan

English.

P:(Augustine,DecivitateDei20.2)

(Abelard,Epistle17toHeloïse,inMigne,PL180.375c–378a)

19.5.1.3EARLYENGLISHWORKS.Inadditiontothegeneralprincipleslistedabove,thefollowingrulesapplytocitationsofearlyEnglish

literaryworks.

Citepoemsandplaysbybook,canto,andstanza;stanzaandline;act,scene,andline;orsimilardivisions.Separatetheelements

withcommasforclarity.

P:(Chaucer,“WifeofBathʼsPrologue,”CanterburyTales,lines105–14)

(Milton,ParadiseLost,book1,lines83–86)

Youmayshortennumbereddivisionsbyomittingwordssuchasactandline,usingasystemsimilartotheoneforclassical

references(seeabove).Besuretoexplainyoursysteminafootnote( Referencesaretobookandlinenumbers ).

P:(Milton,ParadiseLost1.83–86)

Ifeditionsdifferinwording,linenumbering,andevenscenedivision commoninworksofShakespeare includetheworkin

yourreferencelist,witheditionspecified.

R:Shakespeare,William.2006.Hamlet.EditedbyAnnThompsonandNeilTaylor.ArdenShakespeare3.London:Arden

Shakespeare.

19.5.2TheBibleandOtherSacredWorks

CitetheBibleandsacredworksofotherreligioustraditionsinparentheticalcitations.Youdonotneedtoincludetheminyour

referencelist.

ForcitationsfromtheBible,includetheabbreviatednameofthebook,thechapternumber,andtheversenumber neverapage

number.Dependingonthecontext,youmayuseeithertraditionalorshorterabbreviationsforthenamesofbooks(see24.6);

consultyourinstructorifyouareunsurewhichformisappropriate.Usearabicnumeralsforchapterandversenumbers(witha

colonbetweenthem)andfornumberedbooks.

Traditionalabbreviations:

P:(1Thess.4:11,5:2–5,5:14)

Shorterabbreviations:

P:(2Sm11:1–17,11:26–27;1Chr10:13–14)

Sincebooksandnumberingdifferamongversionsofthescriptures,identifytheversionyouareusinginbracketsinyourfirst

citation,eitherwiththespelled-outnameoranacceptedabbreviation(see24.6.4).

P:(2Kings11:8[NewRevisedStandardVersion])

(1Cor.6:1–10[NAB])

Forcitationsfromthesacredworksofotherreligioustraditions,adaptthegeneralpatternforbiblicalcitationsasappropriate(see

24.6.5).

19.5.3ReferenceWorks

Well-knownreferenceworks,suchasmajordictionariesandencyclopedias,shouldusuallybecitedonlyinparentheticalcitations.

Yougenerallyneednotincludetheminyourreferencelist,althoughyoumaychoosetoincludeaspecificworkthatiscriticaltoyour

argumentorfrequentlycited.Omitthedate,butspecifytheedition(ifnotthefirst,orunlessnoeditionisspecified).Articles

consultedonlinewillrequireanaccessdateandaURL(see15.4.1.3).Foraworkarrangedbykeytermssuchasadictionaryor

encyclopedia,citetheitem(notthevolumeorpagenumber)precededbys.v.(subverbo, undertheword ;pl.s.vv.)

P:(OxfordEnglishDictionary,3rded.,s.v.“mondegreen”[accessedFebruary1,2012,http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/251801])

(EncyclopaediaBritannica,s.v.“Sibelius,Jean”[accessedApril13,2011,

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/542563/Jean-Sibelius])

Treatreferenceworksthataremorespecializedorlesswellknownasyouwouldabook(see19.1).

R:MLAStyleManualandGuidetoScholarlyPublishing.2008.3rded.NewYork:ModernLanguageAssociationofAmerica.

Aulestia,Gorka.1989.Basque-EnglishDictionary.Reno:UniversityofNevadaPress.

P:(MLAStyleManual2008,6.8.2)

152

(Aulestia1989,509)

19.5.4Reviews

Reviewsofbooks,performances,andsoforthmayappearinavarietyofperiodicals.Inyourreferencelist,includethenameofthe

reviewer;thewordsreviewof,followedbythenameoftheworkreviewedanditsauthor(orcomposer,director,andsoforth);any

otherpertinentinformation(suchasfilmstudioorlocationofaperformance);and,finally,theperiodicalinwhichthereview

appeared.Ifthereviewwasconsultedonline,includeanaccessdateandURL(see15.4.1.3).

R:Malitz,David.2011.ReviewofconcertperformancebyBobDylan.MerriweatherPostPavilion,Columbia,MD.WashingtonPost,

August17.AccessedAugust31,2011.http://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/music-review-bob-dylan-at-

merriweather-post-pavilion/2011/08/17/glQAebiDMJ_story.html.

Scott,A.O.2011.ReviewofTheDebt,directedbyJohnMadden.MiramaxFilms.NewYorkTimes,August31.

Mokyr,Joel.2011.ReviewofNaturalExperimentsofHistory,editedbyJaredDiamondandJamesA.Robinson.American

HistoricalReview116,no.3(June2011):752–55.AccessedDecember9,2011.http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/ahr.116.3.752.

19.5.5Abstracts

Youcanciteinformationintheabstractofajournalarticle,dissertation,orotherworkinaparentheticalcitation.Inthereference

list,includethefullcitationoftheworkbeingabstracted.Intheparentheticalcitation,insertthewordabstract,setoffbycommas,

aftertheyearofpublicationandbeforeanypagenumber.

R:Brown,Campbell.2011.“ConsequentializeThis.”Ethics121,no.4(July2011):749–71.

P:(Brown2011,abstract,749)

19.5.6PamphletsandReports

Citeapamphlet,corporatereport,brochure,oranotherfreestandingpublicationasyouwouldabook.Ifyoulackdataforsomeof

theusualelements,suchasauthorandpublisher,giveenoughotherinformationtoidentifythedocument.Sourcesconsultedonline

shouldincludeanaccessdateandaURL(see15.4.1.3).

R:Clark,HazelV.1957.Mesopotamia:BetweenTwoRivers.Mesopotamia,OH:EndoftheCommonsGeneralStore.

TIAA-CREF.2011.TIAA-CREFLifeFunds:2011SemiannualReport.NewYork:TIAA-CREFFinancialServices.Accessed

October5,2011.http://www.tiaa-cref.org/public/prospectuses/lifefunds_semi_ar.pdf.

19.5.7MicroformEditions

Inyourreferencelist,citeworksthatyouhaveconsultedinmicroformeditionsaccordingtotype(book,newspaperarticle,

dissertation,andsoforth).Inaddition,specifytheformofpublication(fiche,microfilm,andsoforth)afterthefactsofpublication.

R:Farwell,Beatrice.1995.FrenchPopularLithographicImagery.Vol.12,LithographyinArtandCommerce.Chicago:Universityof

ChicagoPress.Text-fiche.

Tauber,Abraham.1958.“SpellingReformintheUnitedStates.”PhDdiss.,ColumbiaUniversity.Microfilm.

Inaparentheticalcitation,includealocatorifpossible.Inthefollowingexample,thepagenumber(identifiedwiththe

abbreviationp.forclarity)appearswithintheprintedtextonthefiche;theothernumbersindicatetheficheandframe,andtheletter

indicatestherow.

P:(Farwell1995,p.67,3C12)

19.5.8CD-ROMsorDVD-ROMs

CiteworksissuedonCD-orDVD-ROMasyouwouldanalogousprintedworks,mostoftenbooks.

R:CompleteNationalGeographic:EveryIssuesince1888of“NationalGeographic”Magazine.2010.7DVD-ROMs.Washington,

DC:NationalGeographic.

OxfordEnglishDictionary.2009.2nded.CD-ROM,version4.0.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.

19.5.9OnlineCollections

ThenameofawebsitesuchasPerseusthatisdevotedentirelytoaspecificsubjectareaortoacollectionofsimilarresourcesmaybe

importantenoughtomentioninyourcitationtoaspecificpublication.Inthisway,sucharesourceissimilartoaphysical

manuscriptcollection(see19.6.4).Inadditiontothepublicationinformation,includethenameofthecollectionandanaccessdate

andURL(see15.4.1.3).

R:PlinytheElder.1855.TheNaturalHistory.EditedbyJohnBostockandH.T.Riley.InthePerseusDigitalLibrary.AccessedMay

15,2011.http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=:text:1999.02.0137.

P:(PlinytheElder1855)

Ifyouhavecitedmorethanonesourcefromthecollection,youmayalsocitethecollectionasawhole(inwhichcaseanaccess

dateisunnecessary).

153

R:PerseusDigitalLibrary.EditedbyGregoryR.Crane.http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/

19.6UnpublishedSources

Sourcesthathaveneverbeenpublishedcanbemoredifficultforreaderstolocatethanpublishedones,becausetheyoftenexistin

onlyoneplaceandtypicallylackofficialpublicationinformation.Whencitingsuchsourcesinyourreferencelist,itisespecially

importanttoincludealloftheinformationlistedbelowtogivereadersasmuchhelpaspossible.

Titlesofunpublishedworksaregiveninromantype,enclosedinquotationmarks,andnotitalicized.Thisformatdifference

distinguishesthemfromsimilarbutpublishedworks.CapitalizeEnglish-languagetitlesheadlinestyle.

19.6.1ThesesandDissertations

Thesesanddissertationsarecitedmuchlikebooksexceptforthetitle,whichisinromantypeandenclosedinquotationmarks.After

theauthor,date,andtitle,listthekindofthesisandtheacademicinstitution.Abbreviatedissertationasdiss.Thewordunpublished

isunnecessary.Ifyou veconsultedthedocumentonline,includeanaccessdateandaURL.IfarecommendedURLislistedalong

withthedocument,usethatinsteadoftheoneinyourbrowser saddressbar.Ifyouconsultedthedocumentinalibraryor

commercialdatabase,youmaygivethenameofthedatabaseinsteadoftheURL.See15.4.1formoredetails.

R:Culcasi,KarenLeigh.2003.“CartographicRepresentationsofKurdistaninthePrintMedia.”Masterʼsthesis,Syracuse

University.

Levin,DanaS.2010.“LetʼsTalkaboutSex…Education:ExploringYouthPerspectives,ImplicitMessages,andUnexamined

ImplicationsofSexEducationinSchools.”PhDdiss.,UniversityofMichigan.AccessedMarch13,2012.

http://hdl.handle.net/2027.42/75809.

Richmond,AfrahDaaimah.2011.“UnmaskingtheBostonBrahmin:RaceandLiberalismintheLongStruggleforReformat

HarvardandRadcliffe,1945–1990.”PhDdiss.,NewYorkUniversity.AccessedSeptember25,2011.ProQuestDissertations

&Theses.

19.6.2LecturesandPapersPresentedatMeetings

Aftertheauthor,date,andtitleofthespeechorpaper,listthesponsorship,location,and(ifavailable)specificdayofthemeetingat

whichitwasgiven.Thewordunpublishedisunnecessary.Ifyouconsultedatextortranscriptofthelectureorpaperonline,include

anaccessdateandaURL(see15.4.1.3).Ifyouwatchedorlistenedtothepresentationonline,adapttheexamplesheretotheadvice

at19.8.3.5.

R:Crane,GregoryR.2011.“ContextualizingEarlyModernReligioninaDigitalWorld.”Lecture,NewberryLibrary,Chicago,

September16.

CarvalhoFilho,Irineude,andRenatoP.Colistete.2010.“EducationPerformance:WasItAllDetermined100YearsAgo?

EvidencefromSãoPaulo,Brazil.”Paperpresentedatthe70thannualmeetingoftheEconomicHistoryAssociation,

Evanston,IL,September24–26.AccessedJanuary22,2012.http://mpra.ub.uni-

muenchen.de/24494/1/MPRA_paper_24494.pdf.

Pateman,Carole.2011.“ParticipatoryDemocracyRevisited.”Presidentialaddress,annualmeetingoftheAmericanPolitical

ScienceAssociation,Seattle,September1.

19.6.3InterviewsandPersonalCommunications

Tociteanunpublishedinterview(includingoneyouhaveconductedyourself),beginareferencelistentrywiththenameofthe

personinterviewed,followedbythedateandthenameoftheinterviewer.Alsoincludetheplaceandspecificdayoftheinterview(if

known)andthelocationofanytapesortranscripts(ifavailable).(Foranexampleofapublishedinterview,see19.4.2.Forbroadcast

interviews,see19.8.3.3.)

R:Shields,David.2011.Interviewbyauthor.Seattle.February15.

Spock,Benjamin.1974.InterviewbyMiltonJ.E.Senn.November20.Interview67A,transcript,SennOralHistoryCollection,

NationalLibraryofMedicine,Bethesda,MD.

Inparentheticalcitations,usethenameofthepersoninterviewed,notthatoftheinterviewer.

P:(Shields2011)

(Spock1974)

Ifyoucannotrevealthenameofthepersoninterviewed,useonlyaparentheticalcitationorweavetheinformationintothetext;

youdonotneedtoincludetheinterviewinyourreferencelist.Explaintheabsenceofaname( Allinterviewswereconfidential;the

namesofintervieweesarewithheldbymutualagreement )inafootnoteorapreface.

P:(interviewwithahealthcareworker,March23,2010)

Citeconversations,letters,e-mailortextmessages,andthelikeonlyinparentheticalcitations.Thekeyelements,whichshould

beseparatedwithcommas,arethenameoftheotherperson,thedate,andthetypeofcommunication.Inmanycasesyoumaybe

abletoincludesomeorallofthisinformationinthetext.Omite-mailaddresses.Tocitepostingstosocialnetworkingservices,see

19.7.3;fordiscussiongroupsandmailinglists,see19.7.4.

P:(MaxineGreene,April23,2012,e-mailmessagetoauthor)

154

InatelephoneconversationwiththeauthoronJanuary1,2012,MayanstudiesexpertMelissaRamirezconfidedthat…

19.6.4ManuscriptCollections

Documentsfromphysicalcollectionsofunpublishedmanuscriptsinvolvemorecomplicatedandvariedelementsthanpublished

sources.Inyourcitations,includeasmuchidentifyinginformationasyoucan,formattheelementsconsistently,andadaptthe

generalpatternsoutlinedhereasneeded.

19.6.4.1ELEMENTSTOINCLUDEANDTHEIRORDER.Ifyoucitemultipledocumentsfromacollection,listthecollectionasawholeinyour

referencelist,underthenameofthecollection,theauthor(s)oftheitemsinthecollection,orthedepository.Forsimilartypesof

unpublishedmaterialthathavenotbeenplacedinarchives,replaceinformationaboutthecollectionwithsuchwordingas inthe

author spossession or privatecollection, anddonotmentionthelocation.Donotincludeadate,sincemostcollectionscontain

itemsfromvariousdates.

R:EgmontManuscripts.PhillippsCollection.UniversityofGeorgiaLibrary,Athens.

House,EdwardM.,Papers.YaleUniversityLibrary,NewHaven,CT.

PennsylvaniaSocietyfortheAbolitionofSlavery.Papers.HistoricalSocietyofPennsylvania,Philadelphia.

Strother,French,andEdwardLowry.Undatedcorrespondence.HerbertHooverPresidentialLibrary,WestBranch,IA.

WomenʼsOrganizationforNationalProhibitionReform.Papers.AliceBelinduPontfiles,PierreS.duPontPapers.Eleutherian

MillsHistoricalLibrary,Wilmington,DE.

Tociteanindividualdocumentfromsuchacollectioninyourtext,identifytheauthoranddate,thetitleortypeofdocument,and

thenameofthecollectionorthedepositoryusedinthereferencelistentry.Separatetheelementswithcommas.Inmanycasesyou

maybeabletoincludesomeorallofthisinformationinthetext.

P:(JamesOglethorpetothetrustees,January13,1733,EgmontManuscripts)

InhisletterofJanuary13,1733,tothetrustees(EgmontManuscripts),JamesOglethorpedeclared…

Ifyouciteonlyonedocumentfromacollection,listitindividuallyinyourreferencelist,andfollowtheusualpatternfor

parentheticalcitations.

R:Dinkel,Joseph.1869.DescriptionofLouisAgassizwrittenattherequestofElizabethCaryAgassiz.AgassizPapers.Houghton

Library,HarvardUniversity,Cambridge,MA.

P:(Dinkel1869)

19.6.4.2HOWTOFORMATTHEELEMENTS.Herearesomespecialformattingrecommendationsfordocumentsinmanuscriptcollections.

■Specificversusgenerictitles.Usequotationmarksforspecifictitlesofdocumentsbutnotforgenerictermssuchasreportand

minutes.Capitalizegenericnamesofthiskindonlyiftheyarepartofaformalheadinginthemanuscript,notiftheyaremerely

descriptive.

■Locatinginformation.Althoughsomemanuscriptsmayincludepagenumbersthatcanbeincludedinparentheticalcitations,

manywillhaveothertypesoflocators,ornoneatall.Oldermanuscriptsareusuallynumberedbysignaturesonlyorbyfolios(fol.,

fols.)ratherthanbypage.Somemanuscriptcollectionshaveidentifyingseriesorfilenumbersthatyoucanincludeinacitation.

■Papersandmanuscripts.Intitlesofmanuscriptcollectionsthetermspapersandmanuscriptsaresynonymous.Bothare

acceptable,asaretheabbreviationsMSandMSS(plural).

■Letters.Tocitealetterinaparentheticalcitation,startwiththenameoftheletterwriter,followedbytoandthenameofthe

recipient.Omitthewordletter,whichisunderstood,butforotherformsofcommunication,specifythetype(telegram,

memorandum).

19.7Websites,Blogs,SocialNetworks,andDiscussionGroups

Materialpostedorsharedonwebsites,blogs,socialnetworks,andthelikemaylackoneormoreofthestandardfactsofpublication

(author,date,title,orpublisher).InadditiontoanaccessdateandaURL(see15.4.1.3),youmustincludeenoughinformationto

positivelyidentifyand(ifpossible)locateasourceeveniftheURLchangesorbecomesobsolete.

19.7.1Websites

Fororiginalcontentfromonlinesourcesotherthanbooksorperiodicals(see15.4.1.2),includeinyourreferencelistasmuchofthe

followingasyoucandetermine:author,publicationorrevisiondate,titleofthepage(inromantype,enclosedinquotationmarks),

andtitleorownerofthesite(usuallyinromantype;see22.3.2.3).AlsoincludeanaccessdateandaURL(see15.4.1.3).Ifthereisno

author,thesourceshouldbelistedunderthetitleofthewebsiteorthenameofitsownerorsponsor.Ifthereisnodate,usethe

accessdate.

R:Brooks,Susannah.2011.“LongtimeLibraryDirectorReflectsonaCareerattheCrossroads.”UniversityofWisconsin-Madison

News,September1.AccessedMay14,2012.http://www.news.wisc.edu/19704.

Google.2010.“PrivacyPolicy.”GooglePrivacyCenter.LastmodifiedOctober3.AccessedMarch3,2011.

http://www.google.com/intl/en/privacypolicy.html.

McDonaldʼsCorporation.2011.“ToySafety.”McDonaldʼsCanada.AccessedNovember30,2011.

http://www.mcdonalds.ca/en/community/toysafety.aspx.

155

Wikipedia.2011.“WikipediaManualofStyle.”LastmodifiedSeptember2.AccessedSeptember3,2011.

http://en.wikipedia.0rg/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_0f_Style.

P:(Brooks2011)

(McDonaldʼsCorporation2011)

19.7.2BlogEntriesandComments

Blogentriesarecitedmuchlikearticlesinnewspapers(see19.4).Inyourreferencelist,includeasmuchofthefollowingasyoucan

determine:theauthoroftheentry,thedate,atitle(inquotationmarks),thenameoftheblog(initalics),andthespecificdaythe

entrywasposted.AlsoincludeanaccessdateandaURL(see15.4.1.3).Givetheblogger snameexactlyaslisted,evenifitisclearlya

pseudonym;iftheblogger srealnamecanbeeasilydetermined,includeitinbrackets.Ifthetitleoftheblogdoesnotmakethegenre

clear,youmayindicate blog inparentheses.Iftheblogispartofalargerpublication,givethenameofthepublicationafterthetitle

oftheblog.

R:Becker,Gary.2012.“IsCapitalisminCrisis?”TheBecker-PosnerBlog,February12.AccessedFebruary16,2012.

http://www.becker-posner-blog.com/2012/02/is-capitalism-incrisis-becker.html.

SubversiveCopyEditor,The[CarolFisherSailer].2011.“StillLearning:FunLanguageWords.”TheSubversiveCopyEditor

Blog,February16.AccessedFebruary28,2011.http://www.subversivecopyeditor.com/blog/2011/02/still-learningfun-

language-words.html.

Cavett,Dick.2011.“Flying?IncreasinglyfortheBirds.”Opinionator(blog).NewYorkTimes,August19.AccessedOctober14,

2011.http://www.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/08/19/flying-increasingly-for-the-birds/

McWhorter,John,andJoshuaKnobe.2011.“BlackMartianLinguists.”Bloggingheads.tv(videoblog),August26.Accessed

November7,2011.http://bloggingheads.tv/diavlogs/38530?in=:00&out=:03.

P:(Cavett2011)

(McWhorterandKnobe2011)

Citeindividualreaders commentsonlyinparentheticalcitations.Identifythecommenterandthedateandtimeofthecomment,

followedbytherelevantinformationfromthereferencelist(usuallyanauthor-datecitationfortheblogentry).Givethe

commenter snameexactlyaslisted,evenifitisclearlyapseudonym.Youmaybeabletoincludesomeorallofthisinformationin

thetext,aslongasyouhavemadeitclearwhatthecommentrefersto.

P:(Mr.FeelGood,February14,2012[1:37a.m.],commentonBecker2012)

AccordingtoacommentbyMr.FeelGoodonFebruary14,2012(1:37a.m.),…

19.7.3SocialNetworkingServices

Informationpostedonsocialnetworkingservicesshouldbecitedonlyinparentheticalcitations.Listtheidentityoftheposter(ifnot

mentionedinthetext),thenameoftheservice,andthedateandtimeofthepost.AlsoincludeanaccessdateandaURL(see

15.4.1.3).

P:(SarahPalin,Twitterpost,August25,2011[10:23p.m.],accessedSeptember4,2011,http://twitter.com/sarahpalinusa)

(ObamaforAmerica,September4,2011[6:53a.m.],accessedSeptember22,2011,https://www.facebook.com/barackobama)

Aswithnewspaperarticles(see19.4.3),youmaychoosetoweavesuchinformationintothetext.Besuretopreserveenough

informationtoallowreaderstoidentifythesource.

InamessagepostedtoherTwittersiteonAugust25,2011(at10:23p.m.),SarahPalin(@SarahPalinUSA)notedthat…

Ifyouciteseveralmessagesfromaparticularservice,youmayincludethesiteasawholeinyourreferencelist.Forthedate,use

thedateyoulastaccessedthesite.

R:Obama,Barack.2011.Facebookpage.RunbyObamaforAmerica.AccessedSeptember22,2011.

https://www.facebook.com/barackobama.

19.7.4ElectronicDiscussionGroupsandMailingLists

Materialpostedorsenttoanelectronicdiscussiongroupormailinglistshouldnormallybecitedonlyinparentheticalcitations.List

thenameofthecorrespondent,thetitleofthegrouporsubjectlineofthee-mailmessage(inquotationmarks),thenameofthe

forumorlist,andthedateandtimeofthemessageorpost.Omite-mailaddresses.Givethecorrespondent snameexactlyaslisted,

evenifitisclearlyapseudonym.Ifthematerialisarchivedonline,includeanaccessdateandaURL(see15.4.1.3).

P:(DodgerFan,postto“TheAtomicBombingofJapan,”September1,2011[12:57:58p.m.PDT],Historyforum,Amazon.com,

accessedSeptember30,2011,http://www.amazon.com/forum/history/)

Aswithnewspaperarticles(see19.4.3),youmaychoosetoweavemuchofthisinformationintothetext.Besuretopreserve

enoughinformationtoallowreaderstoidentifythesource.

SharonNaylor,inhere-mailofAugust23,2011,totheEduc.&BehaviorScienceALADiscussionList

(http://listserv.uncc.edu/archives/ebss-l.html),pointedoutthat…

156

Ifyouciteseveralitemsfromaparticulargrouporlist,youmaychoosetoincludetheforumasawholeinyourreferencelist.For

thedate,usethedateyoulastaccessedthesite.

R:Amazon.com.2011.“TheAtomicBombingofJapan.”Historyforum.AccessedSeptember1,2011.

http://www.amazon.com/forum/history.

19.8SourcesintheVisualandPerformingArts

Thevisualandperformingartsgenerateavarietyofsources,includingartworks,liveperformances,broadcasts,recordingsin

variousmedia,andtexts.Citingsomeofthesesourcescanbedifficultwhentheylackthetypesofidentifyinginformationcommonto

publishedsources.Includeasmuchidentifyinginformationasyoucan,formattheelementsconsistently,andadaptthegeneral

patternsoutlinedhereasneeded.

Someofthesourcescoveredinthissection,wherenoted,canbecitedinparentheticalcitationsonlyorbyweavingthekey

elementsintoyourtext,althoughyoumaychoosetoincludeaspecificiteminyourreferencelistthatiscriticaltoyourargumentor

frequentlycited.Ifyourpaperisforacourseinthearts,mediastudies,orasimilarfield,consultyourinstructor.

19.8.1ArtworksandGraphics

19.8.1.1PAINTINGS,SCULPTURES,ANDPHOTOGRAPHS.Citepaintings,sculptures,photographs,drawings,andthelikeonlyin

parentheticalcitations.Includethenameoftheartist,thetitleoftheartwork(initalics)anddateofitscreation(precededbyca.

[circa]ifapproximate),andthenameoftheinstitutionthathousesit(ifany),includinglocation.Separatetheelementswith

commas.Youmayalsoincludethemedium,ifrelevant.

P:(GeorgiaOʼKeeffe,TheCliffChimneys,1938,MilwaukeeArtMuseum)

(Michelangelo,David,1501–4,GalleriadellAccademia,Florence)

(AnselAdams,NorthDome,BasketDome,MountHoffman,Yosemite,ca.1935,SmithsonianAmericanArtMuseum,

Washington,DC)

(ErichBuchholz,Untitled,1920,gouacheonpaper,MuseumofModernArt,NewYork)

Insteadofusingaparentheticalcitation,youcansometimesciteartworksbyweavingtheelementsintoyourtext.

OʼKeeffefirstdemonstratedthistechniqueinTheCliffChimneys(1938,MilwaukeeArtMuseum).

Ifyouviewedtheartworkinapublishedsourceoronlineandyourlocalguidelinesrequireyoutoidentifythissource,includethe

sourceinyourreferencelist.Forimagesconsultedonline,includeanaccessdateandaURL.Inyourparentheticalcitation,ifthe

sourceisdifferentfromtheartist,givetheusualauthor-datecitationinplaceoftheinstitutionalnameandlocation.

R:Buchholz,Erich.1920.Untitled.Gouacheonpaper.MuseumofModernArt,NewYork.AccessedDecember4,2011.

http://www.moma.org/collection/browse_results.php?object_id=38187.

Lynes,BarbaraBuhler,LesleyPoling-Kempes,andFrederickW.Turner.2004.GeorgiaOʼKeeffeandNewMexico:ASenseof

Place.Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress.

P:(Buchholz1920)

(GeorgiaOʼKeeffe,TheCliffChimneys,1938,inLynes,Poling-Kempes,andTurner2004,25)

19.8.1.2GRAPHICARTS.Citegraphicsourcessuchasprintadvertisements,maps,cartoons,andsoforthonlyinparentheticalcitations,

adaptingthebasicpatternsforartworksandgivingasmuchinformationaspossible.Giveanytitleorcaptioninromantype,

enclosedinquotationmarks,andidentifythetypeofgraphicifitisunclearfromthetitle.Foritemsconsultedonline,includean

accessdateandaURL.

P:(Toyota,“WeSeebeyondCars,”advertisement,ArchitecturalDigest,January2010,57)

(“RepublicofLetters:1700–1750,”interactivemap,MappingtheRepublicofLetters,accessedFebruary28,2012,

https://republicofletters.stanford.edu/)

(“DividebyZero,”Internetmeme,YoDawgPics,accessedDecember2,2012,http://yodawgpics.com/yo-dawg-pictures/divide-

by-zero)

Anyinformationincludedinthetextneednotberepeatedintheparentheticalcitation.

Onesuchmemeisknownas“DividebyZero”(YoDawgPics,accessedDecember2,2012,http://yodawgpics.com/yo-dawg-

pictures/divide-by-zero).

19.8.2LivePerformances

Citelivetheatrical,musical,ordanceperformancesonlyinparentheticalcitations.Includethetitleoftheworkperformed,the

author,anykeyperformersandanindicationoftheirroles,thevenueanditslocation,andthedate.Italicizethetitlesofplaysand

longmusicalcompositions,butsetthetitlesofshorterworksinromantype,enclosedinquotationmarksexceptformusicalworks

referredtobygenre(see22.3.2.3.).Ifthecitationisfocusedonanindividual sperformance,listthatperson snamebeforethetitle

ofthework.Separatetheelementswithcommas.

P:(Spider-Man:TurnOfftheDark,byGlenBergerandJulieTaymor,musicandlyricsbyBonoandTheEdge,directedbyJulie

157

Taymor,FoxwoodsTheater,NewYork,September10,2011)

(SimoneDinnerstein,pianist,IntermezzoinA,op.118,no.2,byJohannesBrahms,PortlandCenterforthePerformingArts,

Portland,OR,January15,2012.)

Insteadofusingaparentheticalcitation,youcansometimesciteliveperformancesbyweavingtheelementsintoyourtext.

SimoneDinnersteinʼsperformanceofBrahmsʼsIntermezzoinA,op.118,no.2(January15,2012,atPortlandCenterforthe

PerformingArts),wasanythingbutintermediate…

Ifyouviewedorlistenedtoaliveperformanceinarecordedmedium,citetherecordinginyourreferencelist.See19.8.3 5for

similartypesofexamples.

R:Rubinstein,Artur,pianist.1975.“SpinningSong,”byFelixMendelssohn.AmbassadorCollege,Pasadena,CA,January15.On

TheLastRecitalforIsrael.BMGClassics,1992.VHS.

19.8.3Movies,Television,Radio,andtheLike

Citationsofmovies,televisionshows,radioprograms,andthelikewillvarydependingonthetypeofsource.Ataminimum,identify

thetitleofthework,thedateitwasreleasedorbroadcastorotherwisemadeavailable,andthenameofthestudioorotherentity

responsibleforproducingordistributingorbroadcastingthework.Ifyouwatchedavideoorlistenedtoarecording,include

informationaboutthemedium.Ifyouconsultedthesourceonline,includeanaccessdateandaURL(see15.4.1.3).

19.8.3.1MOVIES.Inthereferencelist,citeamovieunderthenameofthedirector(followedbydir.).Afterthedate,givethetitleofthe

movie(initalics),followedbythenameofthecompanythatproducedordistributedit.Youmayalsoincludeinformationabout

writers,actors,producers,andsoforthifitisrelevanttoyourdiscussion.Unlessyouwatchedthemovieinatheater,include

informationaboutthemedium.

R:Zwigoff,Terry,dir.1994.Crumb.SuperiorPictures.DVD,SonyPictures,2006.

Heckerling,Amy,dir.1982.FastTimesatRidgemontHigh.ScreenplaybyCameronCrowe.FeaturingJenniferJasonLeighand

SeanPenn.UniversalPictures.DVD,2002.

Cholodenko,Lisa,dir.1998.HighArt.OctoberFilms.AccessedSeptember6,2011.http://movies.netflix.com/.

Weed,A.E.1903.AttheFootoftheFlatiron.AmericanMutoscopeandBiograph.35mmfilm.LibraryofCongress,TheLifeofa

City:EarlyFilmsofNewYork,1898–1906.MPEGvideo,2:19.AccessedFebruary4,2011.

http://www.loc.gov/ammem/papr/nychome.html.

P:(Cholodenko1998)

Informationaboutancillarymaterialincludedwiththemovieshouldbewovenintothetext,withtheparentheticalreference

referringtothemovieasawhole.

Intheiraudiocommentary,producedtwentyyearsafterthereleaseoftheirfilm,HeckerlingandCroweagreethat…(Heckerling

1982).

19.8.3.2TELEVISIONANDRADIOPROGRAMS.Tociteatelevisionorradioprogram,include,ataminimum,thetitleoftheprogram,the

nameoftheepisodeorsegment,thedateonwhichitwasfirstairedormadeavailable,andtheentitythatproducedorbroadcastthe

work.Youmayalsoincludeanepisodenumber,thenameofthedirectororauthoroftheepisodeorsegment,and(ifrelevanttoyour

discussion)thenamesofkeyperformers.Italicizethetitlesofprograms,butsetthetitlesofepisodesorsegmentsinromantype,

enclosedinquotationmarks.Ifyouwatchedorlistenedtoarecordinginanythingotherthanitsoriginalbroadcastmedium,include

informationaboutthemedium.

R:AllThingsConsidered.2011.“BumpsontheRoadBacktoWork,”byTamaraKeith.AiredSeptember5onNPR.

MadMen.2007.“Nixonvs.Kennedy,”directedbyAlanTaylor.Season1,episode12.AiredOctober11onAMC.DVD,Lions

GateTelevision.

30Rock.2011.“EverythingFunnyAlltheTimeAlways,”directedbyJohnRiggi.FeaturingTinaFey,TracyMorgan,Jane

Krakowski,JackMcBrayer,ScottAdsit,JudahFried-lander,andAlecBaldwin.Season5,episode22.AiredApril28onNBC.

AccessedMarch21,2012.http://www.hulu.com/30-rock/.

P:(30Rock2011)

Insteadofusingaparentheticalcitation,youcanoftencitesuchprogramsbyweavingthekeyelementsintoyourtext,especially

ifsomeoralloftheadditionalelementsarenotavailableorrelevanttothecitation.

MadMenuseshistoryandflashbackin“Nixonvs.Kennedy”(AMC,October11,2007),withacombinationofarchivaltelevision

footageand…

19.8.3.3INTERVIEWS.Tociteinterviewsontelevision,radio,andthelike,treatthepersoninterviewedastheauthor,andidentifythe

interviewerinthecontextofthecitation.Alsoincludetheprogramorpublicationanddateoftheinterview(orpublicationorair

date).Forunpublishedinterviews,see19.6.3.

R:Rice,Condoleezza.2005.InterviewbyJimLehrer.PBSNewsHour,July28.AccessedJuly7,2012.

158

http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/politics/jan-june05/rice_3–4.html.

Poitras,Laura.2011.InterviewbyLorneManly.“The9/11Decade:ACulturalView”(video).NewYorkTimes,September2.

AccessedMarch11,2012.http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2011/09/02/us/sept-11-reckoning/artists.html.

P:(Rice2005)

19.8.3.4ADVERTISEMENTS.Citeadvertisementsfromtelevision,radio,andthelikeonlyinparentheticalcitationsorbyweavingthe

elementsintoyourtext,orboth.

P:(Doritos,“HealingChips,”advertisementairedonFoxSports,February6,2011,30seconds,accessedSeptember7,2011,

http://www.foxsports.com/m/video/36896580/doritos-healing-chips.htm)

Aswithtelevisionshows(19.8.3.2),youcanoftenciteadvertisementsbyweavingthekeyelementsintoyourtext,especiallyif

someoralloftheadditionalelementsarenotavailableorrelevanttothecitation.

TheDoritosad“HealingChips,”whichairedduringSuperBowlXLV(FoxSports,February6,2011)…

19.8.3.5VIDEOSANDPODCASTS.Tociteavideoorapodcast,include,ataminimum,thenameanddescriptionoftheitemplusan

accessdateandaURL(see15.4.1.3).Theexamplesaboveformovies,television,andradio(19.8.3.1 4)maybeusedastemplatesfor

includinganyadditionalinformation.Givethecreator snameexactlyaslisted,evenifitisclearlyapseudonym;ifthecreator sreal

namecanbeeasilydetermined,includeitinbrackets.

R:Adele.“SomeonelikeYou”(musicvideo).DirectedbyJakeNava.PostedOctober1,2011.AccessedFebruary28,2012.

http://www.mtv.com/videos/adele/693356/someone-like-you.jhtml.

Donner,Fred.“HowIslamBegan”(video).Lecture,AlumniWeekend2011,UniversityofChicago,June3,2011.Accessed

January5,2012.http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5RFK5u5lkhA.

Shear,Michael,host.“TheSpatoverPresidentObamaʼsUpcomingJobsSpeech.”TheCaucus(MP3podcast).NewYork

Times,September1,2011.AccessedSeptember6,2011.http://www.nytimes.com/pages/podcasts/.

Luminosity.“WomensWork_SPN”(video).March5,2009.AccessedApril22,2011.http://www.viddler.com/v/lf6d7f1f.

Ifrelevant,youmayincludethetimeatwhichthecitedmaterialappearsinthefileinyourparentheticalcitation.

P:(Adele2011,2:37)

19.8.4SoundRecordings

Tocitearecording,includeasmuchinformationasyoucantodistinguishitfromsimilarrecordings,includingthedateofthe

recording,thenameoftherecordingcompany,theidentifyingnumberoftherecording,thecopyrightdate(ifdifferentfromtheyear

oftherecording),andthemedium.Listtherecordingunderthenameofthecomposerortheperformer,dependingonwhichis

morerelevanttoyourdiscussion.Titlesofalbumsshouldbeinitalics;individualselectionsshouldbeinquotationmarksexceptfor

musicalworksreferredtobygenre(see22.3.2.3).AbbreviatecompactdiscasCD.Recordingsconsultedonlineshouldincludean

accessdateandaURL(see15.4.1.3).Ingeneral,citebyyearofrecording,butyoumayrepeatdatestoavoidanyconfusion.

R:Holiday,Billie.1958.“IʼmaFooltoWantYou,”byJoelHerron,FrankSinatra,andJackWolf.RecordedFebruary20withRay

Ellis.OnLadyinSatin.ColumbiaCL1157.33⅓rpm.

Beethoven,Ludwigvan.1969and1970.PianoSonatano.29(“Hammerklavier”).RudolfSerkin,piano.RecordedDecember8–

10,1969,andDecember14–15,1970.SonyClassics,2005.MP3.

Strauss,Richard.1940.DonQuixote.WithEmanuelFeuermann(violoncello)andthePhiladelphiaOrchestra,conductedby

EugeneOrmandy.RecordedFebruary24.BiddulphLAB042,1991.CD.

PinkFloyd.1970.“AtomHeartMother.”RecordedApril29atFillmoreWest,SanFrancisco.Streamingaudio.AccessedJuly7,

2011.http://www.wolfgangsvault.com/pink-floyd/concerts/fillmore-west-april-29-1970.htmI.

Rubinstein,Artur.1946and1958–67.TheChopinCollection.RCAVictor/BMG60822–2-RG,1991.11CDs.

Shostakovich,Dmitri.1959and1965.Symphonyno.5/Symphonyno.9.ConductedbyLeonardBernstein.Recordedwiththe

NewYorkPhilharmonic,October20,1959(no.5),andOctober19,1965(no.9).SonySMK61841,1999.CD.

P:(Holiday1958)

(Shostakovich1959and1965)

Treatrecordingsofdrama,proseorpoetryreadings,lectures,andthelikeasyouwouldmusicalrecordings.

R:Thomas,Dylan.1953.UnderMilkWood.PerformedbyDylanThomasetal.RecordedMay14.OnDylanThomas:The

CaedmonCollection,discs9and10.Caedmon,2002.11CDs.

Schlosser,Eric.2004.FastFoodNation:TheDarkSideoftheAmericanMeal.ReadbyRickAdamson.NewYork:Random

House,RHCD493.8CDs.

19.8.5TextsintheVisualandPerformingArts

19.8.5.1ARTEXHIBITIONCATALOGS.Citeanartexhibitioncatalogasyouwouldabook.Inyourreferencelist,includeinformationabout

theexhibitionfollowingthepublicationdata.

159

R:Dackerman,Susan,ed.2011.PrintsandthePursuitofKnowledgeinEarlyModernEurope.NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversity

Press.PublishedinconjunctionwiththeexhibitionsshownattheHarvardArtMuseums,Cambridge,MA,andtheBlock

MuseumofArt,NorthwesternUniversity,Evanston,IL.

19.8.5.2PLAYS.Insomecasesyoucancitewell-knownEnglish-languageplaysinparentheticalcitationsonly.(Seealso19.5.1.)

Separatetheelementswithcommas.Omitpublicationdata,andcitepassagesbyactandscene(orotherdivision)insteadofbypage

number.

P:(EugeneOʼNeill,LongDayʼsJourneyintoNight,act2,scene1)

Ifyourpaperisinliterarystudiesoranotherfieldconcernedwithcloseanalysisoftexts,orifyouarecitingatranslationoran

obscurework,citeeveryplayasyouwouldabook,andincludeeachinyourreferencelist.Citepassageseitherbydivisionorbypage,

accordingtoyourlocalguidelines.

R:Bagnold,Enid.1956.TheChalkGarden.NewYork:RandomHouse.

Anouilh,Jean.1996.Becket,orTheHonorofGod.Trans.LucienneHill.NewYork:River-headBooks.

P:(Bagnold1956,8–9)

(Anouilh1996,act1,scene1)

19.8.5.3MUSICALSCORES.Citeapublishedmusicalscoreasyouwouldabook.

R:Verdi,Giuseppe.2008.GiovannadʼArco,drammaliricoinfouracts.LibrettobyTemistocleSolera.EditedbyAlbertoRizzuti.2

vols.WorksofGiuseppeVerdi,ser.1,Operas.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress;Milan:G.Ricordi.

Mozart,WolfgangAmadeus.1960.SonatasandFantasiesforthePiano.Preparedfromtheautographsandearliestprinted

sourcesbyNathanBroder.Rev.ed.BrynMawr,PA:TheodorePresser.

Citeanunpublishedscoreasyouwouldunpublishedmaterialinamanuscriptcollection.

R:Shapey,Ralph.1966.“PartitaforViolinandThirteenPlayers.”Score.SpecialCollections,JosephRegensteinLibrary.University

ofChicago.

19.9PublicDocuments

Publicdocumentsincludeawidearrayofsourcesproducedbygovernmentsatalllevelsthroughouttheworld.Thissectionpresents

basicprinciplesforsomecommontypesofpublicdocumentsavailableinEnglish;ifyouneedtociteothertypes,adapttheclosest

model.

Suchdocumentsinvolvemorecomplicatedandvariedelementsthanmosttypesofpublishedsources.Inyourcitations,include

asmuchidentifyinginformationasyoucan,formattheelementsconsistently,andadaptthegeneralpatternsoutlinedhereas

needed.

ThebulkofthissectionisconcernedwithdocumentspublishedbyUSgovernmentalbodiesandagencies.Fordocuments

publishedbythegovernmentsofCanadaandtheUnitedKingdomandbyinternationalbodies,see19.9.9 11.Forunpublished

governmentdocumentsgenerally,see19.9.12.

19.9.1ElementstoInclude,TheirOrder,andHowtoFormatThem

Inyourreferencelist,includeasmanyofthefollowingelementsasyoucan:

■nameofthegovernment(country,state,city,county,orotherdivision)andgovernmentbody(legislativebody,executive

department,courtbureau,board,commission,orcommittee)thatissuedthedocument

■dateofpublication

■title,ifany,ofthedocumentorcollection

■nameofindividualauthor,editor,orcompiler,ifgiven

■reportnumberorotheridentifyinginformation(suchasplaceofpublicationandpublisher,forcertainfreestandingpublications

orforitemsinsecondarysources)

■pagenumbersorotherlocators,ifrelevant

■anaccessdateandeitheraURLorthenameofthedatabase,forsourcesconsultedonline(see15.4.1and,forexamples,19.9.13)

Ingeneral,listtherelevantelementsintheordergivenabove.Exceptionsforcertaintypesofdocumentsareexplainedinthe

followingsectionsof19.9.

R:USCongress.HouseofRepresentatives.SelectCommitteeonHomelandSecurity.2002.HomelandSecurityActof2002.107th

Cong.,2dsess.HRRep.107-609,pt.1.

Forparentheticalcitations,treattheinformationlistedbeforethedateinyourreferencelistastheauthor.Ifthisinformationis

lengthy,youmayshortenit,aslongasyoudosologicallyandconsistentlyinyourcitations.Inmanycasesyoumaybeableto

includesomeorallofthisinformationinthetextinsteadofaparentheticalcitation.

P:(USHouse2002,81–82)

160

…astheSelectCommitteedecreedinitsreportaccompanyingtheHomelandSecurityActof2002(81–82).

Notethat,byconvention,ordinalsinpublicdocumentsendindinsteadofnd(2dinsteadof2d).

19.9.2CongressionalPublications

Forcongressionalpublications,referencelistentriesusuallybeginwiththedesignationUSCongress,followedbySenateorHouseof

Representatives(orHouse).(YoumayalsosimplifythistoUSSenateorUSHouse.)Othercommonelementsincludecommitteeand

subcommittee,ifany;dateofpublication;titleofdocument;numberoftheCongressandsession(abbreviatedCong.andsess.

respectivelyinthisposition);andnumberanddescriptionofthedocument(forexample,H.Doc.487),ifavailable.

19.9.2.1DEBATES.Since1873,congressionaldebateshavebeenpublishedbythegovernmentintheCongressionalRecord.Whenever

possible,citethepermanentvolumes,whichoftenreflectchangesfromthedailyeditionsoftheRecord.Beginparenthetical

citationswiththeabbreviationCong.Rec,andidentifythevolumeandpartnumbersaswellasthepagenumbers.(Forcitationsof

thedailyHouseorSenateedition,retaintheHorSinpagenumbers.)

R:USCongress.CongressionalRecord.2008.110thCong.,1stsess.Vol.153,pt.8.

P:(Cong.Rec.2008,153,pt.8:11629–30)

Ifyouneedtoidentifyaspeakerandthesubjectinadebate,dosointext,andincludeaparentheticalcitationforthepublication

only.

SenatorKennedyofMassachusettsspokefortheJointResolutiononNuclearWeaponsFreezeandReductions(Cong.Rec.

1982,128,pt.3:3832–34).

Before1874,congressionaldebateswerepublishedinAnnalsoftheCongressoftheUnitedStates(alsoknownbyothernames

andcoveringtheyears1789 1824),RegisterofDebates(1824 37),andCongressionalGlobe(1833 73).Citetheseworkssimilarlyto

theCongressionalRecord.

19.9.2.2REPORTSANDDOCUMENTS.WhenyoucitereportsanddocumentsoftheSenate(abbreviatedS.)andtheHouse(H.orHR),

includeboththeCongressandsessionnumbersand,ifpossible,theseriesnumber.

R:USCongress.House.2011.ExpansionofNationalEmergencywithRespecttoProtectingtheStabilizationEffortsinIraq.112th

Cong.,1stsess.H.Doc.112–25.

P:(USHouse2011,1–2)

19.9.2.3BILLSANDRESOLUTIONS.Congressionalbills(proposedlaws)andresolutionsarepublishedinpamphletform.Incitations,

billsandresolutionsoriginatingintheHouseofRepresentativesareabbreviatedHRorH.Res.andthoseoriginatingintheSenate,

S.orS.Res.IncludepublicationdetailsintheCongressionalRecord(ifavailable).Ifabillhasbeenenacted,citeitasastatute(see

19.9.2.5).

R:USCongress.House.2011.NoTaxpayerFundingforAbortionAct.H.Res.237.112thCong.,1stsess.CongressionalRecord

157,dailyed.(May4):H3014–37.

P:(USHouse2011,H3014)

19.9.2.4HEARINGS.Recordsoftestimonygivenbeforecongressionalcommitteesareusuallypublishedwithformaltitles,whichshould

beincludedinreferencelistentries(initalics).Therelevantcommitteeisnormallylistedaspartofthetitle.

R:USCongress.House.2002.HearingbeforetheSelectCommitteeonHomelandSecurity.HR5005,HomelandSecurityActof

2002,day3.107thCong.,2dsess.,July17.

P:(USHouse2002,119–20)

19.9.2.5STATUTES.Statutes,whicharebillsorresolutionsthathavebeenpassedintolaw,arefirstpublishedseparatelyandthen

collectedintheannualboundvolumesoftheUnitedStatesStatutesatLarge,whichbeganpublicationin1874.Latertheyare

incorporatedintotheUnitedStatesCode.CiteUSStatutes,theUSCode,orboth.SectionnumbersintheCodeareprecededbya

sectionsymbol( ;use andetseq.toindicatemorethanonesection).

Inaparentheticalcitation,indicatetheyeartheactwaspassed;inyourreferencelist,alsoincludethepublicationdateofthe

statutorycompilation,whichmaydifferfromtheyearofpassage.

R:AtomicEnergyActof1946.PublicLaw585.79thCong.,2dsess.August1.

FairCreditReportingActof1970.USCode15(2000),§§1681etseq.

HomelandSecurityActof2002.PublicLaw107-296.USStatutesatLarge116(2002):2135–321.CodifiedatUSCode6

(2002),§§101etseq.

P:(AtomicEnergyActof1946,12,19)

(FairCreditReportingActof1970)

(HomelandSecurityActof2002,2163–64)

161

Before1874,lawswerepublishedintheseventeen-volumeStatutesatLargeoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica,1789 1873.Citationsof

thiscollectionincludethevolumenumberanditspublicationdate.

19.9.3PresidentialPublications

Presidentialproclamations,executiveorders,vetoes,addresses,andthelikearepublishedintheWeeklyCompilationofPresidential

DocumentsandinPublicPapersofthePresidentsoftheUnitedStates.Proclamationsandexecutiveordersarealsocarriedinthe

dailyFederalRegisterandthenpublishedintitle3oftheCodeofFederalRegulations.OncetheyhavebeenpublishedintheCode,

usethatasyoursource.Putindividualtitlesinquotationmarks.

R:USPresident.2010.Proclamation8621.“NationalSlaveryandHumanTraffickingPreventionMonth,2011.”FederalRegister

75,no.250(December30):82215–16.

USPresident.1997.ExecutiveOrder13067.“BlockingSudaneseGovernmentPropertyandProhibitingTransactionswith

Sudan.”CodeofFederalRegulations,title3(1997comp.):230–31.

P:(USPresident2010)

(USPresident1997)

ThepublicpapersofUSpresidentsarecollectedintwomultivolumeworks:CompilationoftheMessagesandPapersofthe

Presidents,1789 1897,and,startingwiththeHooveradministration,PublicPapersofthePresidentsoftheUnitedStates.(Papers

notcoveredbyeitheroftheseworksarepublishedelsewhere.)Tociteitemsinthesecollections,followtherecommendationsfor

multivolumebooks(see19.1.5).

19.9.4PublicationsofGovernmentDepartmentsandAgencies

Executivedepartments,bureaus,andagenciesissuereports,bulletins,circulars,andothermaterials.Italicizethetitle,andinclude

thenameofanyidentifiedauthor(s)afterthetitle.

R:USDepartmentoftheTreasury.1850–51.ReportoftheSecretaryoftheTreasuryTransmittingaReportfromtheRegisterofthe

TreasuryoftheCommerceandNavigationoftheUnitedStatesfortheYearEndingthe30thofJune,1850.31stCong.,2d

sess.HouseExecutiveDocument8.Washington,DC.

USDepartmentoftheInterior.MineralsManagementService.EnvironmentalDivision.2007.Oil-SpillRiskAnalysis:Gulfof

MexicoOuterContinentalShelf(OCS)LeaseSales,CentralPlanningAreaandWesternPlanningArea,2007–2012,and

GulfwideOCSProgram,2007–2046,byZhen-GangJi,WalterR.Johnson,andCharlesF.Marshall.EditedbyEileenM.

Lear.MMS2007-040,June.

P:(USDepartmentoftheTreasury1850–51,15–16)

(USDepartmentoftheInterior2007,23)

19.9.5USConstitution

TheUSConstitutionshouldbecitedonlyinparentheticalcitations;youneednotincludeitinyourreferencelist.Includethearticle

oramendment,section,and,ifrelevant,clause.Usearabicnumeralsand,ifyouprefer,abbreviationsfortermssuchasamendment

andsection.

P:(USConstitution,art.2,sec.1,cl.3)

(USConstitution,amend.14,sec.2)

Inmanycases,youcanincludetheidentifyinginformationinyourtext,butspelloutthepartdesignations.Capitalizethenames

ofspecificamendmentswhenusedinplaceofnumbers.

TheUSConstitution,inarticle1,section9,forbidssuspensionofthewrit“unlesswheninCasesofRebellionorInvasionthe

publicSafetymayrequireit.”



TheFirstAmendmentprotectstherightoffreespeech.

19.9.6Treaties

Thetextsoftreatiessignedbefore1950arepublishedinUnitedStatesStatutesatLarge;theunofficialcitationistotheTreatySeries

(TS)ortheExecutiveAgreementSeries(EAS).Thosesignedin1950orlaterappearinUnitedStatesTreatiesandOther

InternationalAgreements(UST,1950 )orTreatiesandOtherInternationalActsSeries(TIAS,1945 ).Treatiesinvolvingmorethan

twonationsmaybefoundintheUnitedNationsTreatySeries(UNTS,1946 )or,from1920to1946,intheLeagueofNationsTreaty

Series(LNTS).

Italicizetitlesofthepublicationsmentionedaboveandtheirabbreviatedforms.Unlesstheyarenamedinthetitleofthetreaty,

listthepartiessubjecttotheagreement,separatedbyhyphens.Anexactdateindicatesthedateofsigningandmaybeincludedin

additiontotheyearthetreatywaspublished.

R:USDepartmentofState.1963.TreatyBanningNuclearWeaponTestsintheAtmosphere,inOuterSpace,andUnderWater.

US-UK-USSR.August5.UST14,pt.2.

UnitedStates.1922.NavalArmamentLimitationTreatywiththeBritishEmpire,France,Italy,andJapan.February6.US

StatutesatLarge43,pt.2.

162

P:(USDepartmentofState1963,1313)

(UnitedStates1922)

19.9.7LegalCases

Citationsoflegalcasesgenerallytakethesameformforcourtsatalllevels.Inyourreferencelist,italicizethefullcasename

(includingtheabbreviationv.).Includethevolumenumber(arabic),nameofthereporter(abbreviated;seebelow),ordinalseries

number(ifapplicable),openingpagenumberofthedecision,abbreviatednameofthecourtanddate(togetherinparentheses),and

otherrelevantinformation,suchasthenameofthestateorlocalcourt(ifnotidentifiedbythereportertitle).

R:UnitedStatesv.Christmas.222F.3d141(4thCir.2000).

ProfitSharingPlanv.MbankDallas,N.A.683F.Supp.592(N.D.Tex.1988).

Theoneelementthatdependsonthelevelofthecourtisthenameofthereporter.Themostcommononesareasfollows.

■USSupremeCourt.ForSupremeCourtdecisions,citeUnitedStatesSupremeCourtReports(abbreviatedUS)or,ifnotyet

publishedthere,SupremeCourtReporter(abbreviatedS.Ct.).

R:AT&TCorp.v.IowaUtilitiesBd.525US366(1999).

Brendlinv.California.127S.Ct.2400(2007).

■Lowerfederalcourts.Forlowerfederal-courtdecisions,citeFederalReporter(F.)orFederalSupplement(F.Supp.).

R:UnitedStatesv.Dennis.183F.201(2dCir.1950).

Eatonv.IBMCorp.925F.Supp.487(S.D.Tex.1996).

■Stateandlocalcourts.Forstateandlocalcourtdecisions,citeofficialstatereporterswheneverpossible.Ifyouuseacommercial

reporter,citeitasinthesecondexamplebelow.Ifthereporterdoesnotidentifythecourt sname,includeitbeforethedate,

withinparentheses.

R:Williamsv.Davis.27Cal.2d746(1946).

Bivensv.Mobley.724So.2d458(Miss.Ct.App.1998).

Tocitealegalcaseinyourtext,givethenameofthecaseandthedate(ifcitingspecificlanguage,providethepagenumberas

well).Inmanyinstancesyoumaybeabletoincludeeitherorbothelementsinthetext.

P:(UnitedStatesv.Christmas2000)

…thisprinciplewasbestexemplifiedbyUnitedStatesv.Christmas(2000).

19.9.8StateandLocalGovernmentDocuments

Citestateandlocalgovernmentdocumentsasyouwouldfederaldocuments.Useromantype(noquotationmarks)forstatelawsand

municipalordinances;useitalicsforcodes(compilations)andthetitlesoffreestandingpublications.Stateconstitutionsarecited

onlyinparentheticalcitationsorinthetext(seealso19.9.5).

R:IllinoisInstituteforEnvironmentalQuality(IIEQ).1977.ReviewandSynopsisofPublicParticipationregardingSulfurDioxideand

ParticulateEmissions.BySidneyM.Marder.IIEQDocument77/21.Chicago.

MethamphetamineControlandCommunityProtectionAct.2005.IllinoisCompiledStatutes,ch.720,no.646(2005).

PageʼsOhioRevisedCodeAnnotated.2011.Title35,Elections.

P:(IIEQ1977,44–45)

(MethamphetamineControlandCommunityProtectionAct2005,sec.10)

(PageʼsOhioRevisedCodeAnnotated2011,sec.3599.01)

(NewMexicoConstitution,art.4,sec.7.)

19.9.9CanadianGovernmentDocuments

CiteCanadiangovernmentdocumentssimilarlytoUSpublicdocuments.EndcitationswiththewordCanada(inparentheses)unless

itisobviousfromthecontext.

CanadianstatutesarefirstpublishedintheannualStatutesofCanada,afterwhichtheyappearintheRevisedStatutesofCanada,

aconsolidationpublishedeveryfifteenortwentyyears.Whereverpossible,usethelattersourceandidentifythestatutebytitle,

reporter,yearofcompilation,chapter,andsection.

R:CanadaWildlifeAct.RevisedStatutesofCanada1985,chap.W-9,sec.1.

AssistedHumanReproductionAct.StatutesofCanada2004,chap.2,sec.2.

P:(CanadaWildlifeAct1985)

CanadianSupremeCourtcasessince1876arepublishedinSupremeCourtReports(SCR);casesafter1974shouldincludethe

volumenumberofthereporter.FederalcourtcasesarepublishedinFederalCourtsReports(FC,1971 )orExchequerCourtReports

(Ex.CR,1875 1971).CasesnotfoundinanyofthesesourcesmaybefoundinDominionLawReports(DLR).Includethenameofthe

163

case(initalics),followedbythedate(inparentheses),thevolumenumber(ifany),theabbreviatednameofthereporter,andthe

openingpageofthedecision.

R:Robertsonv.ThomsonCorp.(2006)2SCR363(Canada).

Boldyv.RoyalBankofCanada.(2008)FC99.

19.9.10BritishGovernmentDocuments

CiteBritishgovernmentdocumentssimilarlytoUSpublicdocuments.EndcitationswiththephraseUnitedKingdom(in

parenthesesorbrackets)unlessitisobviousfromthecontext.

ActsofParliamentshouldusuallybecitedonlyinparentheticalcitationsorinthetext.Includeaspecificactinyourreferencelist

onlyifitiscriticaltoyourargumentorfrequentlycited.Identifyactsbytitle,date,andchapternumber(arabicnumeralfornational

number,lowercaseromanforlocal).Actsfrombefore1963arecitedbyregnalyearandmonarch sname(abbreviated)andordinal

(arabicnumeral).

P:(ActofSettlement1701,12&13Will.3,c.2)

(ConsolidatedFundAct1963,chap.1[UnitedKingdom])

(ManchesterCorporationAct1967,chap.xl)

MostBritishlegalcasescanbefoundintheapplicablereportintheLawReports,amongthesetheAppealCases(AC),Queen s

(King s)Bench(QB,KB),Chancery(Ch.),Family(Fam.),andProbate(P.)reports.Untilrecently,thecourtsofhighestappealinthe

UnitedKingdom(exceptforcriminalcasesinScotland)hadbeentheHouseofLords(HL)andtheJudicialCommitteeofthePrivy

Council(PC).In2005,theSupremeCourtoftheUnitedKingdom(UKSC)wasestablished.

Includethenameofthecase,initalics(casesinvolvingtheCrownrefertoRexorRegina);thedate,inparentheses;thevolume

number(ifany)andabbreviatednameofthereporter;andtheopeningpageofthedecision.Ifthecourtisnotapparentfromthe

nameofthereporter,orifthejurisdictionisnotclearfromcontext,includeeitherorboth,asnecessary,inparentheses.

R:Reginav.DudleyandStephens.(1884)14QBD273(DC).

Regal(Hastings)Ltd.v.GulliverandOrs.(1967)2AC134(HL)(Eng.).

NMLCapitalLimited(Appellant)v.RepublicofArgentina(Respondent).(2011)UKSC31.

19.9.11PublicationsofInternationalBodies

DocumentspublishedbyinternationalbodiessuchastheUnitedNationscanbecitedmuchlikebooks.Identifytheauthorizingbody

(andanyauthororeditor),thedate,thetopicortitleofthedocument,andthepublisherorplaceofpublication(orboth).Also

includeanyseriesorotheridentifyingpublicationinformation.

R:LeagueofArabStatesandUnitedNations.2010.TheThirdArabReportontheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals2010andthe

ImpactoftheGlobalEconomicCrises.Beirut:EconomicandSocialCommissionforWesternAsia.

UnitedNationsGeneralAssembly.2010.ReportoftheGoverningCouncil/GlobalMinisterialEnvironmentForumontheWorkof

ItsEleventhSpecialSession.OfficialRecords,65thsess.,supplementno.25,A/65/25.NewYork:UN.

P:(LeagueofArabStatesandUnitedNations2010,82)

(UNGeneralAssembly2010)

19.9.12UnpublishedGovernmentDocuments

Ifyouciteunpublishedgovernmentdocuments,followthepatternsgivenforunpublishedmanuscriptsin19.6.4.

MostunpublisheddocumentsoftheUSgovernmentarehousedintheNationalArchivesandRecordsAdministration(NARA)in

Washington,DC,orinoneofitsbranches.Citethemall,includingfilms,photographs,andsoundrecordingsaswellaswritten

materials,byrecordgroup(RG)number.

ThecomparableinstitutionforunpublishedCanadiangovernmentdocumentsistheLibraryandArchivesCanada(LAC)in

Ottawa,Ontario.TheUnitedKingdomhasanumberofdepositoriesofunpublishedgovernmentdocuments,mostnotablythe

NationalArchives(NA)andtheBritishLibrary(BL),bothinLondon.

19.9.13OnlinePublicDocuments

Tociteonlinepublicdocuments,followtherelevantexamplespresentedelsewherein19.9.Inaddition,includethedateyouaccessed

thematerialandaURL.Foritemsobtainedthroughacommercialdatabase,youmaygivethenameofthedatabaseinstead.See

15.4.1formoredetails.Notethatdatabasesforlegalcasesmaymarkpage(screen)divisionswithanasterisk.Theseshouldbe

retainedinspecificreferences(seealso19.9.7).

R:USCongress.HouseofRepresentatives.SelectCommitteeonHomelandSecurity.2002.HomelandSecurityActof2002.107th

Cong.,2dsess.HRRep.107-609,pt.1.AccessedSeptember8,2011.http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CRPT-

107hrpt609/pdf/CRPT-107hrpt609-pt1.pdf.

UnitedNationsSecurityCouncil.2011.Resolution2002.July29.AccessedOctober10,2011.

http://www.un.org/Docs/sc/unsc_resolutions11.htm.

McNameev.DepartmentoftheTreasury.488F.3d100,*3(2dCir.2007).AccessedSeptember25,2011.LexisNexis

Academic.

164

19.10OneSourceQuotedinAnother

Responsibleresearchersavoidrepeatingquotationsthattheyhavenotactuallyseenintheoriginal.Ifonesourceincludesauseful

quotationfromanothersource,readersexpectyoutoobtaintheoriginaltoverifynotonlythatthequotationisaccuratebutalsothat

itfairlyrepresentswhattheoriginalmeant.

Iftheoriginalsourceisunavailable,however,citeitas quotedin thesecondarysourceinyourreferencelist.Inaparenthetical

citation,giveonlythenameoftheoriginalauthor.

R:Zukofsky,Louis.1931.“SincerityandObjectification.”Poetry37(February):269.QuotedinBonnieCostello,MarianneMoore:

ImaginaryPossessions(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,1981).

P:(Zukofsky1931,269)

Thesamesituationmayarisewithaquotationyoufindinasecondarysourcedrawnfromaprimarysource(see3.1.1).Often,you

willnotbeabletoconsulttheprimarysource,especiallyifitisinanunpublishedmanuscriptcollection.Inthiscase,followthe

principlesoutlinedabove.

165

PartIII

 

Style

166

20Spelling
20.1Plurals
20.1.1GeneralRule
20.1.2SpecialCases
20.2Possessives
20.2.1GeneralRule
20.2.2SpecialCases
20.3CompoundsandWordsFormedwithPrefixes
20.3.1CompoundsUsedasAdjectives
20.3.2CompoundsUsedasBothNounsandAdjectives
20.3.3WordsFormedwithPrefixes
20.4LineBreaks
20.4.1BreakswithinWords
20.4.2BreaksoverSpacesandPunctuation
ModelyourspellingonAmericanusageandbeconsistent,exceptinquotations,whereyoushouldusuallyfollowtheoriginalspelling
exactly(seechapter25).Whenindoubt,consultadictionary.Beaware,however,thatdictionariesoftendifferonhowtospellthe
samewordandthatsomearemoreaccurateandup-to-datethanothers.
ThemostreliableauthorityforspellingisWebster sThirdNewInternationalDictionaryoritsabridgment,theeleventhedition
ofMerriam-Webster sCollegiateDictionary.BothareavailableonlineandinbookandCD-ROMformats.Forthenamesofpeople
andplaces,consultWebster sortheseparatepublicationsMerriam-Webster sBiographicalDictionaryandMerriam-Webster s
GeographicalDictionary.
WhereWebster soffersachoicebetweenspellings,usethefollowingprinciplestoselectone:wherevariantsareseparatedbyor,
chooseeitheroneanduseitconsistently;wherevariantsareseparatedbyalso,usethefirst.IfthepreferredspellinginWebster s
differsfromtheconventionaloneinyourdiscipline,followthespellingofthediscipline.Forstyleguidesinvariousdisciplines,see
thebibliography.
Thespell-checkingfeatureinmostwordprocessorscancatchcertainspellingerrorsbutnotothers.Itwillnormallyfailto
recognize,forexample,thatyoutypedandwhenyoumeantan,orquiteinsteadofquiet.Itwillprobablynothelpwithpropernouns
orforeignterms,anditmayleadyoutomakeglobalspellingchangesthatinsomecasesareinaccurate.Aspell-checkerisnota
substituteforagooddictionaryandcarefulproofreading.
Thischapteroffersgeneralguidelinesforspellingsnotfoundinmostdictionaries.Ifyouarewritingathesisordissertation,your
departmentoruniversitymayhavespecificrequirementsforspelling(includinguseofparticulardictionaries).Thoserequirements
areusuallyavailablefromtheofficeofthesesanddissertations.Ifyouarewritingaclasspaper,yourinstructormayalsoaskyouto
followcertainprinciplesofspelling.Reviewtheserequirementsbeforeyouprepareyourpaper.Theytakeprecedenceoverthe
guidelinessuggestedhere.
20.1Plurals
20.1.1GeneralRule
Formostcommonnouns,formthepluralbyaddingss(oresforwordsendinginch,j,s,sh,x,orz).Mostdictionariesgiveplural
formsonlyforwordsthatdonotfollowthegeneralrule.
Thegeneralruleappliestothenamesofpersonsandtootherpropernouns,includingNativeAmericantribes.Ifsuchanoun
endsiny,donotchangetheytoie,asrequiredforcommonnouns.(Donotconfusepluralformswithpossessives,whichare
describedin20.2.)
theCostellos
theFrys(nottheFries)
theRodriguezes
thetwoGermanys
theHopisofArizona(nottheHopi)
20.1.2SpecialCases
20.1.2.1COMPOUNDWORDS.Forcompoundwordsconsistingoftwonouns,makethelastnounplural(usuallybyaddingsores).
167

bookkeepers

districtattorneys

actor-singers

Whenaprepositionalphraseoradjectivefollows,makethemainnounplural.

sisters-in-law

attorneysgeneral

men-of-war

20.1.2.2LETTERSANDNUMERALS.Inmostcases,formthepluralsofcapitallettersandnumeralsbyaddingsalone(not s).

threeAs,oneB,andtwoCs

the1950s

767s

Withlowercaseletters,however,whereanswithoutanapostrophecanseemtocreateadifferentword(is)oranabbreviation

(ms),addanapostrophe.Theapostropheandsareromaneveniftheletterisitalic(see22.2.2).

xʼsandyʼs

20.1.2.3ABBREVIATIONS.Formpluralsofabbreviationswithoutinternalperiodsbyaddingsalone.Ifthesingularformofthe

abbreviationendsinaperiod,putthesbeforetheperiod.(See24.1.3onthepunctuationofabbreviations.Foracademicdegrees,see

24.2.3.)

URLs

DVDs

PhDs



vols.

eds.

Afewabbreviationshaveirregularplurals(seealso24.7).

pp.(pluralofp.,page)

nn.(pluralofn.,note)

Ifyouarewritinginthesciencesandusingabbreviationsforunitsofmeasure(see24.5),usethesameabbreviationforboththe

singularandtheplural.

6kg

37m

20.1.2.4TERMSINITALICSANDQUOTATIONMARKS.Formthepluralofaterminitalicsbyaddingsalone(not s)inromantype.Formthe

pluralofaterminquotationmarksbyaddings;betteryet,rephrasethesentence.

twoChicagoTribunes

…includedmany“Tobecontinueds”

or,better,

…included“Tobecontinued”manytimes

20.2Possessives

20.2.1GeneralRule

Formthepossessiveofmostsingularcommonandpropernouns,includingthosethatendins,x,orz,byaddinganapostropheand

s.Thisrulealsoappliestolettersandnumeralsusedassingularnouns,andtoabbreviations.Italsoappliestopropernamesending

ins(whetherornotthesispronounced),asinthelastthreeexamples.(Donotconfusepossessiveswithpluralforms,whichare

describedin20.1.)Forspecialcases,see20.2.2.

anargumentʼseffects

thehorseʼsmouth

2009ʼseconomicoutlook

thephalanxʼsadvance

thewaltzʼstempo

JFKʼsspeech

168

Russʼssuggestion

DescartesʼsDiscourseonMethod

Aristophanesʼsplays

Inanimatenouns exceptforreferencestotime rarelytakethepossessiveform.

adayʼslength

butnot

thehouseʼsdoor

Formthepossessiveofmostpluralcommonandpropernounsbyaddingonlyanapostrophe.Forspecialcases,see20.2.2.

politiciansʼvotes

not

politiciansʼsvotes

theRodriguezesʼhouse

not

theRodriguezesʼshouse

Forirregularpluralsthatdonotendins,addsaftertheapostrophe.

themiceʼsnest

childrenʼsliterature

20.2.2SpecialCases

20.2.2.1SINGULARNOUNSENDINGINS.Formthepossessiveofthefollowingtypesofnounswithonlyanapostrophe:

■nounsthatnameagrouporcollectiveentitybutaretreatedasgrammaticallysingular

politicsʼtruemeaning

theUnitedStatesʼrole

■nounsinafewtraditionalFor sakeexpressionsthatendinansoranssound

forgoodnessʼsake

forrighteousnessʼsake

but

forappearanceʼssake

Toavoidanawkwardresult,rephrasingissometimesthebetteroption.(ForuseoftheabbreviationUSinacaselikethefirstone

below,see24.3.1.)

theroleoftheUnitedStates

insteadof

theUnitedStatesʼrole

forthesakeofappearance

insteadof

forappearanceʼssake

20.2.2.2COMPOUNDWORDS.Formthepossessivesofsingularcompoundwordsbyaddinganapostropheandstothelastword,evenif

themainnounisfirst.

hissister-in-lawʼsbusiness

theattorneygeneralʼsdecision

Formthepossessivesofpluralcompoundsintheusualway(byaddinganapostrophealone),unlessthenounisfollowedbya

prepositionalphraseoradjective(see20.1.2).Inthatcase,rephrase.

districtattorneysʼdecisions

but

decisionsoftheattorneysgeneral

not

169

attorneysʼgeneraldecisions

andnot

attorneysgeneralʼsdecisions

20.2.2.3MULTIPLENOUNS.Ifapossessiveindicatesthattwoormoreentitieseachpossesssomethingseparately,makeallthenouns

possessive.

NewYorkʼsandChicagoʼsteams

historiansʼandeconomistsʼmethods

Ifapossessiveindicatesthattwoormoreentitiespossesssomethingjointly,makeonlythelastnounpossessive.

MinneapolisandSt.Paulʼsteams

historiansandeconomistsʼdata

20.2.2.4TERMSINITALICSANDQUOTATIONMARKS.Ifaterminitalicsispossessive,boththeapostropheandthesshouldbeinroman

type.Donotaddapossessivetoaterminquotationmarks;rephrasethesentence.

theAtlanticMonthlyʼseditor

admirersof“OdeonaGrecianUrn”

Ifthetermendsinapluralform,addonlyanapostrophe(inromantype).Ifitalreadyendsinapossessiveform,leaveitaloneor

rephrase.

theNewYorkTimesʼonlinerevenue

Harperʼseditors(ortheeditorsofHarperʼs)

20.3CompoundsandWordsFormedwithPrefixes

Compoundscomeinthreeforms:hyphenated,open(withaspace,notahyphen,betweenelements),orclosed(spelledasoneword).

Choosingtherightonecanbedifficult.Thebestauthorityisyourdictionary.Ifyoucannotfindacompoundthere,followthe

principlesinthefollowingparagraphstodecidewhetherornottohyphenate.Ifyoucannotfindtheformineitherplace,leavethe

compoundopen.

Thepatternsoutlinedbelowarenothard-and-fastrules.Youwillhavetodecidemanyindividualcasesonthebasisofcontext,

personaltaste,orcommonusageinyourdiscipline.Althoughmuchofthesuggestedhyphenationislogicalandaidsreadability,

someisonlytraditional.

20.3.1CompoundsUsedasAdjectives

Somecompoundsareusedonlyasadjectives.Inmostcases,hyphenatesuchacompoundwhenitprecedesthenounitmodifies;

otherwiseleaveitopen.

Beforenoun

open-endedquestion

full-lengthtreatment

duty-freegoods

thought-provokingcommentary

over-the-counterdrug

afrequentlyreferred-tobook

spelled-outnumbers

Afternoun

mostofthequestionswereopenended

treatmentisfulllength

goodsbroughtindutyfree

commentarywasthoughtprovoking

drugsoldoverthecounter

thisbookisfrequentlyreferredto

numbersthatarespelledout

Thereareafewexceptions:

■Ifacompoundthatwouldnormallybehyphenatedisprecededandmodifiedbyanadverb(suchasvery),omitthehyphen,

becausethegroupingofthewordswillbecleartothereader.

Beforenounwithmodifier

170

awell-knownauthor

anill-advisedstep

Beforenounwithadverbmodifier

averywellknownauthor

asomewhatilladvisedstep

■Hyphenatecompoundsthatbeginwithallorendwithfree.

Beforenoun

all-encompassingtreatment

toll-freecall

Afternoun

treatmentwasall-encompassing

thecallwastoll-free

■Hyphenatecompoundsthatendwiththetermsborne,like,andwide(bothbeforeandafterthenoun)unlessthetermislistedas

closedinWebster s.

Hyphenated

food-borne

bell-like

Chicago-wide

Closed(perWebsterʼs)

airborne

childlike

worldwide

■Comparativeconstructionsbeginningwithsuchtermsasmore/most,less/least,andbetter/bestshouldbehyphenatedonlywhen

theremaybeconfusionaboutwhetherthecomparativetermismodifyingtheadjectivethatfollowswithinthecompoundorthe

nounafterthecompound.

Modifyingadjective

collegesproducemore-skilledworkers

Modifyingnoun

wehiredmoreskilledworkersfortheholidays

■Constructionsthatconsistofanadverbendingin-lyfollowedbyanadjectivearenotcompoundsandshouldnotbehyphenatedin

anycontext.

Beforenoun

highlydevelopedspecies

widelydisseminatedliterature

Afternoun

thespecieswashighlydeveloped

literaturehasbeenwidelydisseminated

20.3.2CompoundsUsedasBothNounsandAdjectives

Somecompoundsareprimarilynounsbutcanalsofunctionasadjectiveswhentheyprecedeandmodifyanothernoun.(Unlikethe

examplesin20.3.1,thesecompoundsarerarelyusedasadjectivesafteranoun,andthenonlywithalinkingverbsuchaswasorare,

asinthethirdexamplebelow.)Inmostcases,hyphenatesuchacompoundwhenitprecedesanounthatitmodifies;otherwiseleave

itopen.

Adjectivebeforenoun

thedecision-makingprocess

acontinuing-educationcourse

171

amiddle-classneighborhood

Noun,oradjectiveafternoun

decisionmakingbecameherspecialty

aprogramofcontinuingeducation

herneighborhoodwasmiddleclass

Thereareafewexceptions:

■Foracompoundthatbeginswithe(shortforelectronic),ex,orself,useahypheninallcontexts.Oneexception:ifselfispreceded

byun,thecompoundshouldbeclosed(asinunselfconscious).

ex-husband

self-destructive

e-mail

■Foracompoundthatendswithelect,useahypheninallcontextswhenthenameoftheofficeisonlyoneword,butleaveitopen

whenthenameistwoormorewords.

president-elect

districtattorneyelect

■Foracompoundformedbytwocoordinatednounsthatcouldbejoinedbyand,useahypheninallcontexts.

actor-singer

city-state



mother-daughterrelationship

parent-teacherconference

■Foracompoundcomposedofdirectionalwords,useaclosedcompoundwhenthetermdescribesasingledirection.Useahyphen

ifthecompoundconsistsofcoordinatednounsthatcouldbejoinedwithandorby.

northeast

southwest



astreetrunningnorth-south

east-southeastwinds

■Compoundsthatidentifyfamilyrelationshipsvaryinwhethertheyarecloseduporhyphenated.Whenindoubt,consultyour

dictionary.(Forthepluralandpossessiveformsofin-lawcompounds,see20.1.2and20.2.2,respectively.)

grandfather

stepdaughter

step-grandmother

great-grandmother

son-in-law

■Somefamiliarphrasesarealwayshyphenated.

stick-in-the-mud

jack-of-all-trades

20.3.2.1COMPOUNDSINCLUDINGPROPERNOUNS.Leaveopenmostcompoundsthatincludepropernouns,includingnamesofethnic

groups.

Adjectivebeforenoun

AfricanAmericanculture

FrenchCanadianexplorer

MiddleEasterngeography

StateDepartmentemployees

KoreanWarveterans

Noun,oradjectiveafternoun

anAfricanAmericanhaswritten

theexplorerwasFrenchCanadian

thegeographyoftheMiddleEast

172

employedbytheStateDepartment

veteransoftheKoreanWar

If,however,thefirsttermisshortened,useahyphen.

Afro-Americanculture

anAfro-Americanhaswritten

Ifcoordinatedtermscouldbejoinedbyand,hyphenatethem.

Israel-Egyptpeacetreaty

Spanish-Englishdictionary

20.3.2.2COMPOUNDSINCLUDINGNUMBERS.Ifacompoundincludesanumber,hyphenateitifitprecedesanounthatitmodifies;

otherwiseleaveitopen.(Fortheuseofnumeralsversusspelled-outnumbers,seechapter23.)

Adjectivebeforenoun

fifty-yearproject

twenty-one-year-oldstudent

twentieth-centuryliterature

third-floorapartment

214-daystandoff

Noun,oradjectiveafternoun

theprojecttookfiftyyears

thestudentwastwenty-oneyearsold

studiedtheliteratureofthetwentiethcentury

shelivedonthethirdfloor

standoffthatlasted214days

Thereareafewexceptions:

■Alwaysleaveopenacompoundincludingthewordpercent,andgivethenumberinarabicnumerals(see23.1.3).

a15percentincrease

increasedby15percent

■Alwaysuseahyphentospellafractionwithwords.(See23.1.3foruseofnumeralsversusspelled-outnumbersinfractions.)

atwo-thirdsmajority

amajorityoftwo-thirds

■Forafractionbeginningwithhalforquarter,useahyphenwhenitprecedesanounthatitmodifies;otherwiseleaveitopen.

Adjectivebeforenoun

ahalf-hoursession

aquarter-milerun

Noun,oradjectiveafternoun

afterahalfhourhadpassed

ranaquartermile

■Foracompoundindicatingaspanofnumbers,useahypheninbothterms,butomitthesecondpartofthecompoundinthefirst

term.

five-toten-minuteintervals

eight-toten-year-olds

20.3.3WordsFormedwithPrefixes

Wordsformedwithprefixesarenormallyclosed,whethertheyarenouns(postmodernism),verbs(misrepresent),adjectives

(antebellum),oradverbs(prematurely).Useahyphen,however,inthesecases:

■whentheprefixiscombinedwithacapitalizedword

sub-Saharan

but

173

subdivision

pro-Asian

but

pronuclear

■whentheprefixiscombinedwithanumeral

pre-1950

but

predisposed

mid-8os

but

midlife

■toseparatetwoi s,twoa s,orothercombinationsoflettersorsyllablesthatmightcausemisreading

anti-intellectual

but

antidepressant

intra-arterial

but

intramural

■whentheprefixprecedesacompoundwordthatishyphenatedoropen

non-coffee-drinking

but

nonbelief

post-highschool

but

postgame

■toseparaterepeatedtermsinadoubleprefix

sub-subentry

■whenaprefixstandsalone

pre-andpostwar

macro-andmicroeconomics

Thesepatternsapplytowordsformedwiththefollowingprefixes,amongothers.

ante

anti

bio

counter

cyber

extra

hyper

infra

inter

intra

macro

mega

meta

nicro

mid

mini

multi

neo

non

post

174

pre

pro

proto

pseudo

semi

socio

sub

super

supra

trans

ultra

Thepatternsalsoapplytoprepositionssuchasoverandunderthatcanbeattachedtowordsinthesamepositionasprefixes.

overachiever

underhanded

over-andunderused

20.4LineBreaks

20.4.1BreakswithinWords

Formostpapers,theonlywordsthatshouldbehyphenatedattheendsoflinesarethoseyouhavedeliberatelyhyphenated,suchas

compounds(see20.3).Setyourwordprocessortoaligntextflushleft(witha ragged rightmargin),anddonotuseitsautomated

hyphenationfeature.

If,however,youarerequiredtousefulljustification(whereboththeleftandrightmarginsarealigned),youmayhaveto

hyphenatelinestoavoidlargegapsbetweenwords.Setyourwordprocessortolimittothreethenumberofconsecutivelinesending

withhyphens(toavoida hyphenblock alongthemargin),butdonotrelyentirelyonyourwordprocessor sautomated

hyphenationfeature.Itwillbegenerallyreliable,butitmayintroduceerrors.Soreviewwordbreaks,especiallyasyourpapernears

completion.Whenindoubt,consultyourdictionary,whichindicatesacceptablebreakswithcentereddotsorsimilardevicesinthe

mainwordentry.(Useyourwordprocessortocreateexceptionsforwordsthatyoudonotwanthyphenated.Tomanuallyaddan

end-of-linehyphen,insertanoptionalhyphenfromyourwordprocessor smenuforspecialformattingcharacters.)

Onespecialtypeofproblemconcernswordswiththesamespellingbutdifferentpronunciations.Suchwordsmayhavedifferent

syllablebreaks,suchasrec-ordandre-cord.Yourwordprocessormaybreaksuchwordsidenticallyregardlessofcontext.

20.4.2BreaksoverSpacesandPunctuation

Yourwordprocessormayalsoallowcertaintypesofunacceptablelinebreakstooccuroverspacesorpunctuation.Alwaysreview

yourpaperforsuchbreaks.

■Initials.Ifinitialsareusedinplaceofbothaperson sfirstandmiddlenames,includeaspacebetweenthembutdonotdivide

themoveraline(youcan,however,breakthenamebeforethelastname).Becauselineswillreflowasyouwriteyourpaper,itis

besttoreplacesuchspaceswithnonbreakingspaces,availableinmostwordprocessors.Seealso24.2.1.

M.F.K.Fisher

M.F.K./Fisher

butnot

M./F.K.Fisher

■Numbersanddates.Neverputalinebreakwithinnumbersexpressedasnumerals(25,000)oranytermsconsistingofnumerals

plussymbols,abbreviations,orunitsofmeasure(10%; 64s.6d.;6:40p.m.;AD1895;245ml).Usenonbreakingspacesas

needed.Seechapter23formoreonnumbersanddatesystems.

■Punctuation.Neverbeginalinewithaclosingquotationmark,parenthesis,orbracket(andifthishappens,itmaybeasignofan

extra,unneededspacebeforethemark).Neverendalinewithanopeningquotationmark,parenthesis,orbracket(alsoasignofa

possibleerrantspace,afterthemark)orwith(a)or(I),asatthebeginningofalist.Usenonbreakingspacesasneeded.Seechapter

21formoreonpunctuationand23.4.2forlists.Avoidbreakinganellipsis(see25.3.2)overaline;useyourwordprocessor s

ellipsischaractertopreventthisproblem.

■URLsande-mailaddresses.AvoidbreakingURLsande-mailaddressesoverlines.Ifyouhavetobreakone,insertthebreakaftera

colonoradoubleslash;beforeorafteranequalssignorampersand;orbeforeasingleslash,aperiod,oranyotherpunctuationor

symbol.HyphensarefrequentlyincludedaspartofaURLore-mailaddress,sotoavoidconfusion,neveraddahyphentoindicate

thebreak.

http://

www.press.uchicago.edu

http://www

175

.press.uchicago.edu

http://www.press.uchicago.edu

/books/subject.html

IfyourwordprocessorautomaticallyformatsURLsande-mailaddressesashyperlinks,youcangenerallyignoretheguidelines

above aslongaseachfullURLoraddressisclearlyidentifiedasahyperlink(throughunderliningorasecondcolor)andnoextra

hyphenshavebeenaddedtoindicatethelinebreaks.

176

21Punctuation
21.1Periods
21.2Commas
21.2.1IndependentClauses
21.2.2Series
21.2.3NonrestrictiveClausesandPhrases
21.2.4OtherUses
21.3Semicolons
21.4Colons
21.5QuestionMarks
21.6ExclamationPoints
21.7HyphensandDashes
21.7.1Hyphens
21.7.2Dashes
21.7.3MultipleDashes
21.8ParenthesesandBrackets
21.8.1Parentheses
21.8.2Brackets
21.9Slashes
21.10QuotationMarks
21.11Apostrophes
21.12MultiplePunctuationMarks
21.12.1OmissionofPunctuationMarks
21.12.2OrderofPunctuationMarks
Thischapteroffersgeneralguidelinesforpunctuationinthetextofyourpaper.Somerulesareclear-cut,butothersarenot,soyou
oftenhavetodependonsoundjudgmentandagoodear.
Specialelementssuchasabbreviations,quotations,andsourcecitationshavetheirownguidelinesforpunctuation,whichare
treatedinrelevantchaptersinthisbook.
Ifyouarewritingathesisordissertation,yourdepartmentoruniversitymayhavespecificrequirementsforpunctuation,which
areusuallyavailablefromtheofficeofthesesanddissertations.Ifyouarewritingaclasspaper,yourinstructormayalsoaskyouto
followcertainprinciplesforpunctuation.Reviewtheserequirementsbeforeyouprepareyourpaper.Theytakeprecedenceoverthe
guidelinessuggestedhere.Forstyleguidesinvariousdisciplines,seethebibliography.
21.1Periods
Aperiodendsasentencethatisadeclarativestatement,animperativestatement,oranindirectquestion.Aperiodcanalsoenda
sentencefragment,ifthecontextmakesitsrhetoricalfunctionclear,butthisusageisrareinacademicwriting.Inallthesecases,the
periodisaterminalperiodand,betweensentences,shouldbefollowedbyasinglespace.
Considertheadvantagesofthismethod.
Thequestionwaswhetherthesedifferencescouldbereconciled.
Putaperiodattheendofitemsinaverticallistonlyiftheitemsarecompletesentences(see23.4.2).Otherwise,omitterminal
periods,evenforthelastitem,anddonotcapitalizethefirstwords.
Thereportcoversthreeareas:
177

1.thesecuritiesmarkets
2.thesecuritiesindustry
3.thesecuritiesindustryintheeconomy
Individualperiodscanalsobeusedinothercontexts,includingabbreviations(seeespecially24.1.3)andcitations(16.1.2and18.1.2),
andalsoinURLs(20.4.2,17.1.7,and19.1.8),wheretheyareoftencalleddots.Stringsofperiods,ordots,canbeusedinquotations
(see25.3.2),wheretheyarecalledellipses,andintables(26.2.6)andfrontmatterpages(A.2.1),wheretheyarecalledleaders.
Donotuseperiodsafterchapterandparttitlesandmostsubheadings(seeA.2.2)oraftertabletitles(26.2.2).Forperiodsin
figurecaptions,see26.3.2.
21.2Commas
Commasseparateitemswithinasentence,includingclauses,phrases,andindividualwords.Theyareespeciallyimportantwhena
readermightmistakewhereaclauseorphraseendsandanotherbegins:
Beforeleavingthemembersofthecommitteemetintheassemblyroom.
Beforeleaving,themembersofthecommitteemetintheassemblyroom.
Foruseofcommasinnumbers,see23.2.2.Foruseofcommasincitations,see16.1.2and18.1.2.
21.2.1IndependentClauses
Inasentencecontainingtwoormoreindependentclausesjoinedbyacoordinatingconjunction(and,but,or,nor,for,so,yet),puta
commabeforetheconjunction.Thisisnotahard-and-fastrule;nocommaisneededbetweentwoshortindependentclauseswithno
internalpunctuation.
StudentsaroundtheworldwanttolearnEnglish,andmanyyoungAmericansareeagertoteachthem.
Thesenatorarrivedatnoonandthepresidentleftatone.
Inasentencecontainingthreeormoreshortandsimpleindependentclauseswithnointernalpunctuation,separatetheclauses
withcommasandaddacoordinatingconjunctionbeforethelastone.(Alwaysincludeacommabeforethecoordinating
conjunction.)Iftheclausesarelongerandmorecomplex,separatethemwithsemicolons(see21.3) or,better,rewritethesentence.
Thecommitteedesignedthequestionnaire,thefieldworkerscollectedresponses,andthestatisticiananalyzedtheresults.
Thecommitteedesignedthequestionnaire,whichwasshort;thefieldworkers,whodidnotparticipate,collectedresponses;andthe
statisticiananalyzedtheresults,thoughnotuntilseveraldayslater.
Ordinarily,donotinsertacommabeforeaconjunctionjoiningtwosubjectsortwopredicates.
Theagenciesthatdesignthesurveysandtheanalystswhoevaluatetheresultsshouldworktogether.
Theydonotcondonesuchpracticesbutattempttorefutethemtheoretically.
Whenasentencewithtwoindependentcoordinateclausesopenswithaphraseordependentclausethatmodifiesboth,puta
commaaftertheintroductoryelementbutnotbetweenthetwoindependentclauses.
Withintenyears,interestratessurgedandthehousingmarketdeclined.
21.2.2Series
Inaseriesconsistingofthreeormorewords,phrases,orclauseswithnointernalpunctuationoftheirown,separatetheelements
withcommas.Alwaysuseacommabeforetheconjunctionthatintroducesthelastitem.
Thegovernorwrotehissenators,thepresident,andthevicepresident.
AttendingtheconferencewereFernandez,Sullivan,andKendrick.
Thepublicapproved,thecommitteeagreed,butthemeasurefailed.
Donotusecommaswhenalltheelementsinaseriesarejoinedbyconjunctions.
Thepaletteconsistedofblueandgreenandorange.
Ifaseriesofthreeormorewords,phrases,orclausesendswithanexpressionindicatingcontinuation(andsoforth,andsoon,
andthelike,oretc.),punctuatethatfinalexpressionasthoughitwerethefinalitemintheseries.Youmay,however,addacomma
afterthecontinuationexpressiontopreventconfusionafteralongseries.
Theydiscussedmovies,books,plays,andthelikeuntillateinthenight.
178

Usingsuchtechniques,managementcanimprovenotonlyproductivitybutalsohours,workingconditions,training,benefits,andso

on,withoutreducingwages.

Usesemicolonstoseparatetheitemsinaseriesifoneormoreincludescommas,oriftheitemsarelongandcomplex(see21.3).

Ifsuchaseriescomesbeforethemainverbofasentence,however,rephrasethesentence.

ThethreecitiesthatwecompareareHartford,Connecticut;Kalamazoo,Michigan;andPasadena,California.

butnot

Hartford,Connecticut;Kalamazoo,Michigan;andPasadena,California,arethethreecitiesthatwecompare.

21.2.3NonrestrictiveClausesandPhrases

Usepairedcommastosetoffanonrestrictiveclause.Aclauseisnonrestrictiveifitisnotnecessarytouniquelyidentifythenounit

modifies.

Thesefivebooks,whichareonreserveinthelibrary,arerequiredreading.

Here,thenounphraseThesefivebooksuniquelyidentifiesthebooksthatthewriterhasinmind;thenonrestrictiveclauseisnot

necessarytoidentifythebooksfurther.Ontheotherhand,inthefollowingsentence,thedependentclause(thatarerequired

reading)isrestrictive,becauseitidentifiesaspecificsubsetofbooksthatareonreserveatthelibrary.Commasarethereforenot

usedaroundtheclause.

Thebooksthatarerequiredreadingareonreserveinthelibrary.

Althoughwhichisoftenusedwithrestrictiveclauses,Americanwritersgenerallypreservethedistinctionbetweenrestrictivethat

(nocomma)andnonrestrictivewhich(comma).

Theprinciplesdescribedaboveapplyalsotorestrictiveandnonrestrictivephrases.

Thepresident,wearingareddress,attendedtheconference.

Thewomanwearingareddressisthepresident.

21.2.4OtherUses

Commasareusedinavarietyofothersituations.(Forcommasindates,see23.3.1.)

■Introductorywordsandphrases.Whenyoubeginasentencewithanintroductoryelementofmorethanafewwords,followitwith

acomma.Acommaisnotnecessaryafterashortprepositionalphraseunlessthesentencecouldbemisreadwithoutone.

Iftheinsurrectionistosucceed,thearmyandpolicemuststandsidebyside.

Havingaccomplishedhermission,shereturnedtoheadquarters.

ToAnthony,Blakeremainedanenigma.

Afterthisweekthecommissionwillbeabletowriteitsreport.

■Twoormoreadjectivesprecedinganoun.Separatetwoormoreadjectivesprecedinganounwithcommaswhentheycould,

withoutaffectingmeaning,bejoinedbyand.Donotuseacommaifoneormoreoftheadjectivesisessentialto(i.e.,formsaunit

with)thenoun.(Test:ifyoucannotchangetheorderoftheadjectives,donotusecommas.)

Itwasalarge,well-placed,beautifulhouse.

Theystrolledoutintothewarm,luminousnight.

Sherefusedtobeidentifiedwithatraditionalpoliticallabel.

■Clarifyingcomments.Wordsandphrasessuchasnamely,thatis,andforexample,whichusuallyintroduceaclarifyingcomment,

shouldbefollowedbyacommabutprecededbysomethingstronger(suchasasemicolonoraperiod).Whenyouuseorinthe

senseof inotherwords, putacommabeforeit.(Theseandsimilarexpressionsmayalsobesetoffbydashesorparentheses;see

21.7.2and21.8.1.)

Manypeopleresentaccidentsoffate;thatis,theylookonillnessorbereavementasundeserved.

Thecompassstand,orbinnacle,mustbevisibletothehelmsman.

■Appositives.Awordorphraseissaidtobeinappositiontoanounwhenitfollowsthenounandprovidesanexplanatory

equivalentforit.Non-restrictiveappositivesaresetoffbycommas;restrictiveappositivesarenot(see21.2.3).

Chua,aHarvardCollegegraduate,taughtatDukeforseveralyears.

179

Kierkegaard,theDanishphilosopher,asked,“Whatisanxiety?”

but

TheDanishphilosopherKierkegaardasked,“Whatisanxiety?”

■Place-names.Usecommastosetoffmultipleindividualelementsinnamesofplaces.(Forcommasinaddresses,see23.1.7.)

Cincinnati,Ohio,isontheOhioRiver.

ThenextlegofthetripwastoFlorence,Italy.

■Interjectionsandconjunctiveaduerbs.Setoffinterjections,conjunctiveadverbs,andtheliketosuggestabreakintheflowof

thoughtortherhythmofthesentence.Butomitcommaswhensuchelementsdonotbreakthecontinuityofthesentence.

Nevertheless,itisamatterofgreatimportance.

Itis,perhaps,thebestthatcouldbeexpected.

Perhapsitisthereforeclearthatnodepositsweremade.

■Contrastedelements.Putcommasaroundaninterjectedphrasebeginningwithnot,notonly,orsimilarexpressions.Butwhen

suchaphraseconsistsoftwocomponents(not but,notonly butalso,andthelike),commasareusuallyunnecessary.Usea

commabetweenclausesofthemore themoretypeunlesstheyareveryshort.

Theidea,notitsexpression,issignificant.

Shewasdelightedwith,butalsodisturbedby,hernewfreedom.

Hewasnotonlytheteamʼspresidentbutalsoachartermember.

Themoreitstaysthesame,thelessitchanges.

Themorethemerrier.

■Parentheticalelements.Usepairedcommaswhenyousetoffaparentheticalelementbetweenasubjectandaverboraverbandits

object.Ifyoufindyourselfsettingoffmorethanonesuchinterruptingelementinasentence,considerrewritingthesentence.

TheQuinnReportwas,tosaytheleast,abombshell.

Wolinski,afterreceivinginstructions,leftforAlgiers.

■Repeatedwords.Useacommatoseparateidenticalwords.Anexceptionisnormallymadeforthewordthat.

Theymarchedin,intwos.

Whateveris,isright.

but

Sheimpliedthatthatdidnotmatter.

21.3Semicolons

Asemicolonisstrongerthanacommaandmarksagreaterbreakinthecontinuityofasentence.Useasemicoloninacompound

sentencetoseparateindependentclausesthatarenotconnectedbyacoordinatingconjunction(and,but,or,nor,yet,for,so).

Onehundredcommunitiesareinvariousstagesofcompletion;moreareonthedrawingboard.

Youcanalsouseasemicolonwithacoordinatingconjunctioniftheclausesarelongandhavecommasorotherpunctuation

withinthem.Butiftheresultseemsunwieldy,considerreplacingthesemicolonwithaperiod.

AlthoughproductivitypercapitaintheUnitedStatesismuchhigherthanitisinChina,Chinahasanincreasinglywelleducated

younglaborforce;butthecrucialpointisthatknowledge—whichistransferablebetweenpeoples—hasbecomethemostimportant

worldeconomicresource.

Useasemicolonbeforethewordsthen,however,thus,hence,indeed,accordingly,besides,andthereforewhenthosewordsare

usedtransitionallybetweentwoindependentclauses.

Somethinkfreedomalwayscomeswithdemocracy;however,manyvotersinmanycountrieshavevotedforgovernmentsthatthey

knowwillrestricttheirrights.

180

Whenitemsinaserieshaveinternalpunctuation,separatethemwithsemicolons(seealso21.2.2).
Greenindicatesvegetationthatremainedstable;red,vegetationthatdisappeared;yellow,newvegetation.
Semicolonsarealsosometimesusedintitles(see17.1.2and19.1.3)andtoseparatecitationstomorethanonesource(see16.3.5.1
and18.3.2.5).
21.4Colons
Acolonintroducesaclause,phrase,orseriesofelementsthatexpands,clarifies,orexemplifiesthemeaningofwhatprecedesit.
Betweenindependentclauses,itfunctionsmuchlikeasemicolon,thoughmorestronglyemphasizingbalanceorconsequence.
Peopleexpectthreethingsofgovernment:peace,prosperity,andrespectforcivilrights.
Chinesecultureisunrivaledinitsdepthandantiquity:itisunmatchedinitsrichartisticandphilosophicalrecords.
Useacolontointroduceillustrativematerialoralist.Acolonshouldfollowonlyacompleteindependentclause;oftenan
introductoryelementsuchasthefollowingorasfollowsshouldprecedethecolon.(Seealso23.4.2.)
Thequalificationsareasfollows:adoctorateineconomicsandanabilitytocommunicatestatisticaldatatoalayaudience.
butnot
Thequalificationsare:adoctorateineconomics…
Notethatthefirstwordfollowingacolonwithinasentenceisgenerallynotcapitalizedunlessitisapropernounorunlessthecolon
introducesmorethanonesentence.Forcapitalizationinquotationsintroducedbyacolon,seechapter25.
Colonsarealsousedintitles(see17.1.2and19.1.3),innotationsoftime(23.1.5),inURLs(17.1.7and19.1.8),andinvariousways
incitations.
21.5QuestionMarks
Putaquestionmarkattheendofacompletesentencephrasedasaquestion.
Whowouldleadthenationinitshourofneed?
Putaquestionmarkafteraclausephrasedasaquestionandincludedaspartofasentence.Donotusequotationmarksunless
thequestionisaquotationandtherestofthesentenceisnot.
Wouldtheunionagree?wasthecriticalquestion.
Iftheincludedquestionisattheendofthesentence,donotaddaperiodafterthequestionmark.Youarenotrequiredto
capitalizethefirstwordoftheincludedquestion,butaninitialcapitalhelpsreadersidentifythequestion,especiallyifitincludes
internalpunctuation.Ifthesentencebecomesawkward,youmayinsteadrephrasethequestionasadeclarativestatement.
Severallegislatorsraisedthequestion,Canthefundbeusedinanemergency,ormustitremaindedicatedtoitsoriginalpurpose?
Severallegislatorsraisedthequestionofusingthefundinanemergency,whichwasnotitsoriginalpurpose.
Aquestionmarkmayalsoindicatedoubtoruncertainty,asinadate.
ThepainterNiccolòdellʼAbbate(1512?–71)assistedinthedecorationsatFontainebleau.
21.6ExclamationPoints
Exclamationpointsarerarelyappropriateforacademicwriting,exceptwhentheyarepartofquotedmaterialorpartofthetitleofa
work(themusicalOklahoma!).Seealso21.12.2.1.
21.7HyphensandDashes
21.7.1Hyphens
Hyphensareusedinavarietyofcontexts,includingcompoundwords(see20.3)andinclusivenumbers(23.2.4).
21.7.2Dashes
Adashisanelongatedhyphenusedtosetofftextinawaysimilartobutmoreprominentthancommas(see21.2)orparentheses
(21.8.1).Alsocalledanemdash(becauseinmostfontsitisapproximatelythewidthofthecapitalletterM),thischaracteris
availableinmostwordprocessors.
1
Itcanberepresentedwithtwoconsecutivehyphens,butmostwordprocessorscanbesetto
convertdoublehyphenstoemdashesautomatically.Donotleavespaceoneithersideofthedash.
Whenyouusedashestosetoffaparentheticalelement,pairthemasyouwouldcommasorparentheses.Butavoidusingmore
181

thanonepairinanyonesentence;instead,useparenthesesforthesecondlayerofparentheticalinformation.
Theinfluenceofthreeimpressionists—Monet(1840–1926),Sisley(1839–99),andDegas(1834–1917)—isobviousinherwork.
Youcanalsouseasingledashtosetoffanamplifyingorexplanatoryelement.
Itwasarevivalofamostpotentimage—therevolutionaryidea.
Useadashorapairofdashesenclosingaphrasetoindicateastrongbreakinthoughtthatalsodisruptsthesentencestructure.
Rutherford—howcouldhehavemisinterpretedtheevidence?
SomecharactersinTomJonesare“flat”—ifyoudonotobjecttothisborrowingofE.M.Forsterʼssomewhatdiscreditedterm—
becausetheyarecaricaturesoftheirnames.
Adashmayalsointroduceasummarizingsubjectafteralistofseveralelements.
Thestatueofthediscusthrower,thecharioteeratDelphi,thepoetryofPindar—allrepresentthegreatideal.
21.7.3MultipleDashes
Whenyouquotefromamutilatedorillegibletext,indicateamissingwordormissingletterswitha2-emdash(formedwithtwo
consecutiveemdashes,orfourhyphens).Foramissingword,leaveaspaceoneithersideofthedash;formissingletters,leaveno
spacebetweenthedashandtheexistingpartoftheword.
Thevesselleftthe
____
ofJuly.
H
____
h?[Hirsch?]
Thesametechniquecanbeusedwhenyouwanttoobscureaparticularword.
Itwasad
____
shame.
A3-emdash(formedwiththreeconsecutiveemdashes,orsixhyphens)isusedinbibliographiesandreferenceliststorepresent
therepeatednameofanauthororeditor(see16.2.2and18.2.1).
21.8ParenthesesandBrackets
21.8.1Parentheses
Parenthesesusuallysetoffexplanatoryorinterruptingelementsofasentence,muchlikepairedcommas(see21.2)anddashes
(21.7.2).Ingeneral,usecommasformaterialcloselyrelatedtothemainclause,dashesandparenthesesformateriallessclosely
connected.Theabbreviationse.g.andi.e.,whichmayintroduceaclarifyingcomment(see24.7),areusedonlyinparenthesesorin
notes.
Theconferencehas(withsomemalice)dividedintofourgroups.
Eachpaintingdepictsapublicoccasion;ineach—abanquet,aparade,acoronation(thoughthepersoncrownedisobscured)—
crowdsofpeoplearepicturedasswarmingants.
Therearetaxincentivesfor“cleancars”(e.g.,gasoline-electrichybridsandvehiclespoweredbycompressednaturalgasand
liquefiedpropane).
Parenthesescanalsobeusedwithcitations(seechapters16and18)andtosetoffthenumbersorlettersinalistoranoutline
(see23.4.2).
21.8.2Brackets
Bracketsaremostoftenusedinquotations,toindicatechangesmadetoaquotedpassage(see25.3forexamples).Theycanalsobe
usedtoencloseasecondlayerofparentheticalmaterialwithinparentheses.
Heagreeswiththeideathatchildhoodhasahistory(firstadvancedbyPhilippeAriès[1914-84]inhisbookCenturiesofChildhood
[1962]).
21.9Slashes
Theforwardslash(/)isusedinafewcontexts,suchasfractions(see23.1.3)andquotationsofpoetry(see25.2.1.2).Singleand
doubleslashesappearinURLsandotherelectronicidentifiers(see20.4.2).Thebackwardslash(orbackslash,\)hasvarious
meaningsindifferentcomputerlanguagesandoperatingsystems.
21.10QuotationMarks
182

Fortheuseofquotationmarksinquotedmaterial,see25.2.1.2.Foruseintitlesandotherspecialsituations,see22.3.2.Forusein

citations,see16.1.4and18.1.4.

Somefields linguistics,philosophy,andtheology,forexample usesinglequotationmarkstosetoffwordsandconcepts.The

closingquotationmarkshouldprecedeacommaorperiodinthiscase(compare21.12.2).

kami hair,beard

Thevariablesofquantification,ʻsomethingʼ,ʻnothingʼ,…

Inmostotherfields,followtheguidelinesin22.2.2forusingquotationmarksanditalicswithdefinitionsofterms.

21.11Apostrophes

Fortheuseofapostrophesinpluralandpossessiveforms,see20.1and20.2.Apostrophesarealsousedinformingcontractions

(don t).Ifyourwordprocessorisenabledtousedirectionalor smart quotationmarks,makesurenottoconfuseanapostrophefor

aleftsinglequotationmark( twas,not twas.)

21.12MultiplePunctuationMarks

Theguidelinesgiventhroughoutthischaptersometimescallfortheuseoftwopunctuationmarkstogether forexample,aperiod

andaclosingparenthesis.Theguidelinesbelowshowwhentoomitoneofthemarksandtheorderofthemarkswhenbothareused.

21.12.1OmissionofPunctuationMarks

Exceptforellipses,neverusetwoperiodstogether,evenwhenaperiodinanabbreviationendsasentence.Keeptheabbreviation

periodwhenasentenceendswithaquestionmarkoranexclamationpoint.

Theexchangeoccurredat5:30p.m.

CouldanyonematchtheproductivityofRogersInc.?

Ifasituationcallsforbothacommaandastrongerpunctuationmark,suchasaquestionmarkoradash,omitthecomma.

“Whatweretheythinking?”hewonderedtohimself.

Whilethesenatorcouldnʼtendorsetheproposal—andhecertainlyhaddoubtsaboutit—hedidnʼtcondemnit.

Anexceptioncanbemadefortitlesofworksthatendinaquestionmarkoranexclamationpoint.Becausesuchpunctuationis

notstrictlyrelatedtotherestofthesentence,retaincommaswhereneeded.

“AreYouaDoctor?,”thefifthstoryinWillYouPleaseBeQuiet,Please?,treatsmodernlove.

FilmssuchasAirplane!,ThisIsSpinalTap,andAustinPowersofferparodiesofwell-establishedgenres.

21.12.2OrderofPunctuationMarks

Adjacentmarksofpunctuationmostoftenoccurwithquotationmarks,parentheses,orbrackets.Americanusagefollowsafew

reliableguidelinesfororderingmultiplemarks.

21.12.2.1WITHQUOTATIONMARKS.Afinalcommaorperiodnearlyalwaysprecedesaclosingquotationmark,whetheritispartofthe

quotedmatterornot.

Insupportoftheeffort“tobringjusticetoourpeople,”shejoinedthestrike.

Shemadetheargumentinanarticletitled“OnʼManagingPublicDebt.ʼ”

Therearetwoexceptions.Whensinglequotationmarksareusedtosetoffspecialtermsincertainfields,suchaslinguistics,

philosophy,andtheology(see21.10),putaperiodorcommaaftertheclosingquotationmark.

Somecontemporarytheologians,whofavoredʻreligionlessChristianityʼ,wereproclaimingtheʻdeathofGodʼ.

Andifacomputerfilenameorcommandmustbeputinquotationmarks,aperiodorcommathatisnotpartofthenameorthe

commandshouldcomeaftertheclosingmark.

ClickonSaveAs;nameyourfile“appendixA,v.10”.

Questionmarksandexclamationpointsprecedeaclosingquotationmarkiftheyarepartofthequotedmatter.Theyfollowthe

quotationmarkiftheyapplytotheentiresentenceinwhichthequotationappears.

Herpoemistitled“WhatDidtheCrowKnow?”

DoweacceptJeffersonʼsconceptof“anaturalaristocracy”?

183

Semicolonsandcolonsalwaysfollowquotationmarks.Ifthequotationendswithasemicolonoracolon,changeittoaperiodor

acomma(ordeleteit)tofitthestructureofthemainsentence(see25.3.1).

Heclaimedthat“everychoicereflectsanattitudetowardEveryman”;hisspeechthenenlargedonthepointinatellingway.

TheEmergencyCenteris“almostitsowncity”:ithasitsownservicesandgovernance.

21.12.2.2WITHPARENTHESESANDBRACKETS.Whenyouencloseacompletesentenceinparentheses,puttheterminalperiod(orother

terminalpunctuationmark)forthatsentencebeforethelastparenthesis.However,puttheperiodoutsidewhenmaterialin

parentheses,evenagrammaticallycompletesentence,isincludedwithinanothersentence.Thesameprinciplesapplytomaterialin

brackets.

WehavenotedsimilarmotifsinJapan.(TheycanalsobefoundinKoreanfolktales.)

Useperiodsinallthesesituations(yourreaderswillexpectthem).

Mythshavebeenacceptedasallegoricallytrue(bytheStoics)andaspriestlylies(byEnlightenmentthinkers).

(Thedirectorpromisedcompletion“ontimeandunderbudget”[italicsmine].)

Forterminalpunctuationwithcitationsgivenparenthetically,see25.2.

1.Thereisasecondtypeofdash,calledanendash(becauseitisapproximatelythewidthofthecapitalletterN),thatisusedin

publishedworkstomean through, usuallyinconnectionwithnumbersordates(e.g.,1998 2008).Itcanalsobeusedinother

contexts,asdiscussedin6.78-81ofTheChicagoManualofStyle,16thedition(2010).Ifyourlocalguidelinesrequireit,this

characterisavailableinmostwordprocessors;otherwiseuseahypheninthesecontexts.Notethatthisbookusesendasheswhere

theyareappropriate,asintheprecedingreferencetoCMOS.

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22Names,SpecialTerms,andTitlesofWorks
22.1Names
22.1.1People,Places,andOrganizations
22.1.2HistoricalEvents,CulturalTerms,andDesignationsofTime
22.1.3OtherTypesofNames
22.2SpecialTerms
22.2.1Foreign-LanguageTerms
22.2.2WordsDefinedasTerms
22.3TitlesofWorks
22.3.1Capitalization
22.3.2ItalicsorQuotationMarks
22.3.3Punctuation
Thischapteroffersgeneralguidelinesforpresentingnames,specialterms,andtitlesofworks,includingadviceonwhentouse
capitallettersandwhentousequotationmarksoritalictype(asopposedtoregularromantype)tosetoffwords,phrases,ortitles.
Ifyouarewritingathesisordissertation,yourdepartmentoruniversitymayhavespecificrequirementsforpresentingnames,
specialterms,andtitles.Thoserequirementsareusuallyavailablefromtheofficeofthesesanddissertations.Ifyouarewritinga
classpaper,yourinstructormayalsoaskyoutofollowcertainprinciplesforpresentingsuchitems.Reviewtheserequirements
beforeyouprepareyourpaper.Theytakeprecedenceovertheguidelinessuggestedhere.Forstyleguidesinvariousdisciplines,see
thebibliography.
22.1Names
Propernouns,ornames,arealwayscapitalized,butitissometimesdifficulttodistinguishanamefromagenericterm.Thissection
coversthemostcommoncases.Formoredetailedinformation,seechapter8ofTheChicagoManualofStyle,16thedition(2010).
Intext,namesarenormallypresentedinromantype,butthereareafewexceptionsnotedin22.1.3.
22.1.1People,Places,andOrganizations
Ingeneral,capitalizethefirstletterineachelementofthenamesofspecificpeople,places,andorganizations.However,personal
namesthatcontainparticles(suchasdeandvan)orcompoundlastnamesmayvaryincapitalization.Whenindoubt,consult
Webster sBiographicalDictionaryoranotherreliableauthority.Prepositions(of)andconjunctions(and)thatarepartsofnamesare
usuallylowercase,asisthewhenitprecedesaname.Forpossessiveformsofnames,see20.2.Forabbreviationswithnames,see
24.2.Fornameswithnumbers,see23.1.6.
EleanorRoosevelt
W.E.B.DuBois
LudwigvanBeethoven
VictoriaSackville-West
ChiangKai-shek
SierraLeone
CentralAmerica
NewYorkCity
theAtlanticOcean
theRepublicofLithuania
theUnitedStatesCongress
theStateDepartment
theEuropeanUnion
theUniversityofNorthCarolina
theHondaMotorCompany
Skidmore,Owings&Merrill
theUniversityofChicagoPress
theNationalConferenceofCommunityandJustice
theRomanCatholicChurch
theAlliedExpeditionaryForce
Aprofessionaltitlethatimmediatelyprecedesapersonalnameistreatedaspartofthenameandshouldbecapitalized.Ifyouuse
185

thetitlealoneorafterthepersonalname,itbecomesagenerictermandshouldbelowercased.Thesameprincipleappliestoother

generictermsthatarepartofplaceororganizationnames.

PresidentHarryTrumanannounced

thepresidentannounced

ProfessorsHarrisandWilsonwrote

theprofessorswrote

nexttotheIndianOcean

nexttotheocean

studentsatAlbionCollege

studentsatthecollege

Namesofethnicandnationalgroupsarealsocapitalized.Termsdenotingsocioeconomiclevel,however,arenot.(For

hyphenationofcompoundsofbothtypes,see20.3.2.Forpluralsoftribalnames,suchasHopi,see20.1.1.)

ArabAmericans

Latinos

themiddleclass

white-collarworkers

Capitalizeadjectivesderivedfromnames,unlesstheyhavelosttheirliteralassociationswithparticularpersonsorplacesand

havebecomepartofeverydaylanguage.

Machiavellianscheme

RomanandArabicart

frenchfries

romanandarabicnumerals

22.1.2HistoricalEvents,CulturalTerms,andDesignationsofTime

Thenamesofmanyhistoricalperiodsandeventsaretraditionallycapitalized;moregenerictermsusuallyarenot,unlessthey

includenames.Followtheconventionsofyourdiscipline.

theBronzeAge

theDepression

theIndustrialRevolution

Prohibition

theSevenYearsʼWar

ancientRome

thenineteenthcentury

theShangdynasty

thecolonialperiod

thebabyboom

Nounsandadjectivesdesignatingculturalstyles,movements,andschoolsaregenerallycapitalizedonlywhenderivedfrom

namesorwhentheyneedtobedistinguishedfromgenericterms(asinStoicism).Again,followtheconventionsofyourdiscipline.

classical

impressionism

modernism

deconstruction

Aristotelianreasoning

Dadaism

HudsonRiverschool

Romanesquearchitecture

Namesofdaysoftheweek,months,andholidaysarecapitalized,butnamesofseasonsarenot.Formoreondatesystems,see

23.3.

Tuesday

September

IndependenceDay

spring

186

22.1.3OtherTypesofNames

Othertypesofnamesalsofollowspecificpatternsforcapitalization,andsomerequireitalics.

■Academiccoursesandsubjects.Capitalizethenamesofspecificcoursesbutnotofgeneralsubjectsorfieldsofstudy,exceptforthe

namesoflanguages.

Archaeology101

TopicsinVictorianLiterature

arthistory

Englishliterature

■Acts,treaties,andgovernmentprograms.Capitalizetheformaloracceptedtitlesofacts,treaties,governmentprograms,and

similardocumentsorentities,butlowercaseinformalorgenerictitles.

theUnitedStates(orUS)Constitution

theTreatyofVersailles

HeadStart

thedueprocessclause

thetreaty

■Brandnames.Capitalizethebrandnamesofproducts,butdonotusethesymbol or aftersuchaname.Unlessyouare

discussingaspecificproduct,however,useagenericterminsteadofabrandname.

Coca-Cola

Xerox

iPhone

cola

photocopy

smartphone

■Electronictechnology.Capitalizenamesofcomputerhardwareandsoftware,networks,browsers,systems,andlanguages.Generic

terms(suchasweb),however,maybelowercasedwhenusedaloneorincombination.

AppleOSXLion

GoogleChrome

theInternet;thenet

theWorldWideWeb;theweb;website

■Legalcases.Capitalizeanditalicizethenamesoflegalcases;italicizethev.(versus).Youmayshortenthecasenameafterafull

referencetoit(usuallytothenameoftheplaintifforthenongovernmentalparty).Forcitationsoflegalcases,see17.9.7and19.9.7.

Firstreference

Mirandav.Arizona

UnitedStatesv.Carlisle

Subsequentreferences

Miranda

Carlisle

■Ships,aircraft,andothervessels.Capitalizeanditalicizethenamesofships,aircraft,andthelike.Ifthenamesareprecededbyan

abbreviationsuchasUSS(UnitedStatesship)orHMS(Her[orHis]Majesty sship),donotitalicizetheseabbreviationsorusethe

wordshipinadditiontothename.

USSConstitution

HMSSaranac

SpiritofSt.Louis

thespaceshuttleAtlantis

■Plantsandanimals.Inpapersinthehumanitiesandsocialsciences,donotcapitalizethenamesofplantsandanimalsunlessthey

includeotherpropernouns,suchasgeographicalnames.BinomialLatinspeciesnamesshouldbeitalicized,withthegenusname

capitalizedandthespeciesname(orspecificepithet)lowercase.Thenamesofphyla,orders,andsuchshouldbeinromantype.

Forpapersinthesciences,followtheconventionsofyourdiscipline.

rhesusmonkey

187

RockyMountainsheep

Rosacaroliniana

Chordata

22.2SpecialTerms

Somespecialtermsrequireuseofitalics,quotationmarks,andcapitalization.

22.2.1Foreign-LanguageTerms

ItalicizeisolatedwordsandphrasesinforeignlanguageslikelytobeunfamiliartoreadersofEnglish,andcapitalizethemasintheir

language.(Ifyouareunfamiliarwiththecapitalizationprinciplesofalanguage,consultareliableauthoritysuchaschapter11ofThe

ChicagoManualofStyle,16thedition[2010].)Fortitlesofworksinforeignlanguages,see22.3.1.

ThisleadstotheideaofÜbermenschandtothetheoryoftheactegratuitandsurrealism.

DonotitalicizeforeigntermsfamiliarenoughtoappearinMerriam-Webster sCollegiateDictionary.

defacto

vis-à-vis

pasha

eros

Donotitalicizeforeignnamesorpersonaltitlesthataccompanythem.

PadrePio

theAcadémieFrançaise

thePuertodelSol

Ifyoudefineaforeignterm,putthedefinitioninparenthesesorquotationmarks,eitherfollowingtheterminthetextorina

note.

Theusualphrasewasenatuainu-iai,“Iwantedtoeat.”

AccordingtoSartreanontology,manisalwaysdetrop(inexcess).

Forlongerquotationsfromaforeignlanguage,useromantype.Italicizethequotationasawholeoranywordswithinitonlyif

theyareitalicizedintheoriginal.Enclosethequotationinquotationmarkswithinthetextoruseablockquotationfollowingthe

principlesin25.2.

Theconfusionoflepragmatismeistracedtothesupposedfailuretodistinguish“lespropriétésdelavaleurengénéral”fromthe

incidental.

22.2.2WordsDefinedasTerms

Toemphasizekeytermsthatyoudefine,italicizethemontheirfirstuse;thereafteruseromantype.Youcanusequotationmarks

(calledscarequotes)toalertreadersthatyouareusingaterminanonstandardorironicway.Whenoverused,bothtechniques

becomelesseffective.

Thetwochieftacticsofthisgroup,obstructionismandmisinformation,requirecarefulanalysis.

Government“efficiency”resultedinahugedeficit.

Italicizeatermwhenyourefertoitasaterm.

Thetermcriticalmassismoreoftenusedmetaphoricallythanliterally.

Howdidshedefinethewordexistential?

but

Acriticalmassofstudentstookexistentialphilosophy.

Italicizelettersreferredtoasletters,andpresenttheminlowercase.Lettersusedtodenotegradesandtoidentifyexemplars

shouldberomanandcapitalized.Forpluralformsoflettersusedintheseways,see20.1.2.

Manyoftheplace-namestherebeginwiththelettershandk.

Inhersenioryear,shereceivedanAandsixBs.

188

Imagineagroupofinterconnectedpersons:AknowsB,BknowsC,andCknowsD.
22.3TitlesofWorks
Whenyouciteawork,presentitstitleexactlyasitappearsintheoriginalworkor,iftheoriginalisunavailable,inareliable
authority.
Alwayspreservetheoriginalspelling(includinghyphenation)insuchtitles,evenifitdoesnotconformtocurrentAmerican
usageasdescribedinchapter20.See17.1.2forsomepermissiblechangestothepunctuationoftitles,suchastheuseofacolon
betweenatitleandasubtitle,andtheadditionofacommabeforedates.
Academicconventionprescribesthattitlesfollowspecificpatternsofcapitalizationandtheuseofitalicsorquotationmarks(or
neither),regardlessofhowtheyappearintheoriginal.
22.3.1Capitalization
Titleshavetwopatternsofcapitalization:headlinestyleandsentencestyle.Presentmosttitlesinheadlinestyle.Forforeign-
languagetitles,usesentencestyle.
Bothcitationstylesdescribedinthismanualnowprescribeheadline-stylecapitalizationforEnglish-languagetitles(achange
frompreviouseditions).See16.1.3and18.1.3.
Alsouseheadline-stylecapitalizationforthetitleofyourpaperandthetitlesofanypartsorchapterswithinitunlessyour
disciplinepreferssentencestyle(seeA.1.5).
22.3.1.1HEADLINE-STYLECAPITALIZATION.Headline-stylecapitalizationisintendedtodistinguishtitlesclearlyfromsurroundingtext.In
thisstyle,capitalizethefirstletterofthefirstandlastwordsofthetitleandsubtitleandallotherwords,exceptasfollows:
■Donotcapitalizearticles(a,an,the),coordinatingconjunctions(and,but,or,nor,for),orthewordtoorasexceptasthefirstor
lastwordinthetitleorsubtitle.
■Donotcapitalizeprepositions(of,in,at,above,under,andsoforth)unlesstheyareusedasadverbs(upinLookUp)oradjectives
(oninTheOnButton).
■Capitalizethesecondpart(orsubsequentparts)ofahyphenatedcompoundunlessitisanarticle,preposition,orcoordinating
conjunction(and,but,or,nor,for),oramodifiersuchassharporflatfollowingamusicalkey;orunlessthefirstpartisaprefix
(anti,pre,andsoforth).(Remembertofollowtheoriginalhyphenationofatitleevenifitdiffersfromtheprinciplesdiscussedin
20.3.)
■Lowercasethesecondpartofaspeciesname,suchasfulvescensinAcipenserfulvescens,evenifitisthelastwordinatitleor
subtitle(seealso22.1.3).
■Donotcapitalizepartsofpropernounsthatarenormallyinlowercase,asdescribedin22.1.1(vaninLudwigvanBeethoven).
TheEconomicEffectsoftheCivilWarintheMid-AtlanticStates
ToHaveandtoHold:ATwenty-First-CenturyViewofMarriage
AllThatIsTrue:TheLifeofVincentvanGogh,1853–90
FourReadingsoftheGospelaccordingtoMatthew
Self-GovernmentandtheRe-establishmentofaNewWorldOrder
GlobalWarming:WhatWeAreDoingaboutItToday
StillLifewithOranges
FromHomoerectustoHomosapiens:ABlack-and-WhiteHistory
E-flatConcerto
Althoughmanyshortwordsarelowercaseinthisstyle,lengthdoesnotdeterminecapitalization.Youmustcapitalizeshortverbs
(is,are),adjectives(new),personalpronouns(it,we),andrelativepronouns(that),becausetheyarenotamongtheexceptionslisted
above.Uselowercaseforlongprepositions(according),sinceprepositionsareamongtheexceptions.
Twokindsoftitlesshouldnotbepresentedinheadlinestyleevenifyouuseitforallothertitles:
■FortitlesinlanguagesotherthanEnglish,usesentence-stylecapitalization(see22.3.1.2).
■Fortitlesofworkspublishedintheeighteenthcentury(1700s)orearlier,retaintheoriginalcapitalization(andspelling),except
thatwordsspelledoutinallcapitallettersshouldbegivenwithaninitialcapitalonly.
ATreatiseofmorallphilosophyContaynygethesayingsofthewyse
22.3.1.2SENTENCE-STYLECAPITALIZATION.Sentence-stylecapitalizationisasimpler,thoughlessdistinct,wayofpresentingtitlesthan
headlinestyle.Inthisstyle,capitalizeonlythefirstletterofthefirstwordofthetitleandsubtitleandanypropernounsandproper
adjectivesthereafter.
Seeingandsellinglate-nineteenth-centuryJapan
189

Naturalcrisis:Symbolandimaginationinthemid-Americanfarmcrisis

Religiousfeminism:AchallengefromtheNationalOrganizationforWomen

Starrynight

Unlessyourdisciplinesaysotherwise,reservesentencestylefortitlesofworksinforeignlanguages.

Notethatforeignlanguageshavedifferentconventionsforcapitalization.Forexample,Germannounsaregenerallycapitalized,

whereasGermanadjectives,eventhosederivedfrompropernouns,arenot.Ifyouareuncertainabouttheconventionsofa

particularlanguage,consultareliableauthority.

SpeculumRomanaemagnificentiae

HistoriadelaOrdendeSanGerónimo

ReallexikonzurdeutschenKunstgeschichte

Phénoménologieetreligion:StructuresdeIʼinstitutionchrétienne

22.3.2ItalicsorQuotationMarks

Mosttitlesofworksaresetofffromthesurroundingtextbyitalicsorquotationmarks,dependingonthetypeofwork.The

guidelineslistedhereapplynotonlytotitlesusedintextbutalsotomosttitlesinsourcecitations(seechapters15 19).

Theexamplesbelowarepresentedwithheadline-stylecapitalization,buttheguidelinesalsoapplytotitleswithsentence-style

capitalization(see22.3.1.2).

22.3.2.1ITALICS.Italicizethetitlesofmostlongerworks,includingthetypeslistedhere.Aninitialtheshouldberomanandlowercase

beforetitlesofperiodicals,orwhenitisnotconsideredpartofthetitle.Forpartsoftheseworksandshorterworksofthesametype,

see22.3.2.2.

■books(CultureandAnarchy,TheChicagoManualofStyle)

■plays(AWinter sTale)andverylongpoems,especiallythoseofbooklength(Dante sInferno)

■journals(Signs),magazines(Time),newspapers(theNewYorkTimes),andblogs(DotEarth)

■longmusicalcompositions(TheMarriageofFigaro)ortitlesofalbums(PlasticBeachbyGorillaz)

■paintings(theMonaLisa),sculptures(Michelangelo sDavid),andotherworksofart,includingphotographs(AnselAdam sNorth

Dome)

■movies(CitizenKane)andtelevision(SesameStreet)andradioprograms(AllThingsConsidered)

22.3.2.2QUOTATIONMARKS.Encloseinquotationmarks,butdonotitalicize,thetitleofashorterwork,whetherornotitispartofa

longerwork(suchasthoselistedin22.3.2.1).

■chapters( TheLaterYears )orothertitledpartsofbooks

■shortstories( TheDead ),shortpoems( TheHousekeeper ),andessays( OfBooks )

■articlesorotherfeaturesinjournals( TheFunctionofFashioninEighteenth-CenturyAmerica ),magazines( WhoShouldLead

theSupremeCourt? ),newspapers( ElectionComesDowntotheWire ),andwebsitesorblogs( AnIceExpertMuseson

GreenhouseHeat )

■individualepisodesoftelevisionprograms( TheOpposite )

■shortmusicalcompositions( TheStar-SpangledBanner )andrecordings( AllYouNeedIsLove )

Alsousequotationmarksandromantypefortitlesofwholeworksthathavenotbeenformallypublished,includingthe

following:

■thesesanddissertations( AStudyofKant sEarlyWorks )

■lecturesandpaperspresentedatmeetings( VoiceandInequality:TheTransformationofAmericanCivicDemocracy )

■titleddocumentsinmanuscriptcollections( AMapoftheSouthernIndianDistrictofNorthAmerica )

22.3.2.3NEITHER.Capitalizebutdonotuseitalicsorquotationmarkswiththesespecialtypesoftitles:

■bookseries(StudiesinLegalHistory)

■manuscriptcollections(EgmontManuscripts)

■scriptures(theBible)andotherreveredworks(theUpanishads),aswellasversionsoftheBible(theKingJamesVersion)andits

books(Genesis;see24.6foracompletelist)

■musicalworksreferredtobytheirgenre(Symphonyno.41,CantataBWV80),thoughthepopulartitlesforsuchworksshouldbe

italicized(theJupiterSymphony)orplacedinquotationmarks( EinfesteBurgistunserGott )dependingontheirlength,as

notedabove

■websites(GoogleMaps,Facebook,Apple.com,theInternetMovieDatabase,IMDb),thoughexceptionsmaybemadeforsitesthat

areanalogoustoatypeofworklistedin22.3.2.1(Wikipedia,theHuffingtonPost)

Treatgenerictermsforpartsofbooksorotherworksasyouwouldanyotherword.Donotcapitalizethemoruseitalicsor

quotationmarksunlessyouwoulddothesameforanordinaryword(suchasatthebeginningofasentence).Ifapartincludesa

190

number,giveitinarabicnumerals,regardlessofitsappearanceintheoriginalwork(see23.1.8).

inLionelTrillingʼspreface

asdiscussedinchapters4and5

acomprehensivebibliography

killedoffinact3,scene2

22.3.3Punctuation

Preserveanypunctuationthatispartofatitlewhenusingthetitleinasentence(see17.1.2).Ifthetitleisusedasarestrictiveclause

orinanotherpositioninthesentencethatwouldnormallybefollowedbyacomma(see21.2),addthecomma.

Love,Loss,andWhatIWorewaslateradaptedforanoff-Broadwayplay.

but

Herfavoritebook,Love,Loss,andWhatIWore,isanautobiographyrecountedlargelythroughdrawings.

Punctuationwithinatitleshouldnotaffectanypunctuationcalledforbythesurroundingsentence.Oneexception:omitaterminal

periodafteratitleendinginaquestionmarkoranexclamationpoint.Seealso21.12.2.

“AreYouaDoctor?”isthefifthstoryinWillYouPleaseBeQuiet,Please?

191

23Numbers
23.1WordsorNumerals?
23.1.1GeneralRule
23.1.2SpecialCases
23.1.3PercentagesandDecimalFractions
23.1.4Money
23.1.5Time
23.1.6NameswithNumbers
23.1.7AddressesandThoroughfares
23.1.8PartsofPublishedWorks
23.1.9EquationsandFormulas
23.2PluralsandPunctuation
23.2.1Plurals
23.2.2CommaswithinNumbers
23.2.3OtherPunctuationwithinNumbers
23.2.4InclusiveNumbers
23.3DateSystems
23.3.1Month,Day,andYear
23.3.2Decades,Centuries,andEras
23.4NumbersUsedoutsidetheText
23.4.1NumbersinTables,Figures,andCitations
23.4.2Enumerations
Thischapteroffersgeneralguidelinesforpresentingnumbers.Theseguidelinesareappropriateformosthumanitiesandsocial
sciencedisciplines,butdisciplinesthatrelyheavilyonnumericaldatamayhavemorespecificguidelines.Ifyouarewritingapaper
inthenaturalorphysicalsciences,mathematics,oranyotherverytechnicalfield,followtheconventionsofthediscipline.Forstyle
guidesinvariousdisciplines,seethebibliography.Foradviceonnumberingthepagesandpartsofyourpaper,seetheappendix.
Ifyouarewritingathesisoradissertation,yourdepartmentoruniversitymayhavespecificrequirementsforpresentingnumbers,
whichareusuallyavailablefromtheofficeofthesesanddissertations.Ifyouarewritingaclasspaper,yourinstructormayalsoask
youtofollowcertainprinciplesforpresentingnumbers.Reviewtheserequirementsbeforeyouprepareyourpaper.Theytake
precedenceovertheguidelinessuggestedhere.
23.1WordsorNumerals?
Themostcommonquestioninpresentingnumbersiswhethertospellthemoutinwords(twenty-two)orgivetheminnumerals
(22).Whenthenumberisfollowedbyaunitofmeasure,youmustalsodecidewhethertogivethatunitinwords(percent)orasa
symbol(%)oranabbreviation.
Theguidelinespresentedin23.1 23.3pertaintonumbersusedinthetextofyourpaper.Fornumbersusedintables,figures,and
citations,see23.4.
Unlessotherwisespecified,numeralsheremeansarabicnumerals(1,2,3,etc.).Forromannumerals(i,ii,iii,etc.),seetable23.1.
23.1.1GeneralRule
Beforeyoudraftyourpaper,youshoulddecideonageneralruleforpresentingnumbersandfollowitconsistently.Whichruleyou
choosedependsonhowoftenyouusenumericaldataandtheconventionsofyourdiscipline.Forsituationsinwhichyoumight
modifythisrule,see23.1.2-23.1.8.
Inthehumanitiesandsocialsciences,ifyouusenumericaldataonlyoccasionally,spelloutnumbersfromonethroughone
hundred.Ifthenumberhastwowords,useahyphen(fifty-five).Alsospelloutroundnumbersfollowedbyhundred,thousand,
hundredthousand,million,andsoon(butsee23.1.2.3).Forallothernumbers,usearabicnumerals.Followthispatternfornumbers
thatarepartofphysicalquantities(distances,lengths,temperatures,andsoon),anddonotuseabbreviationsfortheunitsinsuch
quantities(see24.5).
Table23.1.Romannumerals
192

Aftersevenyearsofwarcamesixty-fouryearsofpeace.

Thepopulationofthethreestateswasapproximatelytwelvemillion.

Hecataloguedmorethan527worksofart.

Withinfifteenminutesthetemperaturedroppedtwentydegrees.

Ifyourtopicreliesheavilyonnumericaldata,followadifferentrule:spelloutonlysingle-digitnumbersandusenumeralsforall

others.

Thisstudyof14electoraldistrictsoversevenyearsincluded142participants.

Hehitthewallat65milesperhour,leavingskidmarksforninefeet.

Inthesciences,yourgeneralrulemaybetousenumeralsforallnumbers,exceptwhentheybeginasentence(see23.1.2.1).You

mayalsouseabbreviationsforquantities(see24.5).

Themeanweightprovedtobe7g,whichwasfarlessthanpredicted.

Withanyoftheserules,usethesameprinciplesforordinalnumbers(first,second,etc.)thatyouuseforstandardones.Addst,

nd,rd,orthasappropriate.

Onthe122ndand123rddaysofhistrip,hereceivedhiseighteenthandnineteenthlettersfromhome.

23.1.2SpecialCases

Inafewcommonsituations,thegeneralrulediscussedin23.1.1requiresmodification.

23.1.2.1NUMBERSBEGINNINGASENTENCE.Neverbeginasentencewithanumeral.Eitherspelloutthenumberorrecastthesentence,

especiallywhenthereareothernumeralsofasimilartypeinthesentence.

Twohundredfiftysoldiersintheunitescapedinjury;175sustainedminorinjuries.

or,better,

Ofthesoldiersintheunit,250escapedinjuryand175sustainedminorinjuries.

Whenspellingoutnumbersoveronehundred,omitthewordandwithintheterm(nottwohundredandfifty).

23.1.2.2RELATEDNUMBERS.Ignorethegeneralrulewhenyouhaveaseriesofrelatednumbersinthesamesentencethatareaboveand

belowthethreshold,especiallywhenthosenumbersarebeingcompared.Intheseexamples,allareexpressedinnumerals.

193

Ofthegroupsurveyed,78studentshadstudiedFrenchand142hadstudiedSpanishforthreeyearsormore.

Weanalyzed62cases;ofthese,59hadoccurredinadultsand3inchildren.

Ifyouarediscussingtwosetsofitemsincloseproximity,ignorethegeneralruleand,forclarity,spelloutallnumbersinoneset

andusenumeralsforallnumbersintheother.

Withintheprogram,9childrenshowedsomeimprovementaftersixmonthsand37showedsignificantimprovementaftereighteen

months.

23.1.2.3ROUNDNUMBERS.Spelloutaroundnumber(awholenumberfollowedbyhundred,thousand,hundredthousand,million,and

soon)inisolation(see23.1.1),butgiveseveralroundnumbersclosetogetherinnumerals.Youmayalsoexpresslargeround

numbersinacombinationofnumeralsandwords.(Seealso23.1.4.)

Approximatelyfifteenhundredscholarsattendedtheconference.

but

Theysold1,500copiesinthefirstyearand8,000inthesecond.

Thesechangeswillaffectabout7.8millionpeopleinNewYorkalone.

23.1.3PercentagesandDecimalFractions

Usenumeralstoexpresspercentagesanddecimalfractions,exceptatthebeginningofasentence(see23.1.2.1).Spellouttheword

percent,exceptwhenyouusemanypercentagefiguresandinthesciences,wherethesymbol%isusuallypreferred(withno

interveningspaceafterthenumber).Noticethatthenounpercentageshouldnotbeusedwithanumber.

Scoresforstudentswhoskippedsummerschoolimprovedonly9percent.Thepercentageofstudentswhofailedwasabout2.4

timestheusualrate.

Withinthissystem,thesubjectscored3.8,or95%.

butnot

Theaveragerose9percentagepoints.

Whenyouusefractionalandwholenumbersforthesametypeofiteminthesamesentenceorparagraph,givebothasnumerals.

Theaveragenumberofchildrenborntocollegegraduatesdroppedfrom2.4to2.

Putazeroinfrontofadecimalfractionoflessthan1.ooifthequantityexpressediscapableofexceeding1.00.Whendecimal

quantitiesmustbe1.00orless,asinprobabilities,correlationcoefficients,andthelike,omitthezerobeforethedecimalpoint.

ameanof0.73

alossof0.08

p<.05

a.406battingaverage

Forfractionsstandingalone,followthegeneralrule(see23.1.1)forspellingouttheparts.Ifyouspelltheparts,includeahyphen

betweenthem.Expressinnumeralsaunitcomposedofawholenumberandafraction.Ifyouuseasymbolforthefraction,thereis

nointerveningspacebetweenthenumberandthefraction.

Tradeandcommodityservicesaccountedfornine-tenthsofallinternationalreceiptsandpayments.

OneyearduringtheDustBowlera,thetownreceivedonly15/16ofaninchofrain.

Themaincarvingimplementusedinthissocietymeasured2½feet.

23.1.4Money

23.1.4.1USCURRENCY.IfyoureferonlyoccasionallytoUScurrency,followthegeneralrule(see23.1.1),andspelloutthewordsdollars

andcents.Otherwiseusenumeralsalongwiththesymbol$.Omitthedecimalpointandfollowingzerosforwhole-dollaramounts,

unlessyourefertofractionalamountsaswell.

Rarelydotheyspendmorethanfivedollarsaweekonrecreation.

Thereportshowed$135collectedinfines.

Pricesrangedfrom$0.95upto$10.00.

194

Expresslargeroundnumbersinacombinationofnumeralsandwords.

Thedeficitthatyearwas$420billion.

23.1.4.2OTHERCURRENCIES.ForcurrenciesotherthanthatoftheUnitedStates,followthepatternfortheUSdollar.Mostcurrencies

putunitsymbolsbeforenumerals.EventhoughEuropeannationsrepresentdecimalpointswithcommasinsteadofperiods,you

mayuseperiods,exceptindirectquotationsfromsources.Incontextswherethesymbol$mayrefertonon-UScurrencies,these

currenciesshouldbeclearlyidentified.

Whenshereturned,shehadbarelyfiftyeurostohername.

Thehouseholdrecordsshowthatitcostonly£36.50.

Itscurrentestimatedworthis¥377million.

IfyousubtractCan$15.69fromUS$25.00,…

MostEuropeannationsnowusetheunifiedcurrencycalledtheeuro( ),butifyouarewritingabouttopicsfromtheperiod

before2002,youmayencountersuchcurrenciesastheFrenchfranc(F),Germandeutschemark(DM),andItalianlira(Lit).British

currencyisstillexpressedinpounds( )andpence(p.),thoughbeforedecimalizationin1971,itwasexpressedinpounds,shillings,

andpence(forexample, 1217s.6d.).NotethatbillionintraditionalBritishusageaswellasinsomeotherforeignlanguagesmeans

amillionmillion,notathousandmillion;toavoidconfusion,besuretoaccuratelyrepresentsuchdistinctions.

Inmoretechnicalcontexts,itmaybebesttousethethree-lettercodesforcurrentandhistoricalcurrenciesdefinedbythe

InternationalOrganizationforStandardizationinstandardISO4217,whichisavailableontheorganization swebsite.Useaspace

betweenthecodeandtheamount.

IfyousubtractEUR15.69fromUSD25.00,…

23.1.5Time

Forreferencestotimesofdayinevenincrementsofanhour,halfhour,orquarterhour,spelloutthetimes,withahyphenbetween

parts.Ifnecessary,specifyinthemorningorintheevening.Youmayuseo clock,althoughitisnowrareinresearchwriting.

TheparticipantsplannedtomeeteveryThursdayaroundten-thirtyinthemorning.

Whenemphasizingexacttimes,usenumeralsand,ifnecessary,a.m.orp.m.(lowercaseandroman;seealso24.4.1).Always

includezerosafterthecolonforevenhours.

Althoughscheduledtoendat11:00a.m.,thecouncilmeetingranuntil1:37p.m.

Ineithersituation,usethewordsnoonandmidnight(ratherthannumerals)toexpressthesespecifictimesofday.

Foruseofwordsornumeralsindates,see23.3.

23.1.6NameswithNumbers

Sometypesofpersonal,governmental,andorganizationalnamesincludenumbersgivenineitherwordsornumerals.(Seealso

22.1.)

■Leaders.Emperors,sovereigns,orpopeswiththesamefirstnamearedifferentiatedbycapitalizedromannumerals(seetable

23.1).

CharlesV

NapoleonIII

ElizabethII

BenedictXVI

■Familymembers.Malefamilymemberswithidenticalfullnamesareoftendifferentiatedwithromanorarabicnumerals(seealso

24.2.1).Notethattherearenocommasbetweenthenameandthenumeral,unlessthenameisinverted,asinalist.

MichaelF.Johnson2nd

AdlaiE.StevensonIII

but

Stevenson,AdlaiE.,III

■Governmentsandpoliticaldivisions.Certaindynasties,governments,governingbodies,politicalandjudicialdivisions,and

militaryunitsarecommonlydesignatedbyanordinalnumberbeforethenoun.Spelloutandcapitalizenumbersthroughone

hundred(withahyphenbetweenthepartsofthenumber,ifrelevant);usenumeralsforthoseoveronehundred.

NineteenthDynasty

195

FourteenthCongressionalDistrict

FifthRepublic

Forty-SeventhWard

Eighty-FirstCongress

TenthCircuit

109thCongress

101stAirborneDivision

■Churchesandreligiousorganizations.Spelloutandcapitalizenumbersbeforethenamesofchurchesorreligiousorganizationsin

ordinalform(withahyphenbetweenthepartsofthenumber,ifrelevant).

Twenty-FirstChurchofChrist,Scientist

■Secularorganizations.Expresslocalbranchesoffraternallodgesandunionsinnumeralsfollowingthename.

AmericanLegion,DepartmentofIllinois,CrispusAttucksPostNo.1268

UnitedAutoWorkersLocal890

23.1.7AddressesandThoroughfares

Followthegeneralrule(see23.1.1)forthenamesoflocalnumberedstreets.State,federal,andinterstatehighwaysarealways

designatedwithnumerals,asarestreetorbuildingaddressesandtelephoneandfaxnumbers.Notethatintexttheelementsofafull

addressareseparatedbycommas,exceptbeforeazipcode.See24.3.2forabbreviationsinaddresses.

TheNationalParkServicemaintainsasamuseumthehousewhereLincolndied(51610thStreetNW,Washington,DC20004;

202–426-6924).

LudwigMiesvanderRohedesignedtheapartmentsat860–880NorthLakeShoreDrive.

Interstate95servesasacriticaltransportationlinefromBostontoMiami.

23.1.8PartsofPublishedWorks

Withtheexceptionofroman-numeralpagenumbers(asinthefrontmatterofabook;see16.1.5,18.1.5),numbersinpartsof

publishedworksaregiveninarabicnumerals,regardlessofthegeneralrule(see23.1.1)ortheirappearanceintheworkitself.See

also22.3.2.3,23.2.2.

chapter14

part2

act1,scene3

page1024

23.1.9EquationsandFormulas

Numbersinequationsandformulasarealwaysgivenasnumerals,regardlessofthegeneralrule(see23.1.1).Fordetailedguidance

onpresentingmathematicalexpressions,seechapter12ofTheChicagoManualofStyle,16thedition(2010).

23.2PluralsandPunctuation

23.2.1Plurals

Formthepluralsofspelled-outnumberslikethepluralsofothernouns(see20.1).

Halfthemensurveyedwereintheirthirtiesorforties.

Formthepluralsofnumbersexpressedinnumeralsbyaddingsalone(not s).

Thepatternchangedinthelate1990sasmoretaxpayerssubmitted1040sonline.

Tofly767s,thepilotsrequiredspecialtraining.

23.2.2CommaswithinNumbers

Inmostnumbersoffourormoredigits,setoffthousands,hundredsofthousands,millions,andsoonwithcommas.Inthesciences,

commasareoftenomittedfromfour-digitnumbers.

1,500

12,275,500

1,475,525,000

Donotuseacommawithinafour-digityear;douseoneforayearwithfiveormoredigits(seealso23.3).

196

2007
10,000BC
Donotuseacommainpagenumbers,streetaddresses,telephoneorfaxnumbers,zipcodes,decimalfractionsoflessthanone,
ornumbersincludedinorganizationnames.
page1012
0.1911centimeters
15000ElmStreet
Committeeof1000
23.2.3OtherPunctuationwithinNumbers
Numberssometimesincludeotherinternalpunctuation.Forperiods(decimals),see23.1.3and23.1.4;forcolons,see23.1.5;for
hyphens,see23.1.1and23.1.3;fordashes,see23.2.4.
23.2.4InclusiveNumbers
Toexpressarangeofnumbers,suchaspagesoryears,givethefirstandlast(orinclusive)numbersofthesequence.Ifthenumbers
arespelledout,expresstherangewiththewordsfromandto;iftheyareexpressedinnumerals,useeitherthesewordsora
connectinghyphenwithnospaceoneitherside.Insomesettings,suchascitations,alwaysusehyphens(seechapters16 19).Donot
combinewordsandhyphensinexpressinginclusivenumbers.
from45to50
butnot
from45–50
45–50
butnot
forty-five-fifty
Forinclusivenumbersofonehundredorgreater,youmayeitherusefullnumbersoneithersideofahyphen(245 280or1929
1994)orabbreviatethesecondnumber.Table23.2showsonesystemofabbreviation.
Thissystemworkswellforpagenumbers,whichneverincludecommas(see23.2.2).Fornumbersthatincludecommas,usethe
systemshownintable23.2,butrepeatalldigitsifthechangeextendstothethousandsplaceorbeyond.Neverabbreviateroman
numerals(seetable23.1).
6,000–6,018
12,473–79
128,333–129,114
xxv–xxviii
Foryears,givealldigitsforaspanthatincludesmorethanonecentury.Alsogivefulldatesinasysteminwhichdatesare
countedbackwardfromaspecificpoint(mostnotablyBC, beforeChrist, andBCE, beforethecommonera ).Otherwise,usethe
systemshownintable23.2.see23.3formoreondatesystems.
theyears1933–36
thewinterof1999–2000
15,000–14,000BCE
115BC–AD10
Table23.2.Abbreviationsystemforinclusivenumbers
23.3DateSystems
23.3.1Month,Day,andYear
Spelloutthenamesofmonthswhentheyoccurintext,whetheraloneorindates.Expressdaysandyearsinnumerals,andavoid
197

usingthematthebeginningofasentence,wheretheywouldhavetobespelledout(see23.1.2.1).Donotabbreviatereferencestothe
year( thegreatfloodof 05 ).Forabbreviationsacceptableintables,figures,andcitations,see24.4.2.
EverySeptember,werecalltheeventsof2001.
butnot
Twothousandonewasamemorableyear.
Forfullreferencestodates,givethemonth,theday(followedbyacomma),andtheyear,inaccordancewithUSpractices.Ifyou
omittheday,omitthecomma.Alsoomitthecommafordatesgivenwithseasonsinsteadofmonths;donotcapitalizethenamesof
seasons(see22.1.2).IfmaterialyouarequotingusesBritish-styledates(15March2007),donotalterthem.
PresidentJohnF.KennedywasassassinatedonNovember22,1963.
ByMarch1865,thewarwasnearlyover.
Theresearchwasconductedoverseveralweeksinspring2006.
Notethatwithincompletedates,daysaregenerallynotgivenasordinals thatis,thenumeralsarenotfollowedbyst,nd,rd,or
th.Usetheseendingsonlywithspelled-outnumberswhenyouspecifythedaywithoutthemonthoryear.
Thedatechosenfortheraidwasthetwenty-ninth.
butnot
TheeventsoccurredonJune11th,1968.
23.3.2Decades,Centuries,andEras
Ingeneral,refertodecadesusingnumerals,includingthecentury(see23.2.1forplurals).Ifthecenturyisclear,donotabbreviate
numerals( the 90s );instead,spelloutthenameofthedecade.Thefirsttwodecadesofanycenturydonotlendthemselvesto
eitherstyleandshouldbedescribedfullyforclarity.
The1920sbroughtunheraldedfinancialprosperity.
Duringthefifties,theColdWardominatedtheheadlines.
Manyofthesediscoverieswereannouncedduringthefirstdecadeofthetwenty-firstcentury.
Refertocenturiesusingeithernumeralsorlowercase,spelled-outnames(see23.2.1forplurals).Ifthecenturyisspelledoutand
usedasanadjectiveprecedinganounthatitmodifies,asinthesecondexample,useahyphen;otherwise,donot(see20.3.2).
TheOttomanEmpirereacheditsapexinthe1600s.
Sheteachesnineteenth-centurynovelsbutwouldratherteachpoetryfromthetwentiethcentury.
ThemostcommondesignationsforerasusetheabbreviationsBC( beforeChrist )andAD(annoDomini, intheyearofthe
Lord ).Somedisciplinesusedifferentdesignations,suchasBCEandCE(see24.4.3).ADprecedestheyearnumber;theother
designationsfollowit.Forinclusivenumberswitheras,see23.2.4.
SolomonʼsTemplewasdestroyedbytheBabyloniansin586BCandagainbytheRomansinAD70.
23.4NumbersUsedoutsidetheText
Theprecedingsectionsprovideguidelinesforpresentingnumbersinthetextofyourpaper.Numbersusedintables,figures,source
citations,andlistsaresubjecttosomeoftheirownrules.Foradditionaladvice,seetheappendix.
23.4.1NumbersinTables,Figures,andCitations
Ingeneral,usearabicnumeralstopresentnumericaldataintablesandfigures.Foradiscussionofnumbersintables,including
tabletitles,see26.2;fornumbersinfigures,includingfigurecaptions,see26.3.
Withfewexceptions,arabicnumeralsarealsousedtocitevolumenumbers,editionnumbers,andpagenumbersandother
locators.Foradiscussionofnumbersinbibliography-stylecitations,see16.1.5andchapter17;fornumbersinauthor-datecitations,
see18.1.5andchapter19.
23.4.2Enumerations
Youmayusenumerals(andletters)toenumeratepointsdiscussedinthetext,inappendixes,orinmaterialsrelatedtodraftingyour
paper.
23.4.2.1LISTS.Yourtextmaycontainlistsofitemsthatyouchoosetoenumerateforemphasis.Whensuchalistisrelativelyshort,
198

incorporateitintoasinglesentence.Besurethatalltheitemsaregrammaticallyparallel(allnounphrases,alladjectives,orthe
like).Eachitemshouldbeprecededbyanarabicnumeralinparentheses.Iftherearemorethantwoitems,eachshouldbefollowed
byacomma(or,iftheitemiscomplexinstructure,asemicolon;see21.3).Ifthelistisanappositive,useacolontointroduceit;
otherwise,donotusepunctuationinthisposition(see21.4).
Wilsonʼssecretarygavethreereasonsforhisresignation:(1)advancingage,(2)graduallyfailingeyesight,and(3)oppositiontothe
war.
Thecommitteestronglyendorsedthepoliciesof(1)completeexecutivepower,exceptasconstitutionallylimited;(2)strong
legislativeprerogatives;and(3)limitedjudicialauthority,especiallywhenitinterferedwiththecommitteeʼsownrole.
Ifyouarealreadyusingarabicnumeralsinparenthesesforotherpurposes,substitutelowercaselettersforthenumbers.
Haskinʼslatesttheoryhasmorethanonedrawback:(a)itisnotbasedoncurrentevidenceand(b)ithasaweaktheoretical
grounding.
Iftheitemsinthelistarelongeroryouwishtogivethemgreateremphasis,arrangetheminaverticallist.Introducethelistwith
acompletesentencefollowedbyacolon.Again,besurethatalltheitemsaregrammaticallyparallel,andbegineachonewithabullet
oranarabicnumeralfollowedbyaperiod,withoutparentheses.Iftheitemsarecompletesentences,capitalizethefirstletterineach
itemanduseterminalperiods;otherwiseuselowercaselettersandnoperiods(see21.1).Alignthenumeralsontheperiodsandany
linesthatrunoverwiththefirstwordinthefirstline.
Myresearchthereforesuggeststhefollowingconclusions:
1.ThepaintingcouldnothavebeenagenuinePicasso,regardlessoftheclaimsofearlierscholars.
2.Itisimpossibletoidentifythetrueartistwithoutfurthertechnicalanalysis.
23.4.2.2OUTLINES.Insomesituations,youmayincludeanoutlineorasimilarenumerationinanappendixtoyourpaper,orinadraft
stageofthepaper(see6.2.1).Usethefollowingsystemofnotation,consistingoflettersandromanandarabicnumerals,andindent
eachlevelbyonefurthertab(usuallyahalfinch).Youshouldhaveatleasttwoitemstolistateachlevel;ifyoudonot,reconsiderthe
structureoftheoutline.Iftheitemsarephrases,capitalizethemsentencestyle(see22.3.1)anddonotuseterminalpunctuation.If
theyarecompletesentences,capitalizeandpunctuatethemasyouwouldanyothersentence(see6.2.1foranexample).
I.Warsofthenineteenthcentury
A.UnitedStates
1.CivilWar,1861–65
a)Cause
(1)Slavery
(a)Compromise
i)MissouriCompromise
ii)Compromiseof1850…
b)Result
................................
II.Warsofthetwentiethcentury
A.UnitedStates
1.FirstWorldWar…
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24Abbreviations
24.1GeneralPrinciples
24.1.1TypesofAbbreviations
24.1.2WhentoUseAbbreviations
24.1.3HowtoFormatAbbreviations
24.2NamesandTitles
24.2.1PersonalNames
24.2.2ProfessionalTitles
24.2.3AcademicDegrees
24.2.4Agencies,Companies,andOtherOrganizations
24.3GeographicalTerms
24.3.1Place-Names
24.3.2Addresses
24.4TimeandDates
24.4.1Time
24.4.2DaysandMonths
24.4.3Eras
24.5UnitsofMeasure
24.6TheBibleandOtherSacredWorks
24.6.1JewishBible/OldTestament
24.6.2Apocrypha
24.6.3NewTestament
24.6.4VersionsoftheBible
24.6.5OtherSacredWorks
24.7AbbreviationsinCitationsandOtherScholarlyContexts
Thischapteroffersgeneralguidelinesforusingabbreviations.Abbreviationsinformalwritingwereoncelimitedtoafewspecial
circumstances,buttheyarenowwidelyusedinwritingofallkinds.Evenso,theirusemustreflecttheconventionsofspecific
disciplines.Theguidelinespresentedhereareappropriateformosthumanitiesandsocialsciencedisciplines.Ifyouarewritinga
paperinthenaturalorphysicalsciences,mathematics,oranyothertechnicalfield,followtheconventionsofthediscipline.
Insomedisciplinesyoumayneedtouseabbreviationsnotcoveredhere.Merriam-Webster sCollegiateDictionarygivesmany
abbreviationsfrommanyfields.Anotherresourceischapter10ofTheChicagoManualofStyle,16thedition(2010).Forstyleguides
invariousdisciplines,seethebibliography.
Ifyouarewritingathesisordissertation,yourdepartmentoruniversitymayhavespecificrequirementsforusingabbreviations,
whichareusuallyavailablefromtheofficeofthesesanddissertations.Ifyouarewritingaclasspaper,yourinstructormayalsoask
youtofollowcertainprinciplesforusingabbreviations.Reviewtheserequirementsbeforeyouprepareyourpaper.Theytake
precedenceovertheguidelinessuggestedhere.
24.1GeneralPrinciples
24.1.1TypesofAbbreviations
Termscanbeshortened,orabbreviated,inseveralways.Whenatermisshortenedtoonlythefirstlettersofeachwordand
pronouncedasasingleword(NATO,AIDS),itiscalledanacronym;ifthelettersarepronouncedasaseriesofletters(EU,PBS),itis
calledaninitialism.Othertermsareshortenedthroughcontraction:justthefirstandlastlettersofthetermareretained(Mr.,Dr.,
atty.),orthelastlettersaredropped(ed.,Tues.).Thischaptertreatsalloftheseformsunderthegeneraltermabbreviations,with
distinctionsbetweentypesnotedasrelevant.
24.1.2WhentoUseAbbreviations
Inmostpapers,useabbreviationsonlysparinglyintextbecausetheycanmakeyourwritingseemeithertooinformalortoo
200

technical.Thischaptercoverstypesofabbreviationsthatarepreferredoverspelled-outtermsandothersthatareconsidered

acceptableinacademicwritingifusedconsistently.

Ifyourlocalguidelinesallowit,youmayuseabbreviationsfornames,titles,andothertermsusedfrequentlyinyourpaper.Give

thefulltermonfirstreference,followedbytheabbreviationinparentheses.Forsubsequentreferences,usetheabbreviation

consistently.Ifyouusemorethanafewsuchabbreviations,consideraddingalistofabbreviationstothefrontmatterofthepaperto

aidreaderswhomightmissyourfirstreferencetoanabbreviation(seeA.2.1).

Abbreviationsaremorecommon,andareoftenrequired,outsidethetextofthepaper.Thischapterdiscussessomeabbreviations

thatmaybeusedintables,figures,andcitations.Foradditionaldiscussionofabbreviationsintablesandfigures,seechapter26;for

abbreviationsinbibliography-stylecitations,see16.1.6andchapter17;forabbreviationsinauthor-datecitations,see18.1.6and

chapter19.

24.1.3HowtoFormatAbbreviations

Althoughabbreviationsfollowthegeneralprinciplesdiscussedhere,therearemanyexceptions.

■Capitalization.Abbreviationsaregiveninallcapitalletters,alllowercaseletters,oracombination.

CEO

a.m.

Gov.

Dist.Atty.

PhD

■Punctuation.Ingeneral,abbreviationsgiveninallcapitallettersdonotincludeperiods,whilethosegiveninlowercaseora

combinationofcapitalandlowercaselettershaveaperiodaftereachabbreviatedelement.However,asyoucanseefromthe

examplesabove,thereareexceptions:metricunitsofmeasure(see24.5)areinlowercasewithoutperiods;andnoperiodsareused

foracademicdegrees,whetherornottheyincludelowercaseletters(see24.2.3).Otherexceptionsarenotedthroughoutthis

chapter.

■Spacing.Ingeneral,donotleaveaspacebetweenlettersinacronyms(NATO)andinitialisms(PBS),butdoleaveaspacebetween

elementsinabbreviationsformedthroughshortening(Dist.Atty.),unlessthefirstelementisasingleletter(S.Sgt.).Ifan

abbreviationcontainsanampersand(&),donotleavespacesaroundit(TexasA&M).Forspacesinpersonalnames,see24.2.1.

■Italics.Abbreviationsarenotnormallyitalicizedunlesstheystandforanitalicizedterm(OED,forOxfordEnglishDictionary).

■Indefinitearticles.Whenanabbreviationfollowsanindefinitearticle,choosebetweenaandandependingonhowtheabbreviation

isreadaloud.Acronyms(NATO,AIDS)arepronouncedaswords;initialisms(EU)arereadasaseriesofletters.

membernationofNATO

aNATOmember

personwithAlDS

anAlDSpatient

membernationoftheEU

anEUmember

theFFA

anFFAchapter

24.2NamesandTitles

24.2.1PersonalNames

Ingeneral,donotabbreviateaperson sfirst(Benj.Franklin)orlastname.Onceyouhaveusedafullnameintext,usejustthe

person slastnameinsubsequentreferences.However,ifyouarereferringtomorethanonepersonwiththatlastname,usefirst

namesasnecessarytoavoidconfusion(AliceJames,WilliamJames).Ifyourefertothesenamesveryfrequentlyinyourpaper,you

mayinsteaduseabbreviationsthatyoudevise(AJ,WJ),butbesuretousetheseabbreviationsasspecifiedin24.1.2.

Someindividualsareknownprimarilybyinitialsinplaceofafirstand/ormiddlename.Suchinitialsshouldbefollowedbya

periodandaspace.Ifyouabbreviateanentirename,however,omitperiodsandspaces.

G.K.Chesterton

but

JFK

M.F.K.Fisher

201

but

FDR

SocialtitlessuchasMs.andMr.shouldalwaysbeabbreviatedandcapitalized,followedbyaperiod.Inmostpapers,however,

youneednotusesuchtitlesunlessthereisapossibilityofconfusion,suchasreferringtoeitherahusbandorawife.

WriteabbreviationssuchasSr.,Jr.,III(or3rd),andIV(or4th)withoutcommasbeforethem.Normallytheseabbreviationsare

usedonlyafterafullname,althoughroyalandreligiousfiguresmaybeknownonlybyafirstname.Infrequentreferencestoafather

andason,shortenedversionsmaybeused(HolmesSr.),butonlyafterthefullnamehasbeenpresented.Donotspellouttheterm

whenitispartofaname(forexample,notJohnSmithJunior).

OliverWendellHolmesJr.

WilliamJ.KaufmannIII

MaryII

24.2.2ProfessionalTitles

Someindividualshavecivil,military,orreligioustitlessuchasthefollowingalongwiththeirpersonalnames.Manyofthesetitlesare

conventionallyabbreviatedratherthanspelledoutintextwhentheyprecedeandarecapitalizedaspartofapersonalname.

Adm. Admiral

Ald. Alderman,Alderwoman

Atty.Gen. AttorneyGeneral

Capt. Captain

Col. Colonel

Dist.Atty. DistrictAttorney

Dr. Doctor

Fr. Father

Gen. General

Gov. Governor

Hon. Honorable

Lt. Lieutenant

Lt.Col. LieutenantColonel

Maj. Major

Pres. President

Rep. Representative

Rev. Reverend

Sen. Senator

Sgt. Sergeant

S.Sgt. StaffSergeant

Sr. Sister

St. Saint

Onfirstreferencetoanindividualwithsuchatitle,usetheabbreviationwiththeperson sfullname.(Ifyouprefer,youmayspell

outthetitles,butdosoconsistently.)Forsubsequentreferences,youmayusuallygivejusttheperson slastname,butifyouneedto

repeatthetitle(todistinguishtwopeoplewithsimilarnames,orasadisciplinarysignofrespect),givethespelled-outtitlewiththe

lastname.NeveruseHonorableorHon.exceptwithafullname.IfyouspelloutHonorableorReverendbeforeafullname,thetitle

shouldbeprecededbythe.

Sen.RichardJ.Durbin

SenatorDurbin

Adm.MichaelMullen

AdmiralMullen

Rev.JaneSchaefer

ReverendSchaefer

Hon.PatriciaBirkholz

Birkholz

theHonorablePatriciaBirkholz

Ifyouuseoneofthesetitlesaloneorafterapersonalname,itbecomesagenerictermandshouldbelowercasedandspelledout.

thesenatorfromIllinois

202

Mullenservedasanadmiral

AnexceptiontothegeneralpatternisDr.UseeithertheabbreviationDr.beforethenameortheofficialabbreviationforthe

degree(see24.2.3),setoffwithcommas,afterthename.Donotusebothtogether.

Dr.LaurenShapirodiscoveredthecauseoftheoutbreak.

LaurenShapiro,MD,discovered…

Dr.Shapirodiscovered…

Thedoctordiscovered…

Inadditiontoacademicdegrees(24.2.3),hereareafewprofessionaltitlesthatmaybeabbreviatedfollowingapersonalname.

Suchtitlesshouldbesetoffwithcommas,asintheexamplesabove.

justiceofthepeace

LPN

licensedpracticalnurse

memberofParliament

SocietyofJesus

24.2.3AcademicDegrees

Youmayuseabbreviationsintextandelsewhereforthecommonacademicdegrees.Someofthemorecommondegreesarenotedin

thefollowinglist.Mostareinitialisms(see24.1.1),whicharewrittenincapitalletters,withoutperiodsorspaces.Otherscontainboth

initialsandshortenedtermsandthereforebothcapitalandlowercaseletters,alsowithoutperiodsorspaces.Traditionallyallthese

formsappearedwithperiods(M.A.,Ph.D.,LL.B.),astylestillpreferredbysomeinstitutions.

AB artiumbaccalaureus(bachelorofarts)

AM artiummagister(masterofarts)

BA bachelorofarts

BD bachelorofdivinity

BFA bacheloroffinearts

BM bachelorofmusic

BS bachelorofscience

DB divinitatisbaccalaureus(bachelorofdivinity)

DD divinitatisdoctor(doctorofdivinity)

DMin doctorofministry

DO osteopathicphysician(doctorofosteopathy)

EdD doctorofeducation

JD jurisdoctor(doctoroflaw)

LHD litterarumhumaniorumdoctor(doctorofhumanities)

LittD litterarumdoctor(doctorofletters)

LLB legumbaccalaureus(bacheloroflaws)

LLD legumdoctor(doctoroflaws)

MA masterofarts

MBA masterofbusinessadministration

MD medicinaedoctor(doctorofmedicine)

MFA masteroffinearts

MS masterofscience

PhB philosophiaebaccalaureus(bachelorofphilosophy)

PhD philosophiaedoctor(doctorofphilosophy)

SB scientiaebaccalaureus(bachelorofscience)

SM scientiaemagister(masterofscience)

STB sacraetheologiaebaccalaureus(bachelorofsacredtheology)

24.2.4Agencies,Companies,andOtherOrganizations

Youmayuseabbreviationsintextandelsewhereforthenamesofgovernmentagencies,broadcastingcompanies,associations,

fraternalandserviceorganizations,unions,andothergroupsthatarecommonlyknownbyacronymsorinitialisms(see24.1.1).Spell

203

outthefullnameonfirstreference,followedbytheabbreviationinparentheses(see24.1.2).Suchabbreviationsareinfullcapitals

withnoperiods.Hereisarepresentativelistofsuchabbreviations;othernameswithinthesecategories(forexample,ABA,CBS,and

NEH)shouldbetreatedsimilarly.

AAAS

AFL-CIO

AMA

AT&T

CDC

CNN

FTC

HMO

NAACP

NAFTA

NFL

NIMH

NSF

OPEC

TVA

UNESCO

WHO

YMCA

Ifacompanyisnotcommonlyknownbyanabbreviation,spelloutandcapitalizeitsnameinthetext.Thenamesofsome

companiescontainabbreviationsandampersands.Ifindoubtaboutthecorrectform,lookupthecompanynameatitscorporate

websiteor,forhistoricalforms,inanauthoritativereference.YoumayomitsuchtermsasInc.orLtd.fromthename,anddonot

capitalizethewordtheatthebeginningofthename.Subsequentreferencescandroptermssuchas&Co.orCorporation.

Merck&Co.

RANDCorporation

theUniversityofChicagoPress

Intables,figures,andcitations,youmayuseanyofthefollowingabbreviationsincompanynames.

Assoc.

Bros.

Co.

Corp.

Inc.

LP(limitedpartnership)

Mfg.

PLC(publiclimitedcompany)

RR(railroad)

Ry.(railway)

24.3GeographicalTerms

24.3.1Place-Names

Intext,alwaysspelloutandcapitalizethenamesofcountries,states,counties,provinces,territories,bodiesofwater,mountains,

andthelike(see22.1.1).

AlwaysspelloutUnitedStateswhenusingitasanoun.Whenusingitasanadjective,youmayeitherabbreviateittoUSorspell

itout(foramoreformaltone).

ShewasineligibleforthepresidencybecauseshewasnotbornintheUnitedStates.

HisUScitizenshipwasrevokedlaterthatyear.

Intables,figures,citations,andmailingaddresses,abbreviatethenamesofUSstatesusingthetwo-letterpostalcodescreatedby

theUSPostalService.

AK Alaska

AL Alabama

AR Arkansas

AZ Arizona

CA California

204

CO Colorado

CT Connecticut

DC DistrictofColumbia

DE Delaware

FL Florida

GA Georgia

HI Hawaii

IA Iowa

ID Idaho

IL Illinois

IN Indiana

KS Kansas

KY Kentucky

LA Louisiana

MA Massachusetts

MD Maryland

ME Maine

Ml Michigan

MN Minnesota

MO Missouri

MS Mississippi

MT Montana

NC NorthCarolina

ND NorthDakota

NE Nebraska

NH NewHampshire

NJ NewJersey

NM NewMexico

NV Nevada

NY NewYork

OH Ohio

OK Oklahoma

OR Oregon

PA Pennsylvania

Rl RhodeIsland

SC SouthCarolina

SD SouthDakota

TN Tennessee

TX Texas

UT Utah

VA Virginia

VT Vermont

WA Washington

Wl Wisconsin

WV WestVirginia

WY Wyoming

YoumayalsoabbreviatethenamesofCanadianprovincesandterritorieswherestatenameswouldbeabbreviated.

AB Alberta

BC BritishColumbia

MB Manitoba

NB NewBrunswick

NL NewfoundlandandLabrador

NS NovaScotia

NT NorthwestTerritories

NU Nunavut

ON Ontario

PE PrinceEdwardIsland

QC Quebec

SK Saskatchewan

YT Yukon

205

24.3.2Addresses

Intext,spelloutandcapitalizetermsthatarepartofaddresses,includingthoselistedbelowandsimilarones(othersynonymsfor

street,forexample).Intables,figures,citations,andmailingaddresses,usetheabbreviations.Notethatalltheabbreviationsuse

periodsexceptforthetwo-letterinitialisms(suchasNE).See23.1.7foranexampleofanaddressintext.

Ave. Avenue

Blvd. Boulevard

Ct. Court

Dr. Drive

Expy. Expressway

Pkwy. Parkway

Rd. Road

Sq. Square

PI. Place

St. Street

N. North

S. South

E. East

W. West

NE Northeast

NW Northwest

SE Southeast

SW Southwest

24.4TimeandDates

24.4.1Time

Youmayusetheabbreviationsa.m.(antemeridiem,orbeforenoon)andp.m.(postmeridiem,orafternoon)intextandelsewhere

todesignatespecifictimes.Theabbreviationsshouldbelowercaseandinromantype.Donotcombinethemwithinthemorning,in

theevening,oro clock;seealso23.1.5.

24.4.2DaysandMonths

Intext,spelloutandcapitalizethenamesofdaysoftheweekandmonthsoftheyear;seealso23.3.1.Intables,figures,andcitations,

youmayabbreviatethemifyoudosoconsistently.(Notethatsomemonthsinthissystemarenotabbreviated.)

Sun.

Mon.

Tues.

Wed.

Thur.

Fri.

Sat.

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May

June

July

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

24.4.3Eras

Therearevarioussystemsfordesignatingeras,allofwhichuseabbreviationswithnumericaldates.BCandADarethemost

commondesignations,thoughBCEandCEmaybeusedinstead.Torefertotheverydistantpast,adesignationsuchasBPorMYA

maybecomenecessary.ADprecedestheyearnumber;theotherdesignationsfollowit(seealso23.2.4and23.3.2).

BC beforeChrist

AD annoDomini(intheyearoftheLord)

206

BCE beforethecommonera

CE commonera

BP beforethepresent

MYA(ormya) millionyearsago

24.5UnitsofMeasure

Inthehumanitiesandsocialsciences,spelloutthenamesofunitsofmeasuresuchasdimensions,distances,volumes,weights,and

degrees.Spelloutthenumbersorusenumeralsaccordingtothegeneralruleyouarefollowing(see23.1.1).

fivemiles

150kilograms

14.5meters

Inthesciences,usestandardabbreviationsforunitsofmeasurewhentheamountisgiveninnumerals.(Youmayuse

abbreviationsinotherdisciplines,dependingonyourlocalguidelines.)Leaveaspacebetweenthenumeralandtheunit,except

whereconventiondictatesotherwise(36 ;512K),andnotethatabbreviationsarethesameinsingularandplural.Spelloutunitsof

measurewhentheyarenotprecededbyanumberorwhenthenumberisspelledout(asatthebeginningofasentence;see23.1.2.1).

Weinjected10µLofvirusneartheimplants.

Resultsaregiveninmicroliters.

Twelvemicrolitersofviruswasconsideredasafeamount.

Foralistofabbreviationsincludingcommonunitsofmeasure,see10.52ofTheChicagoManualofStyle,16thedition(2010).

24.6TheBibleandOtherSacredWorks

WhenyoureferintexttowholechaptersorbooksoftheBibleortheApocrypha,spelloutthenamesofthebooks,butdonotitalicize

them.

Jeremiah42–44recordstheflightoftheJewstoEgypt.

TheRevelationofSt.JohntheDivine,knownas“Revelation,”closestheNewTestament.

Whenyoucitebiblicalpassagesbyverse(see17.5.2and19.5.2),abbreviatethenamesofthebooks,usingarabicnumeralsifthey

arenumbered(1Kings).Alsousearabicnumeralsforchapterandversenumbers,withacolonbetweenthem.Sincedifferent

versionsofthescripturesusedifferentnamesandnumbersforbooks,identifytheversionyouareciting.Dependingonthecontext,

youmayeitherspelloutthenameoftheversion,atleastonfirstoccurrence,oruseabbreviations(see24.6.4),withoutprecedingor

internalpunctuation.

1SongofSol.2:1–5NRSV

Ruth3:14NAB

ThefollowingsectionslistbothtraditionalandshorterabbreviationsforthebooksoftheBible,arrangedinalphabeticalorder.Ifyou

areunsurewhichformofabbreviationisappropriate,consultyourinstructor.Wherenoabbreviationisgiven,usethefullform.

24.6.1JewishBible/OldTestament

NotethattheabbreviationforOldTestamentisOT.

Traditional Shorter Fullname

Amos Am Amos

1Chron. 1Chr 1Chronicles

2Chron. 2Chr 2Chronicles

Dan. Dn Daniel

Deut. Dt Deuteronomy

Eccles. Eccl Ecclesiastes

Esther Est Esther

Exod. Ex Exodus

Ezek. Ez Ezekiel

Ezra Ezr Ezra

Gen. Gn Genesis

Hab. Hb Habakkuk

Hag. Hg Haggai

Hosea Hos Hosea

Isa. Is Isaiah

207

Jer. Jer Jeremiah

Job Jb Job

Joel Jl Joel

Jon. Jon Jonah

Josh. Jo Joshua

Judg. Jgs Judges

1Kings 1Kgs 1Kings

2Kings 2KgS 2Kings

Lam. Lam Lamentations

Lev. Lv Leviticus

Mal. Mal Malachi

Mic. Mi Micah

Nah. Na Nahum

Neh. Neh Nehemiah

Num. Nm Numbers

Obad. Ob Obadiah

Prov. Prv Proverbs

Ps.(pluralPss.) Ps(pluralPss) Psalms

Ruth Ru Ruth

1Sam. 1Sm 1Samuel

2Sam. 2Sm 2Samuel

SongofSol. Sg SongofSolomon(SongofSongs)

Zech. Zec Zechariah

Zeph. Zep Zephaniah

24.6.2Apocrypha

ThebooksoftheApocryphaareincludedinRomanCatholicbutnotJewishorProtestantversionsoftheBible.Notethatthe

traditionalabbreviationforApocryphaisApoc.(noshorterabbreviation).

Traditional Shorter Fullname

Bar. Bar Baruch

BelandDragon — BelandtheDragon

Ecclus. Sir Ecclesiasticus(Sirach)

1Esd. — 1Esdras

2Esd. — 2Esdras

Jth. Jdt Judith

1Macc. 1Mc 1Maccabees

2Macc. 2Mc 2Maccabees

Pr.ofMan. — PrayerofManasses(Manasseh)

SongofThreeChildren — SongoftheThreeHolyChildren

Sus. — Susanna

Tob. Tb Tobit

Wisd.ofSol. Ws WisdomofSolomon

— — AdditionstoEsther(RestofEsther)

24.6.3NewTestament

NotethattheabbreviationforNewTestamentisNT.

Traditional Shorter Fullname

Acts — ActsoftheApostles

Apoc. — Apocalypse(Revelation)

Col. Col Colossians

1Cor. 1Cor 1Corinthians

2Cor. 2Cor 2Corinthians

Eph. Eph Ephesians

Gal. Gal Galatians

Heb. Heb Hebrews

James Jas James

John Jn John(Gospel)

1John 1Jn 1John(Epistle)

2John 2Jn 2John(Epistle)

208

3John 3Jn 3John(Epistle)

Jude — Jude

Luke Lk Luke

Mark Mk Mark

Matt. Mt Matthew

1Pet. 1Pt 1Peter

2Pet. 2Pt 2Peter

Phil. Phil Philippians

Philem. Phlm Philemon

Rev. Rv Revelation(Apocalypse)

Rom. Rom Romans

1Thess. 1Thes 1Thessalonians

2Thess. 2Thes 2Thessalonians

1Tim. 1Tm 1Timothy

2Tim. 2Tm 2Timothy

Titus Ti Titus

24.6.4VersionsoftheBible

TheseabbreviationscovermanystandardversionsoftheBible.Iftheversionyouarecitingisnotlistedhere,consultyourinstructor.

ARV AmericanRevisedVersion

ASV AmericanStandardVersion

AT AmericanTranslation

AV Authorized(KingJames)Version

CEV ContemporaryEnglishVersion

DV DouayVersion

ERV EnglishRevisedVersion

EV Englishversion(s)

JB JerusalemBible

NAB NewAmericanBible

NEB NewEnglishBible

NRSV NewRevisedStandardVersion

RSV RevisedStandardVersion

RV RevisedVersion

Vulg. Vulgate

24.6.5OtherSacredWorks

ManysacredworksofotherreligioustraditionsaredividedintopartssimilartothoseoftheBible.Capitalizeandsetinromantype

thenamesoftheworksthemselves(Qur an[orKoran],Vedas),butitalicizethenamesoftheirparts(al-Baqarah,Rig-Veda).

Althoughthereisnowidelyacceptedmethodforabbreviatingthenamesoftheseworksortheirparts,youmaypunctuatecitations

fromthemsimilarlytothosefromtheBible(seealso17.5.2and19.5.2).Ifaworkhasmultiplenumbereddivisions,youmay

substituteperiodsorcommasforcolonsormakeotheradaptationstoclarifythelocationofthecitedpassage.

Qurʼan2:257orQurʼan2(al-Baqarah):257

Mahabharata1.2.3

Ifyourpaperisinreligiousstudies,consultyourinstructorformorespecificguidance.

24.7AbbreviationsinCitationsandOtherScholarlyContexts

Manyabbreviationsarecommonlyusedandevenpreferredincitations,especiallyforidentifyingtherolesofindividualsotherthan

authors(ed.,trans.),thepartsofworks(vol.,bk.,sec.),andlocatinginformation(p.,n).Forguidelinesonusingabbreviationsin

citations,see16.1.6andchapter17or18.1.6andchapter19.

Intext,itisusuallybettertospellthingsout.Commonabbreviationslikee.g.,i.e.,andetc.,ifused,shouldbeconfinedto

parentheses(see21.8.1).

Followingisalistofsomeofthemostcommonabbreviationsencounteredincitationsandotherscholarlycontexts.Unless

otherwiseshown,mostformthepluralbyaddingsores.Noneofthemarenormallyitalicized.

abbr. abbreviated,abbreviation

abr. abridged,abridgment

anon. anonymous

app. appendix

assn. association

209

b. born

bib. Bible,biblical

bibliog. bibliography,bibliographer

biog. biography,biographer

bk. book

ca. circa,about,approximately

cap. capital,capitalize

CD compactdisc

cf. confer,compare

chap. chapter

col. color(bestspelledout);column

comp. compiler,compiledby

cont. continued

corr. corrected

d. died

dept. department

dict. dictionary

diss. dissertation

div. division

DOI digitalobjectidentifier

DVD digitalversatile(orvideo)disc

ed. editor,edition,editedby

e.g. exempligratia,forexample

enl. enlarged

esp. especially

etal. etaliioretalia,andothers

etc. etcetera,andsoforth

ex. example

fig. figure

ff. andfollowing

fol. folio

ftp filetransferprotocol

http hypertexttransferprotocol

ibid. ibidem,inthesameplace

id. idem,thesame

i.e. idest,thatis

ill. illustrated,illustration,illustrator

inf. infra,below

intl. international

intro. introduction

1.(pi.II.) line(bestspelledouttoavoidconfusionwithnumerals1and11)

loc.cit. lococitato,intheplacecited(bestavoided)

misc. miscellaneous

MS(pl.MSS) manuscript

n(pl.nn) note

natl. national

n.b.orNB notabene,takecarefulnote

n.d. nodate

no. number

n.p. noplace;nopublisher;nopage

NS NewStyle(dates)

n.s. newseries

op.cit. operacitato,intheworkcited(bestavoided)

org. organization

OS OldStyle(dates)

o.s. oldseries

p.(pl.pp.) page

para.orpar. paragraph

pers.comm. personalcommunication

pl. plate(bestspelledout);plural

PS postscriptum,postscript

210

pseud. pseudonym

pt. part

pub. publication,publisher,publishedby

q.v. quodvide,whichsee

r. recto,right

repr. reprint

rev. revised,revisedby,revision;review,reviewedby

ROM read-onlymemory

sd. sound

sec. section

ser. series

sing. singular

soc. society

sup. supra,above

supp. supplement

s.v.(p/.s.vv.) subverbo,subvoce,undertheword

syn. synonym,synonymous

t.p. titlepage

trans. translatedby,translator

univ. university

URL uniformresourcelocator

usu. usually

v.(p/.vv.) verse;verso,right

viz. videlicet,namely

vol. volume

vs.orv. versus(inlegalcontexts,usev.)

211

25Quotations
25.1QuotingAccuratelyandAvoidingPlagiarism
25.2IncorporatingQuotationsintoYourText
25.2.1Run-inQuotations
25.2.2BlockQuotations
25.3ModifyingQuotations
25.3.1PermissibleChanges
25.3.2Omissions
Thischapteroffersgeneralguidelinesforpresentingquotations.AlthoughalloftheexamplesareinEnglish,theguidelinesalso
applytoquotationsfromotherlanguages(seealso22.2.1).
Quotingdirectlyfromasourceisjustoneofseveraloptionsforrepresentingtheworkofothersinyourpaper;foradiscussionof
thealternativesandwhentousethem,see7.4.Whicheveroptionyouchoose,youmustcitethesourceofthewordsorideas.Chapter
15providesanintroductiontocitationpractices,andthefollowingchaptersdescribetwocommoncitationstyles(chapters16and17,
bibliographystyle;chapters18and19,author-datestyle).
Ifyouarewritingathesisoradissertation,yourdepartmentoruniversitymayhavespecificrequirementsforpresenting
quotations,whichareusuallyavailablefromtheofficeofthesesanddissertations.Ifyouarewritingaclasspaper,yourinstructor
mayalsoaskyoutofollowcertainprinciplesforpresentingquotations.Reviewtheserequirementsbeforeyouprepareyourpaper.
Theytakeprecedenceovertheguidelinessuggestedhere.Forstyleguidesinvariousdisciplines,seethebibliography.
Ifyourdissertationwillbesubmittedtoanexternaldissertationrepository,youmayneedtoobtainformalpermissionfrom
copyrightholdersforcertaintypesofquotations.Seechapter4ofTheChicagoManualofStyle,16thedition(2010).
25.1QuotingAccuratelyandAvoidingPlagiarism
Accuratequotationiscrucialtothescholarlyenterprise,soyoumust
■useonlyreliable,relevantsources(seechapter3)
■transcribewordsexactlyastheyareintheoriginal,ormodifythemonlyasdescribedin25.3
■accuratelyreportthesourcesinyourbibliographyorreferencelist(seechapters16and18)sothatreaderscanconsultthemfor
themselves
Theethicsofscholarshipalsorequirethatwheneveryouquotewordsorrelyontables,graphics,ordatafromanothersource,you
clearlyindicatewhatyouborrowedandfromwhere,usingtheappropriatecitationstyle(seechapter15).Ifyoudonot,youriska
chargeofplagiarism.Butevenifyoudociteasourceaccurately,youstillriskachargeofplagiarismifyouusetheexactwordsofthe
sourcebutfailtoidentifythemasaquotationinoneofthewaysgivenin25.2.Forafullerdiscussionofplagiarism,see7.9.
25.2IncorporatingQuotationsintoYourText
Youcanincorporateaquotationintoyourtextinoneoftwoways,dependingonitslength.Ifthequotationisfourlinesorless,runit
intoyourtextandencloseitinquotationmarks.Ifitisfivelinesorlonger,setitoffasablockquotation,withoutquotationmarks.
Followthesameprinciplesforquotationswithinfootnotesorendnotes.
Youmayuseablockquotationforaquotationshorterthanfivelinesifyouwanttoemphasizeitorcompareittoalonger
quotation.
25.2.1Run-inQuotations
Whenquotingapassageoflessthanfivelines,enclosetheexactwordsquotedindoublequotationmarks.Thereareseveralwaysto
integrateaquotationintotheflowofyourtext;see7.5.Youmayintroduceitwiththenameoftheauthoraccompaniedbyaterm
suchasnotes,claims,argues,oraccordingto.(Notethatthesetermsareusuallyinthepresenttense,ratherthannoted,claimed,and
soforth,butsomedisciplinesfollowdifferentpractices.)Inthiscase,putacommabeforethequotation.
Ricoeurwrites,“Theboundarybetweenplotandargumentisnoeasiertotrace.”
AsRicoeurnotes,“Theboundarybetweenplotandargumentisnoeasiertotrace.”
Ifyouweaveaquotationmoretightlyintothesyntaxofyoursentence,suchaswiththewordthat,donotputacommabeforeit.
Ricoeurwarnsusthat“theboundarybetweenplotandargumentisnoeasiertotrace.”
212

Ifyouputtheattributingphraseinthemiddleofaquotation,setitoffwithcommas.

“Theboundarybetweenplotandargument,”saysRicoeur,“isnoeasiertotrace.”

Fortheuseofcommas,periods,andotherpunctuationmarksrelativetoquotations,see21.12.2and25.3.1;forpermissible

changestocapitalizationandotherelements,see25.3.1.

25.2.1.1PLACEMENTOFCITATIONS.Ifyoucitethesourceofaquotationinafootnoteorendnote,whereyouplacethesuperscriptnote

number(see16.3.2)dependsonwherethequotationfallswithinasentence.Ifthequotationisattheendofthesentence,putthe

numberaftertheclosingquotationmark.

AccordingtoLitwack,“Scoresofnewlyfreedslavesviewedmovementasavitalexpressionoftheiremancipation.”

Ifthequotationendsinthemiddleofasentence,putthenumberattheendoftheclausethatincludesthequotation,whichoften

istheendofthesentence.

“Scoresofnewlyfreedslavesviewedmovementasavitalexpressionoftheiremancipation,”accordingtoLitwack.

Litwackarguesthat“scoresofnewlyfreedslavesviewedmovementasavitalexpressionoftheiremancipation,”

andheproceeds

toprovethisassertion.

Thesameplacementoptionsapplytocitationsgivenparentheticallywitheitherbibliography-style(16.4.3)orauthor-date

citations(see18.3.1),withtwonotabledifferences:

■Ifaperiodorcommawouldnormallyprecedetheclosingquotationmark,placeitoutsidethequotation,followingtheclosing

parenthesis.

Theauthorsseektounderstand“howpeoplecategorizetheobjectstheyencounterineverydaysituations”(BowkerandStar

1999,59).

Todetermine“howpeoplecategorizetheobjectstheyencounterineverydaysituations”(BowkerandStar1999,59),theauthors

devisedastudy.

■Whentheauthor snameismentionedintextalongwiththequotation,placethedatenexttotheauthor sname,regardlessof

whereitappearsrelativetothequotation.

“Scoresofnewlyfreedslavesviewedmovementasavitalexpressionoftheiremancipation,”accordingtoLitwack(1999,482).

Litwackʼs(1999,482)observationthat“scoresofnewlyfreedslaves…”

25.2.1.2SPECIALPUNCTUATION.Foraquotationwithinaquotation,usesinglequotationmarksfortheinnersetofquotedwords.

Rothko,arguesBall,“wantedtomakeworksthatwroughtatranscendenteffect,thatdealtwithspiritualconcerns:ʻPaintingsmustbe

likemiracles,ʼheoncesaid.”

Ifyouruntwoormorelinesofpoetryintoyourtext,separatethemwithaslash(/),withaspacebeforeandafterit.Inmost

cases,however,useblockquotationsforpoetry(see25.2.2.2).

Theyreducelifetoasimpleproposition:“Allthingshaverest,andripentowardthegrave;/Insilence,ripen,fall,andcease.”

25.2.2BlockQuotations

25.2.2.1PROSE.Presentaprosequotationoffiveormorelinesasablockquotation.Introducethequotationinyourownwordsinthe

text;see7.5.Ifyouintroducethequotationwithacompletesentence,endthesentencewithacolon.Ifyouuseonlyanattribution

phrasesuchasnotes,claims,argues,oraccordingtoalongwiththeauthor sname,endthephrasewithacomma.Ifyouweavethe

quotationintothesyntaxofyoursentence,donotuseanypunctuationbeforethequotationifnopunctuationwouldordinarily

appearthere(seethesecondexamplebelow).

Single-spaceablockquotation,andleaveablanklinebeforeandafterit.Donotaddquotationmarksatthebeginningorend,but

preserveanyquotationmarksintheoriginal.Indenttheentirequotationasfarasyouindentthefirstlineofaparagraph.(Inliterary

studiesandotherfieldsconcernedwithcloseanalysisoftexts,youshouldindentthefirstlineofablockquotationfurtherthanthe

restofthequotationifthetextisindentedintheoriginal;seealso25.3.)Forotherpunctuationandcapitalizationwithinthe

quotation,see25.3.1.

Jacksonbeginsbyevokingtheimportanceofhome:

Housingisanoutwardexpressionoftheinnerhumannature;nosocietycanbefullyunderstoodapartfromtheresidencesofits

members.Anineteenth-centurymelodydeclares,“Thereʼsnoplacelikehome,”andeventhoughshehadEmeraldCityather

feet,DorothycouldthinkofnoplaceshewouldratherbethanathomeinKansas.Ourhomesareourhavensfromtheworld.

Intherestofhisintroduction,hediscusses…

213

Ifyouquotemorethanoneparagraph,donotaddextralinespacebetweenthem,butindentthefirstlineofthesecondand

subsequentparagraphsfartherthantherestofthequotation.

Heobservedthat

governmentsordinarilyperishbypowerlessnessorbytyranny.Inthefirstcase,powerescapesthem;intheother,itistornfrom

them.

Manypeople,onseeingdemocraticstatesfallintoanarchy,havethoughtthatgovernmentinthesestateswasnaturallyweak

andpowerless.Thetruthisthatwhenwaramongtheirpartieshasoncebeensetaflame,governmentlosesitsactiononsociety.

(Tocqueville,248)

Ifyoucitethesourceinafootnoteorendnote,placethenotenumberasasuperscriptattheendoftheblockquotation,asinthefirst

exampleabove(seealso16.3.2).Ifyoucitethesourceparenthetically,putthecitationaftertheterminalpunctuationofablock

quotation,asinthesecondexampleabove.(Notethatthisdiffersfromitsplacementwitharun-inquotation,asexplainedin

25.2.1.1.)

25.2.2.2POETRYANDDRAMA.Presentaquotationoftwoormorelinesfrompoetryasablockquotation.Begineachlineofthepoemon

anewline,withpunctuationattheendsoflinesasintheoriginal.Formostpapers,indentablockofpoetryasyouwouldaprose

quotation;ifalineistoolongtofitonasingleline,indenttherunoverfartherthantherestofthequotation.(Inadissertationor

otherlongerpaperthatincludesmanypoetryquotations,centereachleft-alignedquotationonthepagerelativetothelongestline.)

Whitmanʼspoemincludessomememorablepassages:

Mytongue,everyatomofmyblood,formʼdfromthissoil,thisair,

Bornhereofparentsbornherefromparentsthesame,andtheirparentsthesame

I,nowthirty-sevenyearsoldinperfecthealthbegin,

Hopingtoceasenottilldeath.

Ifyouarequotingapoemwithanunusualalignment,reproducethealignmentoftheoriginaltothebestofyourability.

ThisiswhatHerbertcapturedsobeautifully:

Suretherewaswine

Beforemysighsdiddrieit:therewascorn

Beforemytearsdiddrownit.

Istheyeareonelylosttome?

HaveInobayestocrownit?

Noflowers,nogarlandsgay?allblasted?

Allwasted?

Ifyouquotetwoormorelinesofdialoguefromadramaticwork,setthequotationapartinablockquotationformattedasyou

wouldprose.Presenteachspeaker snamesothatitisdistinctfromthedialogue,suchasinallcapitallettersorinadifferentfont.

Begineachspeechonanewline,andindentrunoversfartherthantherestofthequotation.

Thentheplaytakesanunusualturn:

R.ROISTERDOISTER.ExceptIhavehertomywife,Ishallrunmad.



M.MERYGREEKE.Nay,“unwise”perhaps,butIwarrantyoufor“mad.”

25.2.2.3EPIGRAPHS.Anepigraphisaquotationthatestablishesathemeofyourpaper.Forepigraphsusedinthefrontmatterofa

thesisordissertation,seeA.2.1.Treatanepigraphatthebeginningofachapterorsectionasablockquotation.Onthelinebelowit,

givetheauthorandthetitle,flushrightandprecededbyanemdash(ortwohyphens;see21.7.2).Youdonotneedamoreformal

citationforanepigraph.Leavetwoblanklinesbetweenthesourcelineandthebeginningoftext.SeealsofigureA.9.

Thecity,however,doesnottellitspast,butcontainsitlikethelinesofahand.

—ItaloCalvino,InvisibleCities

25.3ModifyingQuotations

Whenyoudoyourresearch,youmustrecordtheexactwording,spelling,capitalization,andpunctuationofanytextyouplanto

quote,eveniftheydonotfollowtheguidelinesinthismanual.Whenyouincorporatethequotationintoyourpaper,however,you

maymakeminoradjustmentstofitthesyntaxofthesurroundingtextortoemphasizecertainpartsofthequotation.

Notethatdisciplineshavedifferentstandardsforissuesdiscussedinthissection,suchasmodifyinginitialcapitalandlowercase

lettersandusingellipsesforomissions.Forpapersinmostdisciplines,followthegeneralguidelines.Forpapersinliterarystudies

andotherfieldsconcernedwithcloseanalysisoftexts,followthestricterguidelinesgivenundersometopics.Ifyouarenotsure

whichsettofollow,consultyourlocalguidelinesoryourinstructor.

25.3.1PermissibleChanges

25.3.1.1SPELLING.Iftheoriginalsourcecontainsanobvioustypographicerror,correctitwithoutcomment.

214

Original:Theseconclusionsarenotdefinate,buttheyarecertainlysuggestive.

Claytonadmitsthathisconclusionsare“notdefinite.”

If,however,suchanerrorrevealssomethingsignificantaboutthesourceorisrelevanttoyourargument,preserveitinyour

quotation.Immediatelyfollowingtheerror,inserttheLatinwordsic( so ),italicizedandenclosedinbrackets,toidentifyitasthe

author serror.Itisconsideredbadmannerstocallouterrorsjusttoembarrassasource.

Original:TheaverageAmericandoesnotknowhowtospellandcannotuseacomaproperly.

RussellexemplifiesherownargumentbyclaimingthattheaverageAmerican“cannotuseacoma[sic]properly.”

Whenquotingfromanoldersourceoronethatrepresentsdialectwithnonstandardspelling,preserveidiosyncrasiesofspelling,

anddonotusesic.Ifyoumodernizeoralterallofthespellingandpunctuationforclarity,informyourreadersinanoteorpreface.

25.3.1.2CAPITALIZATIONANDPUNCTUATION.Inmostdisciplines,youmaychangetheinitialletterofaquotedpassagefromcapitalto

lowercaseorfromlowercasetocapitalwithoutnotingthechange.Ifyouweavethequotationintothesyntaxofyoursentence,begin

itwithalowercaseletter.Otherwise,beginitwithacapitalletterifitbeginswithacompletesentence,withalowercaseletterifit

doesnot.Youmayalsomakesimilarchangeswhenyouuseellipses;see25.3.2.

Original:Asaresultofthesefactors,theMexicanpeoplewereboundtobenefitfromthechange.

Fernandezclaims,“TheMexicanpeoplewereboundtobenefitfromthechange.”

Fernandezclaimsthat“theMexicanpeoplewereboundtobenefitfromthechange.”

Fernandezpointsoutthat“asaresultofthesefactors,theMexicanpeoplewereboundtobenefitfromthechange.”

“TheMexicanpeople,”notesFernandez,“wereboundtobenefitfromthechange.”

Dependingonhowyouworkthequotationinthetext,youmayalsoomitafinalperiodorchangeittoacomma.

FernandeznotesthattheMexicanswere“boundtobenefitfromthechange”asaresultofthefactorshediscusses.

“TheMexicanpeoplewereboundtobenefitfromthechange,”arguesFernandez.

Likewise,iftheoriginalpassageendswithacolonorsemicolon,youmaydeleteitorchangeittoaperiodoracomma,depending

onthestructureofyoursentence(see21.12.2.1).

Inliterarystudiesandotherfieldsconcernedwithcloseanalysisoftexts,indicateanychangeincapitalizationbyputtingthe

alteredletterinbrackets.(Fortheuseofellipsisdotsinliterarystudies,see25.3.2.3.)

“…[T]heMexicanpeoplewereboundtobenefitfromthechange,”arguesFernandez.

Fernandezpointsoutthat“[a]saresultofthesefactors,theMexicanpeoplewereboundtobenefitfromthechange.”

Inanydiscipline,ifyouputdoublequotationmarksaroundapassagethatalreadyincludesdoublequotationmarks,changethe

internalmarkstosinglequotationmarksforclarity(see25.2.1.2).

25.3.1.3ITALICS.Youmayitalicizeforemphasiswordsthatarenotitalicizedintheoriginal,butyoumustindicatethechangewiththe

notationitalicsmineoremphasisadded,placedeitherinthequotationorinitscitation.Withinthequotation,addthenotationin

squarebracketsimmediatelyaftertheitalicizedwords.Inacitation,addthenotationafterthepagenumber,precededbya

semicolon(seealso16.3.5).Ingeneral,avoidaddingitalicstopassagesthatincludeitalicsintheoriginal;ifitbecomesnecessary,

youmaydistinguishthesewiththenotationitalicsinoriginalor,forexample,Flaubert sitalics.

AccordingtoSchultz,“Bytheendof2010,everydemocracy[emphasisadded]willfacethechallengeofnuclearterrorism.”

Brownnotessimplythatthedestructionofthetribes“hadallhappenedinlessthantenyears”(271;italicsmine).

25.3.1.4INSERTIONS.Ifyouneedtoinsertawordormoreofexplanation,clarification,orcorrectionintoaquotation,enclosethe

insertioninbrackets.Ifyoufindyourselfmakingmanysuchinsertions,considerparaphrasingorweavingsmallerquotationsinto

yourtextinstead.

Assheobserves,“Thesemasters[Picasso,Braque,Matisse]rebelledagainstacademictraining.”

SheobservesthatPicasso,Braque,andMatisse“rebelledagainstacademictraining.”

25.3.1.5NOTES.Ifyouquoteapassagethatincludesasuperscriptnotenumberbutdonotquotethenoteitself,youmayomitthenote

number.

25.3.2Omissions

215

Ifyouomitwords,phrases,sentences,orevenparagraphsfromaquotationbecausetheyseemirrelevant,becarefulnottochangeor

misrepresentthemeaningoftheoriginalsource.Notonlymustyoupreservewordsthatmightchangetheentiremeaningofthe

quotation(suchasnot,never,oralways),butyoumustalsopreserveimportantqualifications.Thequotationshowninthefollowing

examplewouldbeamisrepresentationoftheauthor smeaning.(Seealso4.2.3.)

Original:Thechangewassuretobebeneficialoncetheimmediatetroublessubsided.

Yangclaims,“Thechangewassuretobebeneficial.”

25.3.2.1INSERTINGELLIPSES.Toindicatetheomissionofaword,phrase,orsentence,useellipsisdots threeperiodswithspaces

betweenthem.Toavoidbreakinganellipsisovertheline,useyourwordprocessor sellipsischaracteror,alternatively,usea

nonbreakingspacebeforeandafterthemiddledot.Youwillalsoneedtouseanonbreakingspacebetweentheellipsisandany

punctuationmarkthatfollows.(Anymarkthatprecedestheellipsis,includingaperiod,mayappearattheendofthelineabove.)

Sincethedotsstandforwordsomitted,theyalwaysgoinsidethequotationmarksorblockquotation.

Howyouuseellipsesincertainsituationsdependsonyourdiscipline.Formostdisciplines,followthegeneralmethod;forliterary

studiesandotherfieldsconcernedwithcloseanalysisoftexts,followthetextualstudiesmethod(see25.3.2.3).Ifyouarenotsure

whichmethodtofollow,consultyourlocalguidelinesoryourinstructor.See25.3.1foradjustmentstocapitalizationandpunctuation

withomissions.

25.3.2.2GENERALMETHODFORELLIPSES.Youmayshortenaquotationsuchasthefollowinginseveraldifferentways.

Original:Whenanationiswrong,itshouldsaysoandapologizetothewrongedparty.Itshouldconductitselfaccordingtothe

standardsofinternationaldiplomacy.Itshouldalsotakestepstochangethesituation.

Ifyouomitwordswithinasentence,usethreeellipsisdotsasdescribedabove(25.3.2.1).

“Whenanationiswrong,itshould…apologizetothewrongedparty.”

Ifyouomitmaterialbetweensentencesandthematerialprecedingtheomissionisagrammaticallycompletesentence,usea

terminalpunctuationmarkimmediatelyfollowingthatsentence.Leaveaspacebetweenthatpunctuationmarkandthefirstellipsis

dot.Followthispracticeeveniftheomissionincludestheendoftheprecedingsentenceaslongaswhatisleftisgrammatically

complete(asinthesecondexamplehere).

“Whenanationiswrong,itshouldsaysoandapologizetothewrongedparty….Itshouldalsotakestepstochangethesituation.”

“Whenanationiswrong,itshouldsayso….Itshouldalsotakestepstochangethesituation.”

Ifyouomitmaterialbetweensentencessothatthematerialprecedingandfollowingtheomissioncombinestoforma

grammaticallycompletesentence,donotincludeterminalpunctuationbeforetheellipsis.Toavoidmisrepresentingtheauthor s

meaning,however,itisgenerallybettertouseoneoftheshorteningoptionsaboveortousetwoseparatequotationsinthissituation.

“Whenanationiswrong,itshouldsaysoand…takestepstochangethesituation.”

Thesameprinciplesapplywithothertypesofpunctuationmarks,whichprecedeorfollowanellipsisdependingonwherethe

wordsareomitted.Insomesituations,suchasthesecondexamplebelow,considerusingamoreselectivequotation.

“Howhotwasit?…Noonecouldfunctioninthatclimate.”

“Themerchantʼsstockincludeddrygoodsandsundryotheritems…,allforpurchasebythewomenofthetown.”

Themerchantstocked“drygoodsandsundryotheritems”forthetownʼswomen.

Sinceinmanycontextsitisobviouswhenaquotationhasbeenshortened,youneednotuseellipsispointsinthefollowing

situations:

■beforeorafteraquotedphrase,incompletesentence,orotherfragmentfromtheoriginalthatisclearlynotacompletesentence;if

youomitanythingwithinthefragment,however,useellipsispointsattheappropriateplace:

Smithwrotethatthepresidenthadbeen“verymuchimpressed”bythepaperthatstressed“usingtheeconomicresources…of

allthemajorpowers.”

■atthebeginningofaquotation,evenifthebeginningofthesentencefromtheoriginalhasbeenomitted(butsee25.3.2.3forthe

textualstudiesmethodforellipses).

■attheendofaquotation,eveniftheendofthesentencefromtheoriginalhasbeenomitted

25.3.2.3TEXTUALSTUDIESMETHODFORELLIPSES.Thetextualstudiesmethodusesellipsesmorestrictlythanthegeneralmethodto

representomissionsofmaterialatthebeginningandendofquotedsentences.Ifyouusethismethod,followtheprinciplesofthe

generalmethodexceptasnotedbelow.

216

Original:Whenanationiswrong,itshouldsaysoandapologizetothewrongedparty.Itshouldconductitselfaccordingtothe

standardsofinternationaldiplomacy.Itshouldalsotakestepstochangethesituation.

■Ifyouomitmaterialbetweensentencesbutquotethesentenceprecedingtheomissioninfull,includetheterminalpunctuation

markfromtheoriginal.Leaveaspacebetweenthatpunctuationmarkandthefirstellipsisdot,asinthegeneralmethod,shownin

thefirstexamplebelow.However,iftheomissionincludestheendoftheprecedingsentence(evenifwhatisleftisagrammatically

completesentence),putaspaceinsteadofapunctuationmarkimmediatelyfollowingthatsentence.Afterthespace,usethree

ellipsisdotstorepresenttheomission,followedbyaspaceandtheterminalpunctuationmarkfromtheoriginal(asinthesecond

examplehere).

“Whenanationiswrong,itshouldsaysoandapologizetothewrongedparty….Itshouldalsotakestepstochangethesituation.”

but

“Whenanationiswrong,itshouldsayso….Itshouldalsotakestepstochangethesituation.”

■Ifyoubeginaquotationwithasentencethatisgrammaticallycompletedespiteanomissionatthebeginningofthesentence,

indicatetheomissionwithanellipsis.Ifthefirstwordiscapitalizedinthequotationbutnotintheoriginal,indicatethechanged

letterinbrackets(see25.3.1).

“…[I]tshouldsaysoandapologizetothewrongedparty.”

■Ifyouendaquotationwithasentencethatisgrammaticallycompletedespiteanomissionattheendofthesentence,indicatethe

omissionwithaspaceandathree-dotellipsis,followedbyaspaceandtheterminalpunctuationfromtheoriginal,asyouwould

foranomittedendingbetweensentences.

“Whenanationiswrong,itshouldsayso….”

25.3.2.4OMITTINGAPARAGRAPHORMORE.Thefollowingpracticeappliestoboththegeneralandtextualstudiesmethodsofhandling

omissions.

Ifyouomitafullparagraphormorewithinablockquotation,indicatethatomissionwithaperiodandthreeellipsisdotsatthe

endoftheparagraphbeforetheomission.Ifthequotationincludesanotherparagraphaftertheomission,indentthefirstlineofthe

newparagraph.Ifitstartsinthemiddleofaparagraph,beginwiththreeellipsispointsaftertheindentation.

Mertonwrites:

Abrand-newconsciencewasjustcomingintoexistenceasanactual,operatingfunctionofasoul.Mychoiceswerejustaboutto

becomeresponsible….

…Sincenomanevercan,orcould,livebyhimselfandforhimselfalone,thedestiniesofthousandsofotherpeoplewere

boundtobeaffected.

25.3.2.5OMITTINGALINEORMOREOFPOETRY.Forboththegeneralandtextualstudiesmethods,showtheomissionofoneormore

completelinesofapoemquotedinablockquotationbyalineofellipsispointsaboutaslongasthelineaboveit.

Thekeypassagereadsasfollows:

Weepnomore,woefulshepherds,weepnomore,

ForLycidasyoursorrowisnotdead,

.................................

Toallthatwanderinthatperilousflood.

217

26TablesandFigures
26.1GeneralIssues
26.1.1PositionintheText
26.1.2Size
26.1.3SourceLines
26.2Tables
26.2.1TableStructure
26.2.2TableNumbersandTitles
26.2.3Rules
26.2.4ColumnHeads
26.2.5TheStub
26.2.6TheBodyofaTable
26.2.7Footnotes
26.3Figures
26.3.1ChartsandGraphs
26.3.2FigureNumbersandCaptions
Manyresearchpapersusetablesandfigurestopresentdata.Tablesaregridsconsistingofcolumnsandrowsthatpresentnumerical
orverbalfactsbycategories.Figuresincludecharts,graphs,diagrams,photographs,maps,musicalexamples,drawings,andother
images.Allthesetypesoftabularandnontextualmaterialsarecollectivelyreferredtoasillustrations(atermsometimesused
interchangeablywithfigures)orgraphics.
Whenyouhavedatathatcouldbeconveyedinatableorfigure,yourfirsttaskistochoosethemosteffectiveoftheseformats;
somekindsofdataarebetterrepresentedinatable,someinachart,othersinagraph.Yourchoicewillaffecthowyourreaders
respondtoyourdata.Thesearerhetoricalissues,discussedinchapter8.Thischapterfocusesonhowtoconstructtheparticular
formyouchoose,lookingspecificallyattablesandtwotypesoffigures chartsandgraphs.
Mosttables,charts,andgraphsarenowcreatedwithsoftware.Youcannotrelyonsoftware,however,toselectthemosteffective
formatortogeneratesuchitemsinthecorrectstyle,norwillsoftwareensurelogicalorformalconsistency.Expecttochangesome
defaultsettingsbeforecreatingtables,charts,andgraphsandtofine-tunetheseitemsoncetheyareproduced.
Yourdepartmentoruniversitymayhavespecificrequirementsforformattingtablesandfigures,usuallyavailablefromtheoffice
ofthesesanddissertations.Ifyouarewritingaclasspaper,checkwithyourinstructorforanyspecialrequirements.Reviewthese
requirementsbeforeyouprepareyourpaper.Theytakeprecedenceovertheguidelinessuggestedhere.Forstyleguidesinvarious
disciplines,seethebibliography.
Formoreinformationoncreatingandformattingtablesandfiguresandinsertingthemintoyourpaper,seeA.3.1.
26.1GeneralIssues
Thereareseveralissuescommontothepresentationoftablesandfiguresinpapers.
26.1.1PositionintheText
Normallyyoushouldplaceatableorfigureimmediatelyaftertheparagraphinwhichyoufirstmentionit.Sometimes,however,such
placementwillcauseashorttabletobreakunnecessarilyacrossthepageorafiguretojumptothetopofthenextpage,leavingmore
thanafewlinesofwhitespaceatthebottomofthepreviouspage.Topreventeitherofthesefromhappening,youmay(a)placethe
tableorfigurefartheralonginthetext,aslongasitremainswithinapageofitsfirstmention,or(b)placethetableorfigurejust
beforethefirstmention,aslongasitappearsonthesamepageasthemention.(Suchadjustmentsarebestmadeafterthetextof
yourpaperisfinal.)
Youmaygroupsmallertablesorfiguresonapage,aslongastheyareclearlydistinctfromoneanother.Groupedtablesgenerally
retaintheirowntitles(see26.2.2).Ifgroupedfiguresarecloselyrelated,givethemasinglenumberandageneralcaption;otherwise
useseparatenumbersandcaptions(see26.3.2).(Dependingonyourlocalguidelines,youmayinsteadgrouptablesandfigures
togetherinasectionlabeledIllustrationsinthebackmatterofyourpaper;seeA.2.3.1.)
Ifatableorfigureismarginallyrelevantortoolargetoputinthetext,putitinanappendixinthebackmatterofyourpaper(see
A.2.3).
Formoreinformationoninsertingtablesandfiguresintoyourpaper,seeA.3.1.
26.1.2Size
Wheneveryoucan,formattablesandfigurestofitononepageinnormal,orportrait,orientation.Iftheydonotfit,tryshortening
218

longcolumnheadsorabbreviatingrepeatedterms.
Ifyoucannotmakeatableorfigurefitonapage,youhaveseveraloptions.
■Landscape.Ifatableorfigureistoowideforapage,turnitninetydegreessothattheleftsideisatthebottomofthepage;this
orientationiscalledlandscapeorbroadside.Donotputanytextonapagecontainingalandscapetableorfigure.Setthetabletitle
orfigurecaptionineitherlandscapeorportraitorientation.SeefigureA.13foranexample.(Youmayneedtoconvertatableinto
animagefileinordertorotateit.)
■Sidebyside.Ifatableislongerthanapagebutlessthanhalfapagewide,doubleitupandpositionthetwohalvessidebysidein
onetableonthesamepage.Separatethetwohalveswithaverticalrule,andincludethecolumnheadsonbothsides.
■Multiplepages.Ifatableorfigureistoolongtofitonasinglepageinportraitorientationortoowidetofitinlandscape,divideit
betweentwo(ormore)pages.Fortables,repeatthestubcolumnandallcolumnheads(see26.2)oneverypage.Omitthebottom
ruleonallpagesexceptthelast.
■Reduction.Ifthefigureisaphotographorotherimage,considerreducingit.Consultyourlocalguidelinesforanyrequirements
relatedtoresolution,scaling,cropping,andotherparameters.
■Separateitems.Ifnoneoftheabovesolutionsisappropriate,considerpresentingthedataintwoormoreseparatetablesor
figures.
■Supplement.Ifthetableorfigureconsistsofmaterialthatcannotbepresentedinprintform,suchasalargedatasetora
multimediafile,treatitasanappendix,asdescribedinA.2.3.
26.1.3SourceLines
Youmustacknowledgethesourcesofanydatayouuseintablesandfiguresthatyoudidnotcollectyourself.Youmustdothisevenif
youpresentthedatainanewform forexample,youcreateagraphbasedondataoriginallypublishedinatable,addfreshdatatoa
tablefromanothersource,orcombinedatafrommultiplesourcesbymeta-analysis.
Treatasourcelineasafootnotetoatable(see26.2.7)oraspartofacaptionforafigure(see26.3.2).Fortables,introducethe
sourcelinewiththewordSource(s)(capitalized,initalics,followedbyacolon).Ifthesourcelinerunsontomorethanoneline,the
runoversshouldbeflushleft,single-spaced.Endasourcelinewithaperiod.
Ifyouarefollowingbibliographystyleforyourcitations,citethesourceasinafullnote(seechapter16),includingtheoriginal
tableorfigurenumberorthepagenumberfromwhichyoutookthedata.Unlessyoucitethissourceelsewhereinyourpaper,you
neednotincludeitinyourbibliography.
Source:DatafromDavidHalle,InsideCulture:ArtandClassintheAmericanHome(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1993),
table2.
Sources:DatafromRichardH.AdamsJr.,“Remittances,Investment,andRuralAssetAccumulationinPakistan,”Economic
DevelopmentandCulturalChange47,no.1(1998):155–73;DavidBevan,PaulCollier,andJanGunning,Peasantsand
Government:AnEconomicAnalysis(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1989),125–28.
Ifyouarefollowingauthor-datestyleforyourcitations,citethesourceasinaparentheticalcitation(minustheparentheses)and
includefullbibliographicalinformationaboutitinyourreferencelist(seechapter18).
Source:DatafromHalle1993,table2.
Sources:DatafromAdams1998,155–73;Bevan,Collier,andGunning1989,125–28.
Ifyouhaveadaptedthedatainanywayfromwhatispresentedintheoriginalsource,includethephraseadaptedfrominthe
sourceline,asshownintables26.1and26.3.
Forphotographs,maps,andotherfiguresthatyoudidnotcreateyourself,includeanacknowledgmentofthecreatorinplaceofa
sourceline.
MapbyGeraldF.Pyle.
PhotographbyJamesL.Ballard.
Ifyourdissertationwillbesubmittedtoanexternaldissertationrepository,youmayalsoneedtoobtainformalpermissionto
reproducetablesorfiguresprotectedbycopyright.Seechapter4ofTheChicagoManualofStyle,16thedition(2010).Ifyouneedto
includecreditlinesinconnectionwithsuchpermissions,seeCMOS3.28 36(figures)and3.74(tables).
26.2Tables
Inmanysituations,youmaychoosetopresentdatainatable.Chapter8describescriteriaforusingtablesaswellasgeneraldesign
principlesforthem.Thissectioncoversmostoftheissuesyouarelikelytoencounterintheirpreparation.Tables26.1 26.3provide
examplesoftheprinciplesdiscussedhere.
Tablesvarywidelyinthecomplexityoftheircontentandthereforeintheirstructure,butconsistencybothwithinandacross
tablesisessentialtoensurethatreaderswillunderstandyourdata.
Usearabicnumeralsforallnumericaldataintablesunlessotherwisenoted.Tosavespace,youcanuseabbreviationsand
symbolsmorefreelythanyoucanintext,butusethemsparinglyandconsistently.Ifstandardabbreviationsdonotexist,createyour
ownandexplainthemeitherinafootnotetothetable(see26.2.7)or,iftherearemany,inalistofabbreviationsinyourpaper s
frontmatter(seeA.2.1).
219

Table26.1.SelectedchurchesinFourCorners,Boston

Table26.2.ElectionresultsinGotefrithProvince,1950–60

Table26.3.Unemploymentratesforworking-ageNewYorkers,2000

220

26.2.1TableStructure

Atablehaselementsanalogoustohorizontalandverticalaxesonagraph.Onthehorizontalaxisalongthetoparecolumnheads.On

theverticalaxisalongtheleftareheadingsthatconstitutewhatiscalledthestubcolumn.

Thisgridofcolumns(vertical)androws(horizontal)inatableusuallycorrelatestwosetsofvariablescalledindependentand

dependent.Theindependentvariablesaretraditionallydefinedontheleft,inthestubcolumn.Thedependentvariablesare

traditionallydefinedinthecolumnheads.Ifyouincludethesamesetofvariablesintwoormoretablesinyourpaper,beconsistent:

puttheminthesameplaceineachtable,ascolumnheadsorinthestub.

Thedata,whichmaybewords,numbers,orboth(seetable26.1),areenteredinthecellsbelowthecolumnheadsandtotheright

ofthestubcolumn.

26.2.2TableNumbersandTitles

Ingeneral,everytableshouldhaveanumberandatitle.Placetheseitemsflushleftonthelineabovethetable,withthewordTable

(capitalized,inromantype),followedbythetablenumber(inarabicnumerals),followedbyaperiod.Afteraspace,givethetitle

withoutaterminalperiod.Capitalizethetitlesentencestyle(see22.3.1).Ifatitlerunsontomorethanoneline,therunoversshould

beflushleft,single-spaced.

Table13.Yen-dollarratiosinJapaneseexports,1995–2005

Asimpletabulationthatcanbeintroducedclearlyinthetext,suchasasimpletwo-columnlist,neednotbenumberedortitled.

Chicagoʼspopulationgrewexponentiallyinitsfirstcentury:

1840 4,470

1870 298,977

1900 1,698,575

1930 3,376,438

221

26.2.2.1TABLENUMBERS.Numbertablesseparatelyfromfigures,intheorderinwhichyoumentiontheminthetext.Ifyouhaveonlya
fewtables,numberthemconsecutivelythroughoutthepaper,evenacrosschapters.Ifyouhavemanytablesandmanychapters,use
doublenumeration:thatis,thechapternumberfollowedbyaperiodfollowedbythetablenumber,asinTable12.4.
Whenyourefertoatableinthetext,specifythetablenumber( intable3 )ratherthanitslocation( below )becauseyoumay
endupmovingthetablewhileeditingorformattingthepaper.Donotcapitalizethewordtableintextreferencestotables.
26.2.2.2TABLETITLES.Keeptabletitlesshortbutdescriptiveenoughtoindicatethespecificnatureofthedataandtodifferentiate
tablesfromoneanother.Fordiscussionofgoodtitlingpractices,see8.3.1.Tabletitlesmaybepresentedinasmallertypefacethan
therestofyourtext.
26.2.3Rules
Rulesseparatedifferenttypesofdataandtext.Toomanyrulescreateaconfusingimage,sousethemsparinglyandconsistently(see
also8.3.2).
■Insertfull-widthhorizontalrulestoseparatethetitlefromthecolumnheads(see26.2.4),thecolumnheadsfromthebodyofthe
table,andthebodyofthetablefromfootnotes.Aruleabovearowoftotalsistraditionalbutnotessential(seetable26.2).
Unnumberedtablesrunintothetextcanusuallybesetwithnorules,aslongasanycolumnheadsaresetofftypographically.
■Usepartial-widthhorizontalrulestoindicatewhichcolumnheadsandcolumnsaregovernedbyspecialtypesofheads,ifyouuse
them(see26.2.4,table26.2).
■Leaveenoughspacebetweendatacellstoavoidtheneedforadditionalrules.Donotuseverticalrulestoenclosethetableinabox.
Butifyouneedtodoubleupalongandnarrowtable(see26.1.2),useaverticalruletoseparatethetwohalves.
■Usecautioninemployingshadingorcolortoconveymeaning(see8.3.2).Evenifyouprintthepaperonacolorprinterorsubmitit
asaPDF,itmaybeprintedorcopiedlateronablack-and-whitemachine,andifitisadissertation,itmaybemicrofilmed.Shading
andcolormaynotreproducewellinanyoftheseforms.Ifyouuseshading,makesureitdoesnotobscurethetextofthetable,and
donotusemultipleshades,whichmightnotreproducedistinctly.
26.2.4ColumnHeads
Atablemusthaveatleasttwocolumns,eachwithaheadorheadingatthetopthatnamesthedatainthecolumnbelow.
■Whenpossible,usenounphrasesforcolumnheads.Keepthemshort(orsetthemtowrap,asintable26.1)toavoidanexcessively
widetable.
■Capitalizecolumnheadssentencestyle(see22.3.1).
■Alignthestubheadflushleft(see26.2.5);centerothercolumnheadsoverthewidestentryinthecolumnbelow.Alignthebottom
ofallheadshorizontally.
Youmayneedtoincludespecialtypesofheadsinadditiontothecolumnheads.Suchaheadmayapplytotwoormorecolumns
ofdata.Centertheheadovertherelevantcolumnswithapartial-widthhorizontalrulebeneath(and,ifnecessary,above)it.Table
26.2showsheadsbothabove( 1950 )andbelow( ProvincialAssembly )thecolumnheads.
Headsmayhaveexplanatorytagstoclarifyortoindicatetheunitofmeasurefordatainthecolumnbelow.Enclosesuchtagsin
parentheses.Youmayuseabbreviationsandsymbols(mpg,km,lb.,%,$M,andsoon),butbeconsistentwithinandamongyour
tables.
Responses(%)
Pesos(millions)
26.2.5TheStub
Theleftmostcolumnofatable,calledthestub,liststhecategoriesofdataineachrow.
■Includeacolumnheadforthestubwheneverpossible,evenifitisgeneric( TypicalCharacteristic or Variable ).Omitthehead
onlyifitwouldmerelyrepeatthetabletitleorifthecategoriesinthestubaretoodiverseforasinglehead.
■Makestubentriesnounsornounphraseswheneverpossible,andkeepthemconsistentinform: Books,  Journalarticles,
Manuscripts, ratherthan Books,  Articlespublishedinjournals,  Manuscripts. Usethesamewordforthesameiteminallof
yourtables(forexample,ifyouuseFormerUSSRinonetable,donotuseFormerSovietUnioninanother).
■Capitalizeallstubentriessentencestyle(see22.3.1),withnoterminalperiods.
■Setthestubheadandentriesflushleft,andindentanyrunovers(asintable26.1).
■Toshowthesumofthenumbersinacolumn,includeanindentedstubentrytitledTotal(seetable26.2).
Ifthestubcolumnincludessubentriesaswellasmainentries(seetable26.3),distinguishthemthroughindentation,italics,or
both.Followthesameprincipleslistedaboveformainentriesforcapitalizationandsoforth.
26.2.6TheBodyofaTable
Thebodyofatableconsistsofcellscontainingyourdata,whichmaybewords,numbers,orboth(seetable26.1).
Ifthedataarenumericalandallvaluesinacolumnorintheentiretableareinthousandsormillions,omittherightmostzeros
andnotetheunitinanexplanatorytagintherelevantcolumnhead(see26.2.4),inthetabletitle(26.2.2),orinafootnote(26.2.7).
Indicateanemptycellwiththreespacedperiods(ellipsisdots),centeredasintable26.3.
26.2.6.1HORIZONTALALIGNMENT.Alignthedataineachrowwiththestubentryforthatrow.
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■Ifthestubentryrunsoverontotwoormorelinesbuttherelateddatadoesnot,aligntherowwiththebottomlineofthestubentry
(seetherowbeginning ChurchoftheHolyGhost intable26.1).
■Ifboththestubentryandthedatarunoverontotwoormorelines,aligntherowwiththetoplineofthestubentry(seetherow
beginning Mt.NeboApostolic intable26.1).
■Ifnecessary,insertleaders(linesofperiods,ordots)toleadthereader seyefromthestubtothedatainthefirstcolumn.(Foran
exampleofleadersinasimilarcontext,seefig.A.5.)
26.2.6.2VERTICALALIGNMENT.Alignacolumnofnumbersverticallyontheirrealorimplieddecimalpoints,sothatreaderscan
comparethevaluesinthecolumn.Ifallnumericalvaluesinacolumnhaveazerobeforeadecimalpoint,youmayomitthezeros(see
fig.A.13).
Aligndollarsigns,percentsigns,degrees,andsoon.Butiftheyoccurineverycellinthecolumn,deletethemfromthecellsand
givetheunitasataginthecolumnhead(see26.2.4,table26.2,andfig.A.13).
Ifthedataconsistofwords,centereachcolumnunderthecolumnhead.Ifanyitemshaverunovers,aligneachcolumnflushleft
(seetable26.1).
26.2.7Footnotes
Ifatablehasfootnotes,positionthemflushleft,single-spaced.Leaveablanklinebetweenthebottomruleofthetableandthefirst
note,andalsobetweennotes.Footnotesmaybepresentedinasmallertypefacethantherestofthetext;consultyourlocal
guidelines.
Footnotesfortablescanbeoffourkinds:(1)sourcelines(discussedin26.1.3),(2)generalfootnotesthatapplytothewholetable,
(3)footnotesthatapplytospecificpartsofthetable,and(4)notesonlevelsofstatisticalsignificance.Ifyouhavemorethanonekind
ofnote,puttheminthatorder.
26.2.7.1GENERALNOTES.Generalnotesapplytotheentiretable.Theydefineabbreviations,expandonthetabletitle,specifyhowdata
werecollectedorderived,indicateroundingofvalues,andsoon.Gatherallsuchremarksintoasinglenote.Donotputanote
number(orothersymbol)anywhereinthetableorthetabletitle,orwiththenoteitself.SimplybeginthenotewiththewordNote
(capitalized,initalics,followedbyacolon).Seealsotable26.3.
Note:Sincenotalldatawereavailable,thereisdisparityinthetotals.
26.2.7.2SPECIFICNOTES.Notestoexplainspecificitemsinatablecanbeattachedtoanypartofthetableexceptthetablenumberor
title.Designatesuchnoteswithlowercasesuperscriptlettersratherthannumbers,bothwithinthetableandinthenoteitself.Donot
beginthenotewiththewordnotebutwiththesamesuperscriptletter,withnoperiodorcolonfollowing.
a
Totalexcludestradeandlaboremployees.
Ifyouincludemorethanonesuchnoteinatable(asintable26.2),uselettersinsequentialorder,beginningattheupperleftofthe
table,runninglefttorightandthendownward,rowbyrow.Ifanoteappliestotwoormoreitemsinthetable,usethesameletterfor
eachitem;ifitappliestoallitemsinacolumnorrow,puttheletterintherelevantcolumnheadorstubentry.
26.2.7.3NOTESONSTATISTICALSIGNIFICANCE.Ifyouincludenotesonthestatisticalsignificanceofyourdata(alsocalledprobability
notes),andifthesignificancelevelsarestandard,designatenoteswithasterisks,bothwithinthetableandinthenoteitself.Usea
singleasteriskforthelowestlevelofprobability,twoforthenexthigher,andthreeforthelevelafterthat.If,however,youarenoting
significancelevelsotherthanstandardones,usesuperscriptlettersinstead.Becausethesefootnotesareshortandtheyshareasingle
purpose,youmaycombinethemonthesameline,spaced,withoutinterveningpunctuation.Theletterp(forprobability,noperiod
afterit)shouldbelowercaseanditalic.Omitzerosbeforedecimalpoints(see23.1.3).
*p<.05
**p<.01
***p<.001
26.3Figures
Thetermfigurereferstoavarietyofimages,includingcharts,graphs,diagrams,photographs,maps,musicalexamples,and
drawings.Mostsuchmaterialscannowbepreparedandinsertedintoapaperelectronically.Thetechnicaldetailsaresoftware-
specificandtoocomplextobecoveredinthisbook,butsomegeneralguidelinesarepresentedinA.3.1.
Thissectiondescribessomeprinciplesforpresentingtwotypesoffigurescreatedfromdata:chartsandgraphs.Italsodiscusses
captionsforfiguresofallkinds.
Treatavideo,ananimation,oranyothermultimediafilethatcannotbepresentedinprintformasanappendix(seeA.2.3).
26.3.1ChartsandGraphs
Inmanysituationsyoumaychoosetopresentdatainachartorgraph.Chapter8laysoutcriteriaforusingthesegraphicformsas
wellasgeneraldesignprinciplesforthem.Italsoprovidesexamplesofseveraldifferenttypesofgraphics.Fordetailedguidanceon
constructingchartsandgraphs,consultareliableauthority.
Eachchartandgraphinyourpapershouldtaketheformthatbestcommunicatesitsdataandsupportsitsclaim,butconsistency
bothwithinandacrosstheseitemsisessentialtoensurethatreaderswillunderstandyourdata.Keepinmindthefollowing
principleswhenpresentingchartsandgraphsofanytype:
223

■Representelementsofthesamekind axes,lines,datapoints,bars,wedges inthesameway.Usedistinctvisualeffectsonlyto

makedistinctions,neverjustforvariety.

■Usearabicnumeralsforallnumericaldata.

■Labelallaxesusingsentence-stylecapitalization.Keepthelabelsshort,followingpracticesforgoodtabletitles(see8.3.1).Usethe

figurecaption(see26.3.2)toexplainanyaspectsofthedatathatcannotbecapturedinthelabels.Tosavespace,youcanuse

abbreviationsandsymbolsmorefreelythanyoucanintext,butusethemsparinglyandconsistently.Ifstandardabbreviationsdo

notexist,createyourownandexplainthemeitherinthecaptionor,iftherearemany,inalistofabbreviationsinyourpaper s

frontmatter(seeA.2.1).

■Labellines,datapoints,andotheritemswithinthechartorgraphthatrequireexplanationusingeitheralllowercaseletters(for

singlewords)orsentence-stylecapitalization(forphrases).Ifphrasesandsinglewordsbothappear,theyshouldallbestyledthe

same(asinfig.8.3).Theotherprinciplesdescribedaboveforaxislabelsalsoapplytolabelsofthistype.

■Usecautioninemployingshadingorcolortoconveymeaning(see8.3.2).Evenifyouprintthepaperonacolorprinterorsubmitit

asaPDF,itmaybeprintedorcopiedlateronablack-and-whitemachine,andifitisadissertation,itmaybemicrofilmed.Shading

andcolormaynotreproducewellinanyoftheseforms.Ifyouuseshading,makesureitdoesnotobscureanytextinthefigure,

anddonotusemultipleshades,whichmightnotreproducedistinctly.

26.3.2FigureNumbersandCaptions

Ingeneral,everyfigureinyourpapershouldhaveanumberandacaption.Ifyouincludeonlyafewfiguresinyourpaperanddonot

specificallyrefertotheminthetext,omitthenumbers.Figurecaptionsmaybepresentedinasmallertypefacethantherestofyour

text;consultyourlocalguidelines.

Onthelinebelowthefigure,writethewordFigure(flushleft,capitalized,inromantype),followedbythefigurenumber(in

arabicnumerals),followedbyaperiod.Afteraspace,givethecaption,usuallyfollowedbyaterminalperiod(butsee26.3.3.2).Ifa

captionrunsontomorethanoneline,therunoversshouldbeflushleft,single-spaced.

Figure6.TheGreatMosqueofCordoba,eighthtotenthcentury.

Inexamplesfrommusicalscoresonly,placethefigurenumberandcaptionabovethefigure.

26.3.3.1FIGURENUMBERS.Numberfiguresseparatelyfromtables,intheorderinwhichyoumentiontheminthetext.Ifyouhaveonly

afewfigures,numberthemconsecutivelythroughoutthepaper,evenacrosschapters.Ifyouhavemanyfiguresandmanychapters,

usedoublenumeration:thatis,thechapternumberfollowedbyaperiodfollowedbythefigurenumber,asinFigure12.4.

Whenyourefertoafigureinthetext,specifythefigurenumber( infigure3 )ratherthanitslocation( below ),becauseyou

mayendupmovingthefigurewhileeditingorformattingthepaper.Donotcapitalizethewordfigureintextreferencestofigures,

anddonotabbreviateitasfig.exceptinparentheticalreferences forexample, (seefig.10).

26.3.3.2FIGURECAPTIONS.Figurecaptionsaremorevariedthantabletitles.Insomecases,captionscanconsistsolelyofanoun

phrase,capitalizedsentencestyle(see22.3.1),withoutaterminalperiod.

Figure9.MaryMcLeodBethune,leaderoftheBlackCabinet

Morecomplexcaptionsbeginwithanounphrasefollowedbyoneormorecompletesentences.Suchcaptionsarealsocapitalized

sentencestylebuthaveterminalperiods,evenaftertheinitialincompletesentence.Ifyourcaptionsincludeamixofbothtypes,you

mayincludeaterminalperiodinthoseofthefirsttypeforconsistency.

Figure16.BenitoJuárez.Mexicoʼsgreatpresident,acontemporaryandfriendofAbrahamLincoln,representsthehard-fought

triumphofMexicanliberalismatmidcentury.CourtesyofBancroftLibrary,UniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeley.

Whenafigurehasasourceline,putitattheendofthecaption,followingtheguidelinesin26.1.3.

Figure2.7.ThelaoValley,siteofthefinalbattle.PhotographbyAnastasiaNowag.

Figure11.3.USpopulationgrowth,1900–1999.DatafromUSCensusBureau,“HistoricalNationalPopulationEstimates,”accessed

August9,2011,http://www.census.gov/popest/archives/1990s/popclockest.txt.

Sometimesacaptionisattachedtoafigureconsistingofseveralparts.Identifythepartsinthecaptionwithtermssuchastop,

bottom,above,lefttoright,andclockwisefromleft(italicizedtodistinguishthemfromthecaptionitself)orwithlowercaseitalic

letters.

Figure6.Aboveleft,WilliamLivingston;right,HenryBrockholstLivingston;belowleft,JohnJay;right,SarahLivingstonJay.

Figure15.FourtypesofHawaiianfishhooks:a,barbedhookoftortoiseshell;b,trollinghookwithpearlshelllureandpointofhuman

bone;c,octopuslurewithcowrieshell,stonesinker,andlargebonehook;d,barbedhookofhumanthighbone.

Ifthecaptionforafigurewillnotfitonthesamepageasthefigureitself,putitonthenearestprecedingtextpage(seeA.3.1.4),

withplacementidentificationinitalicsbeforethefigurenumberandcaption.

Nextpage:Figure19.Atoddlerusingafourth-generationiPhone.RefinementsintouchscreentechnologyhelpedAppleandother

corporationsbroadenthetargetmarketfortheirproducts.

224

Appendix:PaperFormatandSubmission
A.1GeneralFormatRequirements
A.1.1Margins
A.1.2Typeface
A.1.3SpacingandIndentation
A.1.4Pagination
A.1.5Titles
A.2FormatRequirementsforSpecificElements
A.2.1FrontMatter
A.2.2Text
A.2.3BackMatter
A.3FilePreparationandSubmissionRequirements
A.3.1PreparingYourFiles
A.3.2SubmittingElectronicFiles
A.3.3SubmittingHardCopy
Whenyouarewritingathesis,adissertation,oraclasspaper,youmustobservecertainformatandstylerequirements.Forathesis
ordissertation,theserequirementsaresetbyyourdepartmentoryouruniversity sofficeofthesesanddissertations;foraclass
paper,theyaresetbyyourinstructor.Youmayalsohavetofollowspecificproceduresforsubmittingthepaper,whetherinhard
copyorelectronically.IfyourpaperwillbesubmittedtoanelectronicrepositorymaintainedbyaservicelikePro-Quest s
DissertationsandThesesorbyyouruniversity,additionalguidelinesmayapply.
Beparticularlyawareoftheserequirementsifyouarewritingathesisordissertation.Youwillbejudgedonhowwellyoufollow
theacademicconventionsofyourfield.Also,manyoftherulesforformatandsubmissionareintendedtomakethepreservedcopy,
boundorelectronic,asaccessibleaspossibleforfuturereaders.
Theguidelinespresentedherearewidelyacceptedfortheformatandsubmissionofthesesanddissertations,butmost
universitieshavetheirownrequirements,whichareusuallyavailablefromtheofficeofthesesanddissertations.Reviewthecurrent
guidelinesofyourdepartmentoruniversitybeforeyousubmityourthesisordissertation.Theselocalguidelinestakeprecedence
overtherecommendationsprovidedhere.
Ingeneral,therequirementsforaclasspaperarelessextensiveandstrictthanthoseforathesisordissertation.Suchpapers
usuallyhavefewerelements,andsincetheyarenotlikelytobeboundorpreservedelectronically,therearefewersubmission
requirements.Evenso,youmaybeexpectedtofollowcertainguidelinessetbyyourinstructorordepartment,andthoseguidelines
takeprecedenceovertheguidelinessuggestedhere.
Thisappendixassumesthatyouwillprepareyourpaperonacomputerandsubmititasanelectronicfile,hardcopy,orboth.
Althoughword-processingprogramsvary,mostcanbeusedtosetmarginsize,numberpages,placeandnumberfootnotes,and
inserttablesandfiguresaccordingtotheguidelinesinthisappendix.Ifyouarefollowingspecificguidelinessetbyyourinstructoror
institution,makesuretocheckyourpaper sformatcarefullyagainstthoseguidelinesbeforesubmittingit;ifyouaresubmittingan
electronicfileandaprintout,reviewtheformattingofboth.
A.1GeneralFormatRequirements
Thissectionaddressesgeneralformatissuesthatapplytoyourpaperasawhole.Fordiscussionofspecificelementsandtheir
individualformatrequirements,seeA.2.Yourinstructor,department,oruniversitymayhaveguidelinesthatdifferfromtheadvice
offeredhere.Ifso,thoseguidelinestakeprecedence.
A.1.1Margins
NearlyallpapersintheUnitedStatesareproducedonstandardpagesof8 x11inches.Leaveamarginofatleastoneinchonall
fouredgesofthepage.Forathesisordissertationintendedtobebound,youmayneedtoleaveabiggermarginontheleftside
usually1 inches.
Besurethatanymaterialplacedinheadersorfooters,includingpagenumbersandotheridentifiers(seeA.1.4),fallswithinthe
marginsspecifiedinyourlocalguidelines.
A.1.2Typeface
Chooseasingle,readable,andwidelyavailabletypeface(alsocalledfont),suchasTimesNewRoman,Courier,orHelvetica.Ifyou
usealesscommontypeface,youmayneedtoembedthefontintheelectronicfile.Avoidornamentaltypefaces,whichcandistract
readersandmakeyourworkseemlessserious.(Forthecharacteristicsofspecifictypefaces,seeRobertBringhurst,TheElementsof
TypographicStyle[PointRoberts,WA:HartleyandMarks,2004].)Ingeneral,useatleastten-pointandpreferablytwelve-point
225

typeforthebodyofthetext.Footnotesorendnotes,headings,andotherelementsmightrequireothertypesizes;checkyourlocal

guidelines.

A.1.3SpacingandIndentation

Double-spacealltextinpapersexceptthefollowingitems,whichshouldbesingle-spaced:

■blockquotations(see25.2.2)

■tabletitlesandfigurecaptions

■listsinappendixes

Thefollowingitemsshouldbesingle-spacedinternallybutwithablanklinebetweenitems:

■certainelementsinthefrontmatter(seeA.2.1),includingthetableofcontentsandanylistoffigures,tables,orabbreviations

■footnotesorendnotes

■bibliographiesorreferencelists

Somedepartmentsoruniversitiesalloworrequiresinglespacingoroneandahalfspacesbetweenlinesinthebodyofthetext.

Checkyourlocalguidelines.

Putonlyonespace,nottwo,followingtheterminalpunctuationofasentence.Usetabsorindentsratherthanspacesfor

paragraphindentationandothercontentrequiringconsistentalignment.Blockquotationshavetheirownrulesforindentation,

dependingonwhethertheyareproseorpoetry(see25.2.2).

A.1.4Pagination

A.1.4.1NUMBERING.Ifyouronlyfrontmatterisatitlepage,donotnumberthatpage.Numberpagesinthebodyofthepaperandthe

backmatterwitharabicnumerals,startingonthefirstpageoftext(page2ifyoucountthetitlepage).

Ifyouarewritingathesisordissertation,numberfrontmatterseparatelyfromtherestofthetext.(Manywordprocessorshave

functionssuchassectionbreaksthatcanaccomplishthistask.)

■Frontmatterincludesthetitlepageandvariousotherelements(seeA.2.1).Numberthesepagesconsecutivelywithlowercase

romannumerals(i,ii,iii,etc.;seetable23.1).Everypageoffrontmatterexceptthesubmissionpageisusuallycountedin

numbering,butnotallofthesepageshavenumbersdisplayedonthem.Departmentsanduniversitiesoftenprovidespecific

directionsfornumberingfrontmatterpages;ifyoursdoesnot,followtheguidelinesdescribedinthisappendix.

■Therestofthetext,includingbackmatter(seeA.2.3),isnumberedconsecutivelywitharabicnumerals(usuallystartingwithpage

1).

Ifyourthesisordissertationisverylongandapapercopyofitwillbebound,yourdepartmentoruniversitymaybinditinmultiple

volumes.Yourlocalguidelinesshouldindicatethemaximumnumberofpagespervolumeaswellasanyspecialrequirementsfor

numberingamultivolumepaper.

A.1.4.2PLACEMENT.Pagenumbersareusuallyplacedinoneoffourlocations:centeredorflushrightinthefooter(atthebottomofthe

page)orcenteredorflushrightintheheader(atthetopofthepage).Forclasspapers,chooseoneoftheselocationsandfollowit

consistently.

Traditionally,pagenumbersforthesesanddissertationshavebeenplacedindifferentlocationsdependingonthepartofthe

paper(asshowninthesamplesinthisappendix).

■Inthefooter:allfrontmatterpages;pagesinthetextandbackmatterthatbeartitles,suchasthefirstpageofachapteroran

appendix

■Intheheader:allotherpagesinthetextandbackmatter

Manydepartmentsanduniversitieshaveeliminatedthesedistinctionsandnowrequireconsistentplacementofpagenumbers

throughoutathesisordissertation.Somespecifyalocation,whileothersallowyoutochoose.Inanyposition,thenumbershouldbe

atleasthalfaninchfromtheedgeofthepage.Checkyourlocalguidelines.

A.1.4.3OTHERIDENTIFIERS.Insomesettingsyoumaybeallowedorevenencouragedtoincludeidentifyinginformationbesidesthe

pagenumberintheheaderorfooter.Foraclasspaper,yourinstructormayaskyoutoincludeyourlastname,thedateofthepaper,

oradesignationsuchas FirstDraft. Forlongerpapers,chapterorsectiontitleshelpreaderskeeptrackoftheirlocationinthetext.

Therequirementsforheadersandfootersinthesesanddissertationsvary,soconsultyourlocalguidelines.

A.1.5Titles

Dependingonitscomplexity,yourpapermayconsistofmanyelements,aslistedinA.2,andmostofthemshouldhaveatitle.

Usethesametypeface,typesize,andformatting(boldface,italic,etc.)forthetitlesoflikeelements.Ingeneral,andunlessyour

localguidelinessayotherwise,titlesshouldappearinboldface.Amoretraditionalmethodcallsforfullcapitalization,butthishas

theundesirableeffectofobscuringthecapitalizationofindividualwordsinatitle.

Onthetitlepage,centereachelementanduseheadline-stylecapitalizationforall,includingthetitleofyourpaper.(Yourlocal

guidelinesmayrequiresentence-stylecapitalizationforthetitleofyourpaper;see22.3.1forthetwostyles.)

Titlesforthefrontandbackmatterarealsotypicallycentered,asarechapternumberdesignationsandchaptertitles.Forchapter

titles,useheadline-stylecapitalizationunlessyourlocalguidelinesspecifysentencestyle.

226

Allsuchelementsmaybeinalargertypesizethanthetextofyourpaper.Checkyourlocalguidelines.Forsubheadingswithin
chapters,seeA.2.2.4.
Ifyourlocalguidelinesareflexible,youmayusedifferenttypographyandformatfromthosedescribedhereforvarioustypesof
titles,aslongasyouareconsistent.Titlesoflargerdivisions(parts,chapters)shouldbemorevisuallyprominentthansubheadings.
Ingeneral,titlesaremoreprominentwhenlargerorcentered(orboth),inboldfaceoritalictype,orcapitalizedheadlinestylethan
whenflushleft,inregulartype,orcapitalizedsentencestyle.
Themostefficientwaytoensureconsistencyintitlesistouseyourwordprocessortodefineandapplyauniquestyle(specifying
typeface,size,position,linespacing,andsoforth)foreachtypeoftitle.SeealsoA.3.1.2.
A.2FormatRequirementsforSpecificElements
InadditiontothegeneralrequirementsoutlinedinA.1,specificelementsofapaperhavespecificformatrequirements.Thissection
describeselementsmostcommonlyfoundinclasspapers,theses,anddissertations,anditprovidessamplesofmanyofthem.Allof
thesamplesexceptfiguresA.1andA.8arepagesdrawnfromdissertationswrittenattheUniversityofChicago.Asneeded,thepages
havebeeneditedtomatchthestyleandformatrecommendationsinthismanual.Ifyourinstructor,department,oruniversityhas
specificguidelinesthatdifferfromthesesamples,theytakeprecedence.
Mostlongpapersandallthesesanddissertationshavethreemaindivisions:(1)frontmatter,(2)thetextofthepaperitself,and
(3)backmatter.Thefrontandbackmatterarealsodividedintoelementsthatvary,dependingonyourpaper.
Inaclasspaper,thefrontmatterwillprobablybeasingletitlepageandthebackmatterjustabibliographyorreferencelist.
A.2.1FrontMatter
Thefrontmatterofyourthesisordissertationmayincludesomeorallofthefollowingelements.Departmentsanduniversities
usuallyprovidespecificdirectionsfortheorderofelements;ifyoursdoesnot,followtheordergivenhere.
A.2.1.1SUBMISSIONPAGE.Mostthesesanddissertationsincludeasubmissionpage,usuallyasthefirstpageofthedocument.Ifit
appearsinthisposition,itdoesnotbearapagenumberandisnotcountedinpaginatingthefrontmatter.
ThesubmissionpagestatesthatthepaperhasbeensubmittedinpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsforanMAorPhDdegree
(thewordingvaries),anditincludesspaceforthesignaturesoftheexaminingcommitteemembers.Mostdepartmentsand
universitiesprovidemodelsubmissionpagesthatshouldbefollowedexactlyforwordingandform.Inelectronicsubmissionsthe
signaturesmayneedtobeomitted.
A.2.1.2TITLEPAGE.Classpapersshouldbeginwithatitlepage(butsomeputthetitleonthefirstpageofthetext;consultyour
instructor).Placethetitleofthepaperathirdofthewaydownthepage,usuallycentered(seeA.1.5).Ifthepaperhasbothamain
titleandasubtitle,putthemaintitleonasingleline,followedbyacolon,andbeginthesubtitleonanewlinewithanintervening
linespace.Severallinesbelowit,placeyournamealongwithanyinformationrequestedbyyourinstructor,suchasthecoursetitle
(includingitsdepartmentandnumber)andthedate.FigureA.1showsasampletitlepageforaclasspaper.Formostsuchpapers,
thisistheonlyfrontmatterneeded.
Forathesisordissertation,mostdepartmentsanduniversitiesprovidemodeltitlepagesthatshouldbefollowedexactlyfor
wordingandform.Otherwise,usefigureA.2asamodel.Countthetitlepageaspagei,butdonotputthatnumberonit.
Ifyourthesisordissertationwillbesubmittedashardcopyandboundinmorethanonevolume(seeA.1.4.1),youwillprobably
needtoprovideaseparatetitlepageforeachvolume.Consultyourlocalguidelines.
A.2.1.3COPYRIGHTPAGE.Inathesisordissertation,insertacopyrightpageafterthetitlepage.Countthispageaspageii,butdonot
putthatnumberonitunlessdirectedbyyourlocalguidelines.Includethecopyrightnoticenearthebottomofthispage,usually
flushleft,inthisform:
Copyright©20XXbyYourName
Allrightsreserved
227

FigureA.1.Titlepageforaclasspaper

228

FigureA.2.Titlepageforadissertation.ReprintedwithpermissionfromFonnaForman-Barzilai,“AdamSmithandtheCirclesof

Sympathy”(PhDdiss.,UniversityofChicago,2001).

229

Youneednotapplyforaformalcopyright.However,incasesofinfringementformalregistrationprovidesadditionalprotections.

Formoreinformation,seechapter4inTheChicagoManualofStyle(16thed.,2010).

A.2.1.4DEDICATION.Ifyourdepartmentoruniversityallowsdedications,youmayincludeabriefonetoacknowledgesomeonewhohas

beenespeciallyimportanttoyou.Countthededicationpageinpaginatingthefrontmatter,butdonotputapagenumberonit

unlessdirectedbyyourlocalguidelines.Placethededicationathirdofthewaydown,usuallycentered,andsetitinromantypewith

noterminalpunctuation.Youneednotincludethewordsdedicationordedicated;simplysayto:

ToGraceLenore

Youmayidentifythepersontowhomyoudedicatethework( Tomyfather,SebastianWells )andgiveotherinformationsuchas

birthanddeathdates.

A.2.1.5EPIGRAPH.Ifyourdepartmentoruniversityallowsepigraphs,youmayincludeabriefoneinadditiontoorinsteadofa

dedication.Anepigraphisaquotationthatestablishesathemeofthepaper.Itismostappropriatewhenitswordsareespecially

strikinganduniquelycapturethespiritofyourwork.Counttheepigraphpageinpaginatingthefrontmatter,butdonotputapage

numberonitunlessdirectedbyyourlocalguidelines.Youshouldnotincludethewordepigraphonthepage.

Placetheepigraphathirdofthewaydownthepage,eithercenteredortreatedasablockquotation(see25.2.2).Donotencloseit

inquotationmarks.Givethesourceonanewline,setflushrightandprecededbyanemdash(see21.7.2).Oftentheauthor sname

aloneissufficient,butyoumayalsoincludethetitleofthework(see22.3.2)and,ifitseemsrelevant,thedateofthequotation.

ThusoutofsmallbeginningsgreaterthingshavebeenproducedbyHishand…and,asonesmallcandlemaylightathousand,

sothelightherekindledhathshoneuntomany,yeainsomesorttoourwholenation.

—WilliamBradford

Somepeoplethinkthewomenarethecauseofmodernism,whateverthatis.

—NewYorkSun,February13,1917

Epigraphsmayalsoappearatthebeginningofachapterorsection;see25.2.2.3andfigureA.9.

A.2.1.6TABLEOFCONTENTS.Allpapersdividedintochaptersrequireatableofcontents.Numberallpagesofthiselementwithroman

numerals.LabelthefirstpageContentsatthetopofthepage.Ifthetableofcontentsismorethanonepage,donotrepeatthetitle.

Leavetwoblanklinesbetweenthetitleandthefirstitemlisted.Single-spaceindividualitemslisted,butaddablanklineaftereach

item.Betweenthelistsforthefrontandbackmatterandthechapters,orbetweenpartsorvolumes(ifany),leavetwoblanklines.

Atableofcontentsdoesnotlistpagesthatprecedeit(submissionpage,titlepage,copyrightorblankpage,dedication,epigraph)

orthetableofcontentsitselfbutshouldbeginwiththefrontmatterpagesthatfollowit.Followingtheseitems,listinordertheparts,

chapters,orotherunitsofthetext,andthentheelementsofthebackmatter.Ifyouhavesubheadsinthetext(seeA.2.2.4),youneed

notincludetheminyourtableofcontents.Ifyoudoincludethem,listonlythefirstlevelunlessfurtherlevelsarespecificenoughto

givereadersanaccurateoverviewofyourpaper.Besurethatthewording,capitalization,numberstyle(arabic,roman,orspelled

out),andpunctuationofalltitlesandsubheads(seeA.1.5)matchexactlythoseinthepaper.Ifyouhavegeneratedyourtableof

contentsautomaticallywithyourwordprocessor,checktheresults.

Givepagenumbersonlyforthefirstpageofeachelement(notthefullspanofpages),anduselowercaseromanorarabic

numeralsasonthepagesthemselves.Listpagenumbersflushrightand,ifyouchoose,usealineofperiodsordots(calledleaders,a

featureavailablefromthetabsettingofmostwordprocessors)toleadareader seyefromeachtitletothepagenumber.

FigureA.3showsasampletableofcontentsforapaperwithasimplestructure.Partandchaptertitlesappearflushleft,with

pagenumbersflushright.

Foramorecomplexpaper,followthelogicofyourpaper sorganizationunlessyourlocalguidelinesrequireaspecificformat.

FigureA.4showsthesecondpageofalongtableofcontents.Todistinguishchaptertitlesfromsubheadings,youmayindentthe

subheadings,witheachlevelconsistentlyindentedahalfinchtotherightoftheprecedinglevel.

Ifyourthesisordissertationwillbesubmittedashardcopyandboundinmorethanonevolume,youmayneedtorepeatthe

tableofcontents,oratleasttherelevantlistingsfromit,ineachvolumeafterthefirst.Consultyourlocalguidelines.

230

FigureA.3.Tableofcontents.ReprintedwithpermissionfromFonnaForman-Barzilai,“AdamSmithandtheCirclesofSympathy”

(PhDdiss.,UniversityofChicago,2001).

231

FigureA.4.Secondpageofacomplextableofcontents.ReprintedwithpermissionfromDanaJeanSimmons,“MinimalFrenchmen:

ScienceandStandardsofLiving,1840–1960”(PhDdiss.,UniversityofChicago,2004).

232

A.2.1.7LISTOFFIGURES,TABLES,ORILLUSTRATIONS.Ifyourthesisordissertation(or,insomecases,yourclasspaper)includesfigures,

tables,orboth,youmaychoosetolisttheminthefrontmatter.Numberallpagesofsuchalistwithromannumerals.Ifyourpaper

includesonlyfigures(seechapter26fordefinitions),labelthefirstpageFiguresatthetopofthepage;ifitincludesonlytables,label

itTablesinstead.Ifthelistismorethanonepage,donotrepeatthetitle.Leavetwoblanklinesbetweenthetitleandthefirstitem

listed.Single-spaceindividualitemslisted,butleaveablanklinebetweenitems.FigureA.5showsasamplelistoftables.

Ifyourpaperincludesbothfiguresandtables,youmayprovideaseparatelistforeach,oryourlocalguidelinesmayallowyouto

combinethemintoasinglelist.InthelattercaselabelthelistIllustrations(followingthepatterndescribedabove),butdivideitinto

twosectionslabeledFiguresandTables,asinfigureA.6.

Giveeachtableorfigurenumberinarabicnumerals,andverticallyalignthelistonthelastdigit.Ifyouareusingdouble

numeration(asinfig.A.5),alignthenumbersonthedecimalsinstead.

Figurecaptionsandtabletitlesshouldmatchthewordingandcapitalizationofthoseinthepaperitself,butiftheyareverylong,

shortentheminalogicalwayinthislist.(See26.2.2and26.3.2formoreontabletitlesandfigurecaptions.)Listpagenumbersflush

rightand,ifyouchoose,useleaderdots(seeA.2.1.6)toconnectthecaptionsandtitlestopagenumbers.

A.2.1.8PREFACE.Inathesisordissertationyoumayincludeaprefacetoexplainwhatmotivatedyourstudy,thebackgroundofthe

project,thescopeoftheresearch,andthepurposeofthepaper.Theprefacemayalsoincludeacknowledgments,unlesstheyareso

numerousanddetailedthattheymerittheirownsection(seeA.2.1.9).Numberallpagesofthiselementwithromannumerals.Label

thefirstpagePrefaceatthetopofthepage.Iftheprefaceismorethanonepage,donotrepeatthetitle.Leavetwoblanklines

betweenthetitleandthefirstlineoftext.Double-spacethetextofthepreface,andformatittomatchthemaintext.

A.2.1.9ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.Inathesisordissertationyoumayhaveaseparatesectionofacknowledgmentsinwhichyouthank

mentorsandcolleaguesornametheindividualsorinstitutionsthatsupportedyourresearchorprovidedspecialassistance(suchas

consultationontechnicalmattersoraidinsecuringspecialequipmentandsourcematerials).Youmayalsoberequiredto

acknowledgetheownersofcopyrightedmaterialwhohavegivenyoupermissiontoreproducetheirwork.Ifyouronly

acknowledgmentsareforroutinehelpbyanadvisororacommittee,includetheminthepreface(seeabove)oromitthementirely.

Numberallpagesoftheacknowledgmentswithromannumerals.LabelthefirstpageAcknowledgmentsatthetopofthepage.Ifthe

acknowledgmentsaremorethanonepage,donotrepeatthetitle.Leavetwoblanklinesbetweenthetitleandthefirstlineoftext.

Double-spacethetextoftheacknowledgments,andformatittomatchthemaintext.

233

FigureA.5.Listoftables.ReprintedwithpermissionfromMarkR.Wilson,“TheBusinessofCivilWar:MilitaryEnterprise,theState,

andPoliticalEconomyintheUnitedStates,1850–1880”(PhDdiss.,UniversityofChicago,2002).

234

FigureA.6.Listofillustrations.ReprintedwithpermissionfromDanaJeanSimmons,“MinimalFrenchmen:ScienceandStandards

ofLiving,1840–1960”(PhDdiss.,UniversityofChicago,2004).

235

A.2.1.10LISTOFABBREVIATIONS.Ifyourthesisordissertation(or,insomecases,yourclasspaper)includesanunusualnumberof

abbreviationsotherthanthecommontypesdiscussedinchapter24,listtheminthefrontmatter.Examplesofitemstoinclude

wouldbeabbreviationsforsourcescitedfrequently(see16.4.3)orfororganizationsthatarenotwidelyknown(24.1.2).

Numberallpagesofsuchalistwithromannumerals.LabelthefirstpageAbbreviationsatthetopofthepage.Ifthelistismore

thanonepage,donotrepeatthetitle.Leavetwoblanklinesbetweenthetitleandthefirstitemlisted.Single-spaceindividualitems

listed,butleaveablanklinebetweenitems.FigureA.7showsasamplelistofabbreviations.(Theitemsinthissampleareitaliconly

becausetheyaretitlesofpublishedworks.)

Notethattheitemsarearrangedalphabeticallybytheabbreviation,notbythespelled-outterm.Theabbreviationsthemselves

areflushleft;spelled-outterms(includingrunovers)aresetonaconsistentindentthatallowsaboutahalfinchofspacebetweenthe

longestabbreviationinthefirstcolumnandthefirstwordinthesecondcolumn.

A.2.1.11GLOSSARY.Youmayneedaglossaryifyourthesisordissertation(or,insomecases,yourclasspaper)includesmanyforeign

wordsortechnicaltermsandphrasesthatmaybeunfamiliartoyourreaders.Somedepartmentsanduniversitiesalloworrequire

theglossarytobeplacedinthebackmatter,afteranyappendixesandbeforetheendnotesandbibliographyorreferencelist.Ifyou

arefreetochoose,putitinthefrontmatteronlyifreadersmustknowthedefinitionsbeforetheybeginreading.Otherwise,putitin

thebackmatter(seeA.2.3.3).

Ifitappearsinthefrontmatter,numberallpagesofaglossarywithromannumerals.LabelthefirstpageGlossaryatthetopof

thepage.Iftheglossaryismorethanonepage,donotrepeatthetitle.Leavetwoblanklinesbetweenthetitleandthefirstitem

listed.Single-spaceindividualitemslisted,butleaveablanklinebetweenitems.FigureA.8showsasampleglossary.

236

FigureA.7.Listofabbreviations.(Notethattheitemsinthislistareitalicizedonlybecausetheyaretitlesofpublishedworks.)

ReprintedwithpermissionfromAnthonyPerron,“RomeandLund:AStudyintheChurchHistoryofaMedievalFringe”(PhDdiss.,

UniversityofChicago,2002).

237

FigureA.8.Glossary

238

Notethatthetermsarearrangedalphabetically,flushleftandfollowedbyaperiod(acolonordashissometimesused).Youmay

putthetermsinboldfacetomakethemstandout.Thetranslationordefinitionfollows,withitsfirstwordcapitalizedandaterminal

period.If,however,thedefinitionsconsistofonlysinglewordsorbriefphrases,donotuseterminalperiods.Ifadefinitionismore

thanoneline,indenttherunoversbyahalfinch.

A.2.1.12EDITORIALORRESEARCHMETHOD.Ifyourthesisordissertationrequiresanextensivepreliminarydiscussionofyoureditorial

method(suchasyourchoicesamongvarianttexts)orresearchmethod,includeitasaseparateelement.Youcanalsobrieflydiscuss

methodinthepreface.Ifyoustateonlythatyouhavemodernizedcapitalizationandpunctuationinquotedsources,putthatinthe

prefaceorinanoteattachedtothefirstsuchquotation.

Numberallpagesofadiscussiononmethodwithromannumerals.LabelthefirstpageEditorialMethodorResearchMethodat

thetopofthepage.Ifthesectionismorethanonepage,donotrepeatthetitle.Leavetwoblanklinesbetweenthetitleandthefirst

lineoftext.Double-spacethetextofthissection,andformatittomatchthemaintext.

A.2.1.13ABSTRACT.Manydepartmentsanduniversitiesrequirethatathesisordissertationincludeanabstractsummarizingits

contents.(Sometimestheabstractissubmittedasaseparatedocument.)AbstractsofpaperssubmittedtoProQuestwillbefeatured

onitsDissertationsandThesesdatabaseandpublishedinDissertationsandThesesAbstractandIndex.Numberallpagesofthis

elementwithromannumerals.LabelthefirstpageAbstractatthetopofthepage.Iftheabstractismorethanonepage,donot

repeatthetitle.Leavetwoblanklinesbetweenthetitleandthefirstlineoftext.Mostdepartmentsoruniversitieshavespecific

modelsforabstractsthatyoushouldfollowexactlyforcontent,wordcount,format,placement,andpagination.

A.2.2Text

Thetextofapaperincludeseverythingbetweenthefrontmatterandthebackmatter.Itbeginswithyourintroductionandendswith

yourconclusion,bothofwhichmaybeasshortasasingleparagraphoraslongasseveralpages.Inathesisordissertation,thetextis

usuallyseparatedintochaptersandsometimesintoparts,sections,andsubsections.Manylongerclasspapersarealsodividedin

thisway.

Sincemostofthetextconsistsofparagraphslayingoutyourfindings,therearefewformatrequirementsforthebodyofthetext.

Theonlyadditionalissuesarehowtobegindivisionsofthetext,howtoformatnotesorparentheticalcitations,andhowtoposition

tablesandfigureswithinthetext.

Beginthearabicnumberingofyourpaperwiththefirstpageofthetext(normallypage1or2;seeA.1.4.1).

A.2.2.1INTRODUCTION.Manythesesanddissertations(and,insomecases,classpapers)beginwithasectionthatpreviewsthecontents

andargumentoftheentirepaperandissodistinctthatthewriterseparatesitfromtherestofthepaper.(Thebackgroundofthe

projectandanyissuesthatinformedtheresearchshouldbecoveredinthepreface;seeA.2.1.8.)Ifyoubeginwithsuchan

introduction,labelthefirstpageIntroductionatthetopofthepage.Donotrepeatthetitleonsubsequentpagesoftheintroduction.

Leavetwoblanklinesbetweenthetitleandthefirstlineoftext.Ifthesubstanceofyourintroductorymaterialisnotclearlydistinct

fromthechaptersthatfollowit,considerincorporatingitintoyourfirstchapter.

A.2.2.2PARTS.Ifyoudividethetextofyourthesisordissertationintotwoormoreparts,eachincludingtwoormorechapters,begin

eachpartwithapart-titlepage.Thefirstpart-titlepagefollowstheintroduction(eveniftheintroductionislabeledchapter1).Count

apart-titlepageinpaginating,butdonotputapagenumberonitexceptinthecasedescribedbeloworunlessdirectedbyyourlocal

guidelines.LabelthispagePartfollowedbythepartnumberatthetopofthepage.Dependingonyourlocalguidelines,givethepart

numbereitherincapitalizedromannumerals(II)orspelledout(Two);besuretonumberthechaptersinadifferentstyle.Ifthepart

hasadescriptivetitleinadditiontoitsnumber,placethistitletwolinesdown,followingablankline.

Ifyouincludetextintroducingthecontentsofthepartonthepart-titlepage,numberthepagewithanarabicnumeral.Leavetwo

blanklinesbetweenthetitleandthefirstlineoftext.Ifthetextismorethanonepagelong,donotrepeatthepartnumberortitle.

Followaconsistentformatforallofyourpart-titlepages:ifoneparthasadescriptivetitleinadditiontoanumber,thengiveall

partsdescriptivetitles;ifoneparthasintroductorytext,thenincludeintroductorytextinallparts.

A.2.2.3CHAPTERS.Mostthesesanddissertations,andmanylongclasspapers,consistoftwoormorechapters.Eachchapterbeginson

anewpage.LabelthispageChapterfollowedbythechapternumberatthetopofthepage.Youmaygivethechapternumbereither

inarabicnumerals(4)orspelledout(Four).Ifyourpaperhasparts,chooseadifferentstyleofnumberingforthechapternumbers

(forexample,PartII;ChapterFour).Ifthechapterhasadescriptivetitleinadditiontoitsnumber,placethistitletwolinesdown,

followingablankline.Donotrepeatthenumberorthetitleonsubsequentpagesofthechapter.Leavetwoblanklinesbetweenthe

titleandthefirstlineoftext.FigureA.9showsasamplefirstpageofachapterwithanepigraph(see25.2.2.3andA.2.1.5).

AnalternativeformatistoomitthewordChapteranduseonlythechapternumberandtitle,whichcanthenappearonthesame

line,separatedbyacolonoratabspace.Donotusethisformat,however,ifyourpaperhaspartsaswellaschapters,ifitdoesnot

havechaptertitles,orifthereisanypossibilityofconfusinganewchapterwithanyotherdivisionofthepaper.

A.2.2.4SECTIONSANDSUBSECTIONS.Longchaptersintheses,dissertations,andlongclasspapersmaybefurtherdividedintosections,

whichinturnmaybedividedintosubsections,andsoon.Ifyourpaper,orachapterwithinit,hasonlyafewsections,youmay

signalthedivisionbetweensectionsinformallybycenteringthreespacedasterisks(***)ontheirownline.

Ifyoucreateformalsectionsinapaperorinitschapters,youmaygiveeachoneitsowntitle,alsocalledasubheadingor

subhead.Youmayhavemultiplelevelsofsubheads,whicharedesignatedfirst-level,second-level,andsoon.Unlessyouarewriting

averylongandcomplexpaper,thinkcarefullybeforeusingmorethantwoorthreelevelsofsubheads.Ratherthanbeinghelpful,

theycanbecomedistracting.Youshouldhaveatleasttwosubheadsatanylevelwithinachapter;ifyoudonot,yourdivisionsmay

notbelogicallystructured.Twoconsecutivesubheadlevelsmayappeartogetherwithoutinterveningtext.

239

Unlessyourlocalguidelineshaverulesforsubheads,youmaydeviseyourowntypographyandformatforthem.Eachlevelof

subheadshouldbeconsistentanddifferentfromallotherlevels,andhigher-levelsubheadsshouldbemorevisuallyprominentthan

lower-levelones.Ingeneral,subheadsaremoreprominentwhencentered,inboldfaceoritalictype,orcapitalizedheadlinestyle

thanwhenflushleft,inregulartype,orcapitalizedsentencestyle.Exceptforrun-insubheads(seefifthlevel,below),putmorespace

beforeasubheadthanafter(uptotwoblanklinesbeforeandoneline,ordoublelinespacing,after)anddonotendasubheadwitha

period.Tomaintainconsistency,useyourwordprocessortodefineastyleforeachlevel.

240

FigureA.9.Firstpageofachapter.ReprintedwithpermissionfromFonnaForman-Barzilai,“AdamSmithandtheCirclesof

Sympathy”(PhDdiss.,UniversityofChicago,2001).

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Hereisoneplanforfivelevelsofsubheads.

■Firstlevel:centered,boldfaceoritalictype,headline-stylecapitalization

ContemporaryArt

■Secondlevel:centered,regulartype,headline-stylecapitalization

WhatAretheMajorStyles?

■Thirdlevel:flushleft,boldfaceoritalictype,headline-stylecapitalization

AbstractExpressionism

■Fourthlevel:flushleft,romantype,sentence-stylecapitalization

Majorpaintersandpractitioners

■Fifthlevel:runinatbeginningofparagraph(noblanklineafter),boldfaceoritalictype,sentence-stylecapitalization,terminal

period

Pollockastheleader.TheroleofleadingAbstractExpressionistpainterwasfilledbyJacksonPollock…

Neverendapagewithasubhead.Setyourwordprocessortokeepallheadingsattachedtotheensuingparagraph.(Thebuilt-in

headingstylesinmostwordprocessorsaresettostaywiththenextparagraphbydefault.)

A.2.2.5NOTESORPARENTHETICALCITATIONS.Ifyouareusingbibliography-stylecitationswithfootnotes,see16.3foradiscussionof

howtoformatfootnotes.FigureA.10showsasamplepageoftextwithfootnotes.

Ifyouareusingauthor-datecitations,see18.3foradiscussionofhowtoformatparentheticalcitations.FigureA.11showsa

samplepageoftextwithparentheticalcitations.

A.2.2.6TABLESANDFIGURES.Ifyourpaperincludestablesorfigures,seechapter26foradiscussionofhowtoformattables,some

typesoffigures,andfigurecaptions,andA.3.1forinformationaboutinsertingtheseelementsintoyourpaper.FigureA.12showsa

samplepageoftextwithafigurepositionedonit,andfigureA.13showsasampleofatableinlandscapeorientationonitsownpage.

242

FigureA.10.Pageoftextwithfootnotes.ReprintedwithpermissionfromMarkR.Wilson,“TheBusinessofCivilWar:Military

Enterprise,theState,andPoliticalEconomyintheUnitedStates,1850–1880”(PhDdiss.,UniversityofChicago,2002).

243

FigureA.11.Pageoftextwithparentheticalcitations.ReprintedwithpermissionfromMonicaPrasad,“ThePoliticsofFreeMarkets:

TheRiseofNeoliberalEconomicPolicyinBritain,France,andtheUnitedStates”(PhDdiss.,UniversityofChicago,2000).

244

FigureA.12.Pagewithtextandafigure.ReprintedwithpermissionfromMarjorieElizabethWood,“EmancipatingtheChildLaborer:

Children,Freedom,andtheMoralBoundariesoftheMarketintheUnitedStates,1853–1938”(PhDdiss.,UniversityofChicago,

2011).

245

FigureA.13.Pagewithalandscapetable.ReprintedwithpermissionfromNathanielBaum-Snow,“EssaysontheSpatial

DistributionofPopulationandEmployment”(PhDdiss.,UniversityofChicago,2005).

246

A.2.2.7CONCLUSION.Inathesisordissertation(or,insomecases,alongclasspaper),youwillprobablyendwithaconclusionthatis

longenoughtotreatasaseparateelement.Ifyouincludesuchaconclusion,labelthefirstpageConclusionatthetopofthepage.Do

notrepeatthetitleonsubsequentpagesoftheconclusion.Leavetwoblanklinesbetweenthetitleandthefirstlineoftext.

Youmayalsolabeltheconclusionasthelastnumberedchapterofyourpaperifyouwanttoemphasizeitsconnectiontotherest

ofyourtext.Ifso,treatthewordConclusionasachaptertitle(seeA.2.2.3).

A.2.3BackMatter

Thebackmatterofyourpapermayconsistofallorsomeornoneofthefollowingelements.Departmentsanduniversitiesusually

providespecificdirectionsfortheorderofelements;ifyoursdoesnot,followtheordergivenhere.Numberthebackmatter

continuouslywiththetextusingarabicnumerals.

A.2.3.1ILLUSTRATIONS.Ifyougroupallofyourillustrationstogetherattheendofyourthesisordissertation(or,insomecases,your

classpaper)insteadofincludingtheminthetext(see26.1.1),makethemthefirstelementinthebackmatter.Labelthefirstpageof

suchasectionIllustrationsatthetopofthepage.Ifthissectionismorethanonepage,donotrepeatthetitle.Forinformationabout

insertingfiguresintoyourpaper,seeA.3.1.

Ifsomeillustrationsareplacedinthetext,however,anythataregroupedinthebackmattermustbeplacedinanappendix;see

A.2.3.2.

A.2.3.2APPENDIXES.Ifyourthesisordissertation(or,insomecases,yourclasspaper)includesessentialsupportingmaterialthat

cannotbeeasilyworkedintothebodyofyourpaper,putthematerialinoneormoreappendixesinthebackmatter.(Donotput

appendixesattheendsofchapters.)Examplesofsuchmaterialwouldbetablesandfiguresthataremarginallyrelevanttoyourtopic

ortoolargetoputinthetext;schedulesandformsusedincollectingmaterials;copiesofdocumentsnotavailabletothereader;and

casestudiestoolongtoputintothetext.

LabelthefirstpageAppendixatthetopofthepage.Iftheappendixismorethanonepage,donotrepeatthetitle.Leavetwo

blanklinesbetweenthetitleandthefirstlineoftextorothermaterial.

Iftheappendixmaterialisofdifferenttypes forexample,atableandacasestudy divideitamongmorethanoneappendix.In

thiscase,giveeachappendixanumberorletterandadescriptivetitle.Youmaygivethenumbersineitherarabicnumerals(1,2)or

spelledout(One,Two),oryoumayusesinglelettersofthealphabetinsequentialorder(A,B).Putthenumberorletterfollowingthe

wordAppendix,andplacethedescriptivetitleonthenextline.(Ifyourpaperhasonlyoneappendix,youmayalsogiveita

descriptivetitle,butdonotgiveitanumberorletter.)

Iftheappendixconsistsofyourownexplanatorytext,double-spaceitandformatittomatchthemaintext.Ifitisinlistformor

consistsofaprimarydocumentoracasestudy,youmaychoosetosingle-spacethetext,especiallyifitislong.

Treatsupportingmaterialthatcannotbepresentedinprintform,suchasalargedatasetoramultimediafile,asanappendix.

Includeabriefdescriptionofthematerialanditslocation,includingahyperlink(ifrelevant).Consultyourlocalguidelinesfor

specificrequirementsforfileformat,presentation,andsubmission;seealsoA.3.1.

A.2.3.3GLOSSARY.Ifyourthesisordissertation(or,insomecases,yourclasspaper)needsaglossary(seeA.2.1.11),youmayincludeit

ineitherthefrontorbackmatter,whereitfollowsanyappendixesandprecedesendnotesandthebibliographyorreferencelist.All

ofthespecialformatrequirementsdescribedinA.2.1.11apply,exceptthattheback-matterglossarypagesshouldbenumberedwith

arabicinsteadofromannumerals.FigureA.8showsasampleglossary(paginatedforthefrontmatter).

A.2.3.4ENDNOTES.Ifyouareusingbibliography-stylecitations,andunlessyourlocalguidelinesrequirefootnotesorend-of-chapter

notes,youmayincludenotesinthebackmatterasendnotes.LabelthefirstpageofthiselementNotesatthetopofthepage.Donot

repeatthetitleonsubsequentpagesoftheendnotessection.Leavetwoblanklinesbetweenthetitleandthefirstnote,andoneblank

linebetweennotes.Thenotesthemselvesshouldbesingle-spaced,withastandardparagraphindentatthestartofeachone.Ifyou

restartnumberingforeachchapter,addasubheadingbeforethefirstnotetoeachchapter.FigureA.14showsasamplepageof

endnotesforapaperdividedintochapters.Seealso16.3.3andA.2.2.4.

Ifyouareusingauthor-datecitations,youwillnothaveendnotes.

A.2.3.5BIBLIOGRAPHYORREFERENCELIST.Ifyouareusingbibliography-stylecitations,youwillprobablyincludeabibliographyinthe

backmatter.LabelthefirstpageofthiselementBibliographyatthetopofthepage.

247

FigureA.14.Endnotes.ReprintedwithpermissionfromMarkR.Wilson,“TheBusinessofCivilWar:MilitaryEnterprise,theState,

andPoliticalEconomyintheUnitedStates,1850–1880”(PhDdiss.,UniversityofChicago,2002).

248

Donotrepeatthetitleonsubsequentpagesofthebibliography.Leavetwoblanklinesbetweenthetitleandthefirstentry,andone

blanklinebetweenentries.Theentriesthemselvesshouldbesingle-spaced,withrunoversindentedhalfaninch.FigureA.15showsa

samplepageofabibliography.

Forsometypesofbibliographiesyoushoulduseadifferenttitle,suchasSourcesConsulted.Ifyoudonotarrangethe

bibliographyalphabeticallybyauthor,includeaheadnote,subheadings(formattedconsistently),orbothtoexplainthearrangement.

See16.2forthesevariations.

Ifyouareusingauthor-datecitations,youmustincludeareferencelistinthebackmatter.Labelthefirstpageofthelist

Referencesatthetopofthepage.Donotrepeatthetitleonsubsequentpagesofthereferencelist.Leavetwoblanklinesbetweenthe

titleandthefirstentry,andoneblanklinebetweensingle-spacedentries.Indentrunovershalfaninch.FigureA.16showsasample

pageofareferencelist.

Intherarecasethatyoudonotarrangethereferencelistalphabeticallybyauthor(see18.2.1),includeaheadnote,subheadings

(formattedconsistently),orbothtoexplainthearrangement.

A.3FilePreparationandSubmissionRequirements

A.3.1PreparingYourFiles

Byfollowingsomebasicpracticesforgoodelectronicfilemanagementandpreparation,youcanavoidproblemsandproducea

legible,properlyformattedpaper.Thesepracticesapplywhetheryouwillbesubmittingyourpaperelectronically,ashardcopy,or

both.

A.3.1.1FILEMANAGEMENT.Trytominimizetheriskthatyourdatawillbelostorcorruptedatsomepoint.

■Prepareyourpaperasasingleelectronicfile,regardlessofitslength.Workingwithasinglefileallowsyoutosearchandmake

changesglobally,touseyourwordprocessor sautomatednumberingfunctionsaccurately(forfootnotes,pagination,andthelike),

andtodefineandapplystylesconsistently(seeA.3.1.2).Paperssubmittedelectronicallymustalmostalwaysbeinasinglefile,but

youmaydividethefileintosectionsusingwordprocessorfunctionsforcertainformatrequirements,suchaslistingnotesatthe

endofachapterorchangingheaders.Largedatabasesormultimediafilesmayneedtobesubmittedseparatelyassupplemental

files.

■Namethefilesimplyandlogically.Ifyousavedifferentversionsofthefileovertime,namethemconsistently(alwaysendinginthe

date,forexample)toavoidconfusionofversions.Beforefinalsubmissioncheckyourlocalguidelinesfornamingconventionsthat

applytothefileandanysupplementalmaterials.

249

FigureA.15.Bibliography.ReprintedwithpermissionfromMarkR.Wilson,“TheBusinessofCivilWar:MilitaryEnterprise,theState,

andPoliticalEconomyintheUnitedStates,1850–1880”(PhDdiss.,UniversityofChicago,2002).

250

FigureA.16.Referencelist.ReprintedwithpermissionfromMonicaPrasad,“ThePoliticsofFreeMarkets:TheRiseofNeoliberal

EconomicPolicyinBritain,France,andtheUnitedStates”(PhDdiss.,UniversityofChicago,2000).

251

■Avoidworkingonthefileinmorethanonetypeofsoftwareoroperatingsystem.Conversionsalwaysinvolvesomeriskoferrors
andlostdata,evenwhenmovingbetweenstandardwordprocessors.
■Savethefileoftenduringeachwritingsession.
■Backupthefileinmorethanonelocationaftereachwritingsession.Inadditiontoyourlocalharddrive,saveittoanetworkor
file-hostingservice(ifavailable)ortoaremovablestoragemedium,suchasaflashdrive.
■Printoutthefileorconvertittotherequiredelectronicformatbeforeyoursubmissiondate.Lookitoverforanysoftwareglitches,
suchasspecialcharactersthatarenotsupportedbyyourprinter,whilethereistimetocorrectthem.Labeltheprintoutorname
thenewfile Draft andkeepitatleastuntilyousubmitthefinalversion.Inanemergency(suchasacomputermalfunctionora
seriousillness),youcanuseittoshowthatyoudidindeedproduceadraft.
Forconsiderationsrelatedtocitationmanagementsoftware,see15.6.
A.3.1.2TEXTCOMPONENTS.Presentallcomponentsofyourtextclearlyandconsistently.
■Formateachtextcomponentconsistently,includingregulartext,blockquotations,footnotes,andeachtypeoftitleandsubhead.
Themostefficientwaytoensureconsistencyistouseyourwordprocessortodefineandapplyauniquestyle(specifyingtypeface,
size,position,linespacing,andsoforth)foreachcomponent.
■Setyourwordprocessortoaligntextflushleftwitharaggedrightmarginunlessyourlocalguidelinesrecommendotherwise,and
donotuseitsautomatedhyphenationfeature(see20.4.1).
■Useyourwordprocessor smenuforspecialcharacters(alsocalledsymbols)toinsertletterswithaccentsandotherdiacritics,
charactersfromGreekandothernon-Latinalphabets,mathematicaloperators(butseebelow),paragraphorsectionmarks,and
thelike.Ifaparticularcharacterisnotavailable,youmayneedtoselectadifferenttypefaceforthatcharacter.
■Supplyinternalbookmarksandexternalhyperlinksasyourlocalguidelinesrecommend.
■Avoidcolorfonts.EvenifyousubmityourpaperasaPDForprintitonacolorprinter,itmaybeprintedorcopiedlateronablack-
and-whitemachine,andthecolormightnotreproducewell.
■Createequationsandformulaswiththeequationeditorinyourwordprocessor,ifpossible.Ifnot,createtheseitemsinthe
relevantprogramandinsertthemintoyourfileasimages(seeA.3.1.3).Leaveatleastoneblanklinebetweentheequationandthe
textbothaboveandbelow.
A.3.1.3TABLES.Useyoursoftwaretopresenttablesthatareclear,wellformatted,andeasilyreadable.Formoreinformation,see8.3.
■Createtableswiththetableeditorinyourwordprocessor,ifpossible.Ifnot,createtheminaspreadsheetprogramandinsertthem
intoyourfileasunlinked(embedded)tables.Formatthemtomatchthesurroundingtext.Seechapter26fordiscussionoftable
structure,format,andplacementintext.
■Putatablenumberandtitleonthelineaboveatable(see26.2.2).Runthetitlethefullwidthofthetable,anddonotindentany
runovers.
■Puttablefootnotes(ifany)underthebottomruleofatable,withablanklinebetweentheruleandthefirstnote,andalsobetween
notes.Footnotesmaybepresentedinasmallertypefacethanthetextofyourpaper;consultyourlocalguidelines.
■Leaveatleastoneblankline(andpreferablytwo)betweenthetabletitleandanytextaboveitonthepage,andalsobetweenthe
bottomrule(orlastfootnote)andanytextbelowit.
■Usecautioninemployingshadingorcolortoconveymeaning.EvenifyouprintthepaperonacolorprinterorsubmititasaPDF,
itmaybeprintedorcopiedlateronablack-and-whitemachine,andifitisadissertationitmaybemicrofilmed.Shadingandcolor
maynotreproducewellinanyoftheseforms.Ifyouuseshading,makesureitdoesnotobscurethetextofthetable,anddonot
usemultipleshades,whichmightnotreproducedistinctly.
■Repeatthestubcolumnandallcolumnheads(see26.2.4and26.2.5)oneverypageofamultipagetable.Omitthebottomruleon
allpagesexceptthelast.
■Remainwithinyourpaper sstandardmarginsforatablethattakesupanentirepageorisinlandscapeorientation(see26.1.2).Do
notputanyregulartextonapagecontainingalandscapetable.Setthetabletitleineitherlandscapeorportraitorientationand
includeapagenumber,butcheckyourlocalguidelinesforthenumber sorientation.
■Keepatablethatcannotbepresentedinprintform,suchasonecontainingalargedataset,asaseparatefile,andtreatitasan
appendixtoyourpaper(seeA.2.3.2).
A.3.1.4FIGURES.Takecarethatyourgraphicsareeasytoread,accurate,andtothepoint.Formoreinformation,see8.3.
■Createcharts,graphs,anddiagramswithyourwordprocessor,ifpossible.Ifnot,createthemintherelevantprogramandinsert
themintoyourfileasimages.Formatthemtomatchthesurroundingtext.Seechapter26fordiscussionoffiguretypes,format,
andplacementintext.
■Insertphotographs,maps,andothertypesoffiguresintoyourfileasimages.Iftheitemisavailabletoyouonlyinhardcopy,scan
andinsertitifpossible.
■Putafigurenumberandcaptiononthelinebelowafigure(see26.3.2).(Withexamplesfrommusicalscoresonly,puttheseitems
onthelineaboveafigure.)Runthecaptionthefullwidthofthefigure,anddonotindentanyrunovers.Ifthereisnotenough
roomforbothfigureandcaptionwithinthemarginsofapage,putthecaptionatthebottom(or,ifnecessary,thetop)ofthe
nearestprecedingtextpage.
■Leaveatleastoneblankline(andpreferablytwo)betweenthefigureandanytextaboveitonthepage,andalsobetweenthe
captionandanytextbelowit.
■Usecautioninemployingshadingorcolortoconveymeaning.EvenifyouprintthepaperonacolorprinterorsubmititasaPDF,
itmaybeprintedorcopiedlateronablack-and-whitemachine,andifitisadissertationitmaybemicrofilmed.Shadingandcolor
252

maynotreproducewellinanyoftheseforms.Ifyouuseshading,makesureitdoesnotobscureanytextinthefigure,anddonot

usemultipleshades,whichmightnotreproducedistinctly.

■Consultyourlocalguidelinesforanyrequirementsrelatedtoresolution,scaling,cropping,andotherparameters.

■Remainwithinyourpaper sstandardmarginsforafigurethattakesupanentirepageorisinlandscapeorientation(see26.1.2).

Donotputanyregulartextonapagecontainingalandscapefigure.Setthefigurecaptionineitherlandscapeorportrait

orientationandincludeapagenumber,butcheckyourlocalguidelinesforthenumber sorientation.

■Keepafigurethatcannotbepresentedinprintform,suchasamultimediafile,asaseparatefile,andtreatitasanappendixto

yourpaper(seeA.2.3.2).

A.3.2SubmittingElectronicFiles

Manydepartmentsanduniversitiesnowrequireelectronicsubmissionofathesisordissertationinadditiontoorinsteadofhard

copy(seeA.3.3).Instructorsmayalsorequestelectroniccopiesofclasspapers.Forclasspapers,consultyourinstructorregarding

acceptablefiletypes.

Therequirementsforthesesanddissertationsaremorestringent.Wellinadvanceofthedeadline,reviewthespecificguidelines

ofyourdepartmentoruniversityregardinganyformsorproceduresthatmustbecompletedbeforeyoucansubmityourpaper.If

possible,getanofficialtoreviewyourpaperforproperformatandotherrequirementsbeforeyousubmitthefinalcopy.

Mostdissertationsandsometheseswillbesubmittedtoanelectronicrepository.ManyuniversitiesworkwithProQuest

DissertationsandTheses,acommercialrepository;othersmaintaintheirown.Ineithercase,followyouruniversity sguidelinesfor

formattingyourpaperandcreatingtheelectronicfile.MostpaperswillneedtobesubmittedasasinglePDFdocument.Ifyour

paperincludessupplementalfilesthatcannotbeincludedinthePDF(seeA.2.3.2),followyouruniversity s(ortherepository s)

guidelinesforpreparingandsubmittingthem.Ataminimum,performthefollowingchecks:

■Testanyinternalbookmarksorexternalhyperlinksforaccuracy.

■EnsurethatallfontsusedinaPDFofyourpaperareembedded,orsavedinthefile,topreservetheappearanceofyourpaper.

■Verifyalldescriptivemetadataassociatedwitheachfileyouplantosubmit.

Oncethefulltextofyourpaperispublishedinanelectronicrepository,otherswillhaveaccesstoyourwork.Youmaybegiven

theoptiontopublish traditionally ortoprovidefree,openaccesstoyourworkonline.(Paperspublishedwithoutopenaccessare

typicallyavailableonlythroughacommercialdatabaseoralibrary.)Ifyouareconcernedaboutlimitingaccesstoyourpaperfora

specificperiod,youmaybeabletoapplyforanembargo;checkyourlocalguidelines.

Whicheverpublishingoptionyouselect,copyrightrestrictionsapply.Ifyouincludecopyrightedmaterialbeyondtheconventions

offairuse,youmustobtainwrittenpermissionfromthecopyrightholder,andyoumayberequiredtosubmitthatdocumentation

withyourpaper.Failuretoprovidesuchmaterialmaydelayacceptanceorpublicationofyourdissertation.Consultyourlocal

guidelinesandthoseofferedbytherepository.Formoreinformation,seechapter4inTheChicagoManualofStyle,16thed.(2010),

orthebooklet CopyrightLaw&GraduateResearch:NewMedia,NewRights,andYourDissertation byKennethD.Crews.

A.3.3SubmittingHardCopy

Evenifyousubmityourpaperelectronically(A.3.2),youmayalsobeaskedtosubmitoneormorehardcopiesofthefullpaperorof

specificpagesit.Insomecasesyoumaybeaskedtosubmitonlythehardcopy.Ifyouarewritingaclasspaper,submittingitmaybe

assimpleasprintingoutasinglecopyandhandingitintoyourinstructor.Oryoumayinsteadbeaskedtosubmitmultiplecopiesto

multipleindividuals(yourclassmates,orotherfacultymembers).Followinstructionsexactly,andalwayskeepbothahardcopyand

theelectronicfileforyourrecords.Allcopiesshouldexactlymatchtheoriginal.

Therequirementsforthesesanddissertationsaremorestringent,inpartbecausesuchpapersmaybepreservedinboundform

bytheuniversityorbyacommercialrepository.Wellinadvanceofthedeadline,reviewthespecificguidelinesofyourdepartmentor

universityregardingsuchmattersasthenumberofcopiesrequiredandanypaperworkorproceduresthatmustbecompletedbefore

youcansubmityourpaper.Ifpossible,getanofficialtoreviewyourpaperforproperformatbeforeyouproducethefinalcopies.

Followyouruniversity srecommendationsforpaperstock.Mostwillspecifyapaperthatis8 x11inches(inUSuniversities)

andsuitableforlong-termpreservationofthework.Iftheguidelinesdonotspecifythepaperstock,followtheAmericanLibrary

Association srecommendationfortwenty-poundweight,neutral-pH(acid-free)paperthatislabeledeither buffered orashavinga

minimum2percentalkalinereserve.Somebutnotallstockreferredtoas dissertationbond meetstheserequirements,sobesure

toexaminethepaperspecificationsbeforemakinganycopies.Unlessyourguidelinesspecifyotherwise,printyourpaperononlyone

sideofeachpage.

Mostuniversitiesareservedbyoneormorecopycenters,eitheronornearcampus,whosestaffisfamiliarwiththerequirements

forcopiesofthesesanddissertations.Althoughusingtheirservicesmaybemoreexpensivethanproducingthecopiesonyourown,

itreducestheriskthatyourpaperwillberejectedforincorrectpaperstockorcopyqualityproblems.

253

Bibliography
Thereisalargeliteratureonfindingandpresentinginformation,onlysomeofwhichcanbelistedhere.Foralargerandmore
currentselection,consulttheLibraryofCongresscatalogoranonlinebookseller.URLsareprovidedhereforsourcesthatare
availableonline(inadditiontoorinplaceoftraditionalprintformats).Othersourcesmayalsobeavailableonlineorinane-book
format;consultyourlibrary.Thislistisdividedasfollows:
InternetDatabases(BibliographiesandIndexes)
General
Humanities
SocialSciences
NaturalSciences
PrintandElectronicResources
General
VisualRepresentationofData(Tables,Figures,Posters,etc.)
Humanities
General
Art
History
LiteraryStudies
Music
Philosophy
SocialSciences
General
Anthropology
Business
Communication,Journalism,andMediaStudies
Economics
Education
Geography
Law
PoliticalScience
Psychology
Religion
Sociology
WomenʼsStudies
NaturalSciences
General
Biology
Chemistry
ComputerSciences
GeologyandEarthSciences
Mathematics
Physics
Formostofthoseareas,sixkindsofresourcesarelisted:
1.specializeddictionariesthatoffershortessaysdefiningconceptsinafield
2.generalandspecializedencyclopediasthatoffermoreextensiveoverviewsofatopic
3.guidestofindingresourcesindifferentfieldsandusingtheirmethodologies
4.bibliographies,abstracts,andindexesthatlistpastandcurrentpublicationsindifferentfields
5.writingmanualsfordifferentfields
6.stylemanualsthatdescriberequiredfeaturesofcitationsindifferentfields
InternetDatabases(BibliographiesandIndexes)
General
AcademicOneFile.FarmingtonHills,MI:GaleCengageLearning,2006 .http://www.gale.cengage.com/.
ArticleFirst.Dublin,OH:OCLC,1990 .http://www.oclc.org/.
BooklistOnline.Chicago:AmericanLibraryAssociation.2006 .http://www.booklistonline.com/.
254

ClasePeriodica.MexicoCity:UNAM,2003 .http://www.oclc.org/.

ERIC.EducationalResourcesInformationCenter.Washington,DC:USDepartmentofEducation,InstituteofEducation

Sciences,2004 .http://www.eric.ed.gov/.

EssayandGeneralLiteratureIndex(H.W.Wilson).Ipswich,MA:EBSCO,2000s .http://www.ebscohost.com/wilson/.

FRANCIS.Vandoeuvre-l s-Nancy,France:Institutdel lnformationScientifiqueetTechniqueduCNRS;Dublin,OH:OCLC,

1984 .http://www.oclc.org/.

GeneralOneFile.FarmingtonHills,MI:GaleCengageLearning,2006 .http://www.gale.cengage.com/ISIWebofKnowledge.

Philadelphia:InstituteforScientificInformation,1990s .http://wokinfo.com/.

LexisNexisAcademic.Dayton,OH:LexisNexis,1984 .http://www.lexisnexis.com/

LibraryLiteratureandInformationScienceFullText(H.W.Wilson).Ipswich,MA:EBSCO,1999 .

http://www.ebscohost.com/wilson/.

LibraryofCongressOnlineCatalog.Washington,DC:LibraryofCongress.http://catalog.loc.gov/.

OmnifileFullTextSelect(H.W.Wilson).Ipswich,MA:EBSCO,1990 .http://www.ebscohost.com/wilson/.

PeriodicalsIndexOnline.ProQuestInformationandLearning,1990 .http://pio.chadwyck.co.uk/.

ProQuestDissertationsandTheses.AnnArbor,MI:ProQuestInformationandLearning,2004 .http://www.proquest.com/.

ProQuestResearchLibrary.AnnArbor,MI:ProQuestInformationandLearning,1998 .http://www.proquest.com/.

ReferenceReviews.Bradford,UK:MCBUniversityPress,1997 .http://wwwemeraldinsight.com/joumals.htm?issn=0950-4125.

WebofKnowledge.Philadelphia:ThomsonReuters,2000 .http://wokinfo.com/.

WorldCat.Dublin,OH:OnlineComputerLibraryCenter.http://www.oclc.org/worldcat/.

Humanities

ArtsandHumanitiesCitationIndex.Philadelphia:InstituteforScientificInformation,1990s .http://wokinfo.com/.

HumanitiesFullText(H.W.Wilson).Ipswich,MA:EBSCO,2011 .http://www.ebscohost.com/wilson/.

HumanitiesInternationalIndex.Albany,NY:Whitston;Ipswich,MA:EBSCO,2005 .http://www.ebscohost.com/academic/.

U.S.HistoryinContext.FarmingtonHills,MI:GaleGroup,2000s .http://www.gale.cengage.com/.

SocialSciences

AnthropologicalLiterature.Cambridge,MA:TozzerLibrary,HarvardUniversity,1984 .

http://hcl.harvard.edu/libraries/tozzer/anthrolit/anthrolit.cfm.

APAPsycNET.Washington,DC:AmericanPsychologicalAssociation,1990s .http://www.apa.org/pubs/databases/psycnet/.

PAISInternationalwithArchive.PublicAffairsInformationService;CSAIllumina.Bethesda,MD:CSA,1915 .

http://www.csa.com/.

PoliticalScience.ResearchGuide.AnnArbor:UniversityofMichigan.http://guides.lib.umich.edu/polisci/.

SocialSciencesAbstracts(H.W.Wilson).Ipswich,MA:EBSCO,1990s .http://www.ebscohost.com/wilson/.

SocialSciencesCitationIndex.Philadelphia:InstituteforScientificInformation,1990s .http://wokinfo.com/.

SociologicalAbstracts.SociologicalAbstracts;CambridgeScientificAbstracts.Bethesda,MD:ProQuestCSA,1990s .

http://www.csa.com/.

NaturalSciences

AppliedScienceandTechnologyAbstracts(H.W.Wilson).Ipswich,MA:EBSCO,1990s .http://www.ebscohost.com/wilson/.

NALCatalog(AGRICOLA).Washington,DC:NationalAgriculturalLibrary,1970 .http://agricola.nal.usda.gov/.

ScienceCitationIndex.Philadelphia:InstituteforScientificInformation,1990s .http://wokinfo.com/.

PrintandElectronicResources

General

1.AmericanNationalBiography.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2000 .http://www.anb.org/

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5.Barnet,Sylvan.AShortGuidetoWritingaboutArt.10thed.UpperSaddleRiver,NJ:PrenticeHall,2010.

History

1.Cook,Chris.ADictionaryofHistoricalTerms.3rded.Houndmills,UK:Macmillan,1998.

1.Ritter,Harry.DictionaryofConceptsinHistory.Westport,CT:GreenwoodPress,1986.

2.Bjork,RobertE.,ed.TheOxfordDictionaryoftheMiddleAges.4vols.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2010.

2.Breisach,Ernst.Historiography:Ancient,Medieval,andModern.3rded.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2007.

2.TheCambridgeAncientHistory.14vols.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1970 2000.Alsoat

http://histories.cambridge.org/.

3.Benjamin,JulesR.AStudent sGuidetoHistory.10thed.Boston:Bedford/St.Martin s,2006.

3.Brundage,Anthony.GoingtotheSources:AGuidetoHistoricalResearchandWriting.4thed.Wheeling,IL:HarlanDavidson,

2007.

3.Frick,Elizabeth.History:IllustratedSearchStrategyandSources.2nded.AnnArbor,MI:PierianPress,1995.

3.Fritze,RonaldH.,BrianE.Coutts,andLouisAndrewVyhnanek.ReferenceSourcesinHistory:AnIntroductoryGuide.2nded.

SantaBarbara,CA:ABC-Clio,2004.

3.Higginbotham,EvelynBrooks,LeonF.Litwack,andDarleneClarkHine,eds.TheHarvardGuidetoAfrican-AmericanHistory.

Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,2001.

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3.Kyvig,DavidE.,andMyronA.Marty.NearbyHistory:ExploringthePastaroundYou.3rded.WalnutCreek,CA:AltaMiraPress,

2010.

3.Prucha,FrancisPaul.HandbookforResearchinAmericanHistory:AGuidetoBibliographiesandOtherReferenceWorks.2nd

ed.Lincoln:UniversityofNebraskaPress,1994.

4.America:HistoryandLife.Ipswich,MA:EBSCO,1990s .http://www.ebscohost.com/academic/.

4.Blazek,Ron,andAnnaH.Perrault.UnitedStatesHistory:AMulticultural,InterdisciplinaryGuidetoInformationSources.2nd

ed.Westport,CT:LibrariesUnlimited,2003.

4.Danky,JamesPhilip,andMaureenE.Hady.African-AmericanNewspapersandPeriodicals:ANationalBibliography.Cambridge,

MA:HarvardUniversityPress,1998.

4.HistoricalAbstracts.Ipswich,MA:EBSCO,1990s .http://www.ebscohost.com/academic/.

4.Kinnell,SusanK.,ed.Historiography:AnAnnotatedBibliographyofJournalArticles,Books,andDissertations.2vols.Santa

Barbara,CA:ABC-Clio,1987.

4.Mott,FrankLuther.AHistoryofAmericanMagazines.5vols.Cambridge,MA:BelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress,1930

68.

5.Barzun,Jacques,andHenryF.Graff.TheModernResearcher.6thed.Belmont,CA:Thomson/Wadsworth,2004.

5.Marius,Richard,andMelvinE.Page.AShortGuidetoWritingaboutHistory.5thed.NewYork:PearsonLongman,2005.

LiteraryStudies

1.Abrams,M.H.,andGeoffreyGaltHarpham.AGlossaryofLiteraryTerms.10thed.Boston:WadsworthCengageLearning,2012.

1.Baldick,Chris,ed.TheConciseOxfordDictionaryofLiteraryTerms.2nded.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2001.

1.Brogan,TerryV.F.,ed.TheNewPrincetonHandbookofPoeticTerms.Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,1994.

1.Groden,Michael,MartinKreiswirth,andImreSzeman,eds.TheJohnsHopkinsGuidetoLiteraryTheoryandCriticism.2nded.

Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,2005.Alsoathttp://litguide.press.jhu.edu/.

1.Preminger,Alex,andTerryV.F.,Brogan,eds.TheNewPrincetonEncyclopediaofPoetryandPoetics.Princeton,NJ:Princeton

UniversityPress,1993.

2.Birch,Dinah,ed.TheOxfordCompaniontoEnglishLiterature.7thed.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2009.Alsoat

http://www.oxfordreference.com/.

2.Hart,JamesD.,andPhillipW.Leininger,eds.TheOxfordCompaniontoAmericanLiterature.6thed.NewYork:Oxford

UniversityPress,1995.Alsoathttp://www.oxfordreference.com/.

2.Lentricchia,Frank,andThomasMcLaughlin,eds.CriticalTermsforLiteraryStudy.2nded.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,

1995.

2.Parini,Jay,ed.TheOxfordEncyclopediaofAmericanLiterature.4vols.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2004.Alsoat

http://www.oxford-americanliterature.com/.

2.Ward,SirAdolphusWilliam,A.R.Waller,WilliamPeterfieldTrent,JohnErskine,StuartPrattSherman,andCarlVanDoren.

TheCambridgeHistoryofEnglishandAmericanLiterature:AnEncyclopediainEighteenVolumes.NewYork:G.P.Putnam s

Sons,1907 21.Alsoathttp://www.bartleby.com/cambridge/.

3.Altick,RichardDaniel,andJohnJ.Fenstermaker.TheArtofLiteraryResearch.4thed.NewYork:W.W.Norton,1993.

3.Harner,JamesL.LiteraryResearchGuide:AnAnnotatedListingofReferenceSourcesinEnglishLiteraryStudies.5thed.New

York:ModernLanguageAssociationofAmerica,2008.

3.Klarer,Mario.AnIntroductiontoLiteraryStudies.2nded.London:Routledge,2004.

3.Vitale,PhilipH.BasicToolsofResearch:AnAnnotatedGuideforStudentsofEnglish.3rded.,rev.andenl.NewYork:Barron s

EducationalSeries,1975.

4.AbstractsofEnglishStudies.Boulder,CO:NationalCouncilofTeachersofEnglish,1958 91.Alsoat

http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000521812.

4.Blanck,Jacob,VirginiaL.Smyers,andMichaelWinship.BibliographyofAmericanLiterature.9vols.NewHaven,CT:Yale

UniversityPress,1955 91.Alsoathttp://collections.chadwyck.co.uk/.

4.IndexofAmericanPeriodicalVerse.Metuchen,NJ:ScarecrowPress,1971 2006.

4.MLAInternationalBibliography.NewYork:ModernLanguageAssociationofAmerica.http://www.mla.org/bibliography.

5.Barnet,Sylvan,andWilliamE.Cain.AShortGuidetoWritingaboutLiterature.12thed.NewYork:Longman/Pearson,2011.

5.Griffith,Kelley.WritingEssaysaboutLiterature:AGuideandStyleSheet.8thed.Boston:WadsworthCengageLearning,2011.

6.Gibaldi,Joseph.MLAHandbookforWritersofResearchPapers.7thed.NewYork:ModernLanguageAssociationofAmerica,

2009.

Music

1.OxfordMusicOnline.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2001 .IncludesGroveMusicOnline.

http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/.

1.Randel,DonMichael,ed.TheHarvardDictionaryofMusic.4thed.Cambridge,MA:BelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress,

2003.

1.Sadie,Stanley,andJohnTyrrell,eds.TheNewGroveDictionaryofMusicandMusicians.2nded.29vols.NewYork:Grove,2001.

Alsoathttp://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/(aspartofGroveMusicOnline).

2.Netti,Bruno,RuthM.Stone,JamesPorter,andTimothyRice,eds.TheGarlandEncyclopediaofWorldMusic.10vols.NewYork:

Garland,1998 2002.Alsoathttp://alexanderstreet.com/.

3.Brockman,WilliamS.Music:AGuidetotheReferenceLiterature.Littleton,CO:LibrariesUnlimited,1987.

3.Duckles,VincentH.,IdaReed,andMichaelA.Keller,eds.MusicReferenceandResearchMaterials:AnAnnotatedBibliography.

5thed.NewYork:SchirmerBooks,1997.

4.TheMusicIndex.Ipswich,MA:EBSCO,2000s .http://www.ebscohost.com/academic/.

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4.RILMAbstractsofMusicLiterature.NewYork:RILM,1967 .Alsoathttp://www.ebscohost.com/academic/.

5.Druesedow,JohnE.,Jr.LibraryResearchGuidetoMusic:IllustratedSearchStrategyandSources.AnnArbor,MI:PierianPress,

1982.

5.Herbert,Trevor.MusicinWords:AGuidetoResearchingandWritingaboutMusic.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2009.

5.Wingell,Richard.WritingaboutMusic:AnIntroductoryGuide.4thed.UpperSaddleRiver,NJ:PearsonPrenticeHall,2009.

6.Bellman,Jonathan.AShortGuidetoWritingaboutMusic.2nded.NewYork:PearsonLongman,2006.

6.Holoman,D.Kern.WritingaboutMusic:AStyleSheet.2nded.Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2008.

Philosophy

1.Blackburn,Simon.TheOxfordDictionaryofPhilosophy.2nded.rev.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2008.Alsoat

http://www.oxfordreference.com/.

1.Hornblower,Simon,andAntonySpawforth,eds.TheOxfordClassicalDictionary.3rded.rev.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,

2003.Alsoathttp://www.oxford-classicaldictionary3.com/.

1.Wellington,JeanSusorney.DictionaryofBibliographicAbbreviationsFoundintheScholarshipofClassicalStudiesandRelated

Disciplines.Rev.ed.Westport,CT:Praeger,2003.

2.Craig,Edward,ed.RoutledgeEncyclopediaofPhilosophy.10vols.NewYork:Routledge,1998.Alsoat

http://www.rep.routledge.com/.

2.Edwards,Paul.TheEncyclopediaofPhilosophy.8vols.NewYork:SimonandSchusterMacmillan,1996.

2.Parkinson,GeorgeH.R.TheHandbookofWesternPhilosophy.NewYork:Macmillan,1988.

2.Schrift,AlanD.TheHistoryofContinentalPhilosophy.8vols.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2011.

2.Urmson,J.0.,andJonathanR e,eds.TheConciseEncyclopediaofWesternPhilosophyandPhilosophers.3rded.London:

Routledge,2005.

2.Zalta,EdwardN.StanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy.Stanford,CA:StanfordUniversity,1997 .http://plato.stanford.edu/.

3.List,CharlesJ.,andStephenH.Plum.LibraryResearchGuidetoPhilosophy.AnnArbor,MI:PierianPress,1990.

4.L ann ephilologique.Paris:BellesLettres,1928 .Alsoathttp://www.annee-philologique.com/.

4.Bourget,David,andDavidChalmers,eds.PhilPapers.London:InstituteofPhilosophyattheUniversityofLondon,2008 .

http://philpapers.org/.

4.ThePhilosopher sIndex.BowlingGreen,OH:Philosopher sInformationCenter,1968 .Alsoathttp://philindex.org/.

5.Martinich,A.P.PhilosophicalWriting:AnIntroduction.3rded.Maiden,MA:BlackwellPublishers,2005.

5.Watson,RichardA.WritingPhilosophy:AGuidetoProfessionalWritingandPublishing.Carbondale:SouthernIllinois

UniversityPress,1992.

SocialSciences

General

1.Calhoun,Craig,ed.DictionaryoftheSocialSciences.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2002.Alsoat

http://www.oxfordreference.com/.

1.StatisticalAbstractoftheUnitedStates.Washington,DC:USCensusBureau,1878 .Alsoat

http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/.

2.Darity,William,ed.InternationalEncyclopediaoftheSocialSciences.2nded.9vols.NewYork:Macmillan,2008.

3.Herron,NancyL.,ed.TheSocialSciences:ACross-DisciplinaryGuidetoSelectedSources.3rded.Englewood,CO:Libraries

Unlimited,2002.

3.Light,RichardJ.,andDavidB.Pillemer.SummingUp:TheScienceofReviewingResearch.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversity

Press,1984.

3. yen,Else,ed.ComparativeMethodology:TheoryandPracticeinInternationalSocialResearch.London:Sage,1990.

4.BibliographyofSocialScienceResearchandWritingsonAmericanIndians.CompiledbyRussellThorntonandMaryK.

Grasmick.Minneapolis:CenterforUrbanandRegionalAffairs,UniversityofMinnesota,1979.

4.BookReviewIndextoSocialSciencePeriodicals.4vols.AnnArbor,MI:PierianPress,1978 81.

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4.C.R.I.S.:TheCombinedRetrospectiveIndexSettoJournalsinSociology,1895 1974.CompiledbyAnnadelN.WileandArnold

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1.Winthrop,RobertH.DictionaryofConceptsinCulturalAnthropology.NewYork:GreenwoodPress,1991.

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Business

1.Friedman,JackP.DictionaryofBusinessTerms.4thed.Hauppauge,NY:Barron sEducationalSeries,2007.

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Communication,Journalism,andMediaStudies

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Economics

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Education

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3.Bausell,R.Barker.AdvancedResearchMethodology:AnAnnotatedGuidetoSources.Metuchen,NJ:ScarecrowPress,1991.

3.Keeves,JohnP.,ed.EducationalResearch,Methodology,andMeasurement:AnInternationalHandbook.2nded.NewYork:

Pergamon,1997.

3.Tuckman,BruceW.,andBrianE.Harper.ConductingEducationalResearch.6thed.Lanham,MD:RowmanandLittlefield,2012.

4.EducationIndex.NewYork:H.W.Wilson,1929 .Alsoathttp://www.ebscohost.com/wilson/(asEducationIndexRetrospective

andEducationAbstracts).

4.ERICDatabase.Lanham,MD:EducationalResourcesInformationCenter,2004 .http://www.eric.ed.gov/.

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4.O Brien,NancyP.Education:AGuidetoReferenceandInformationSources.2nded.Englewood,CO:LibrariesUnlimited,2000.

5.Carver,RonaldP.WritingaPublishableResearchReport:InEducation,Psychology,andRelatedDisciplines.Springfield,IL:C.

C.Thomas,1984.

Geography

1.Witherick,M.E.,SimonRoss,andJohnSmall.AModernDictionaryofGeography.4thed.London:Arnold,2001.

1.TheWorldFactbook.Washington,DC:CentralIntelligenceAgency,1990s .https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-

factbook/.

2.Dunbar,GaryS.ModernGeography:AnEncyclopedicSurvey.NewYork:Garland,1991.

2.McCoy,John,ed.Geo-Data:TheWorldGeographicalEncyclopedia.3rded.Detroit:Thomson/Gale,2003.Alsoat

http://www.gale.cengage.com/.

2.Parker,SybilP.,ed.WorldGeographicalEncyclopedia.5vols.NewYork:McGraw-Hill,1995.

3.HistoricalGISClearinghouseandForum.Washington,DC:AssociationofAmericanGeographers.http://www.aag.org/.

3.Walford,Nigel.GeographicalData:CharacteristicsandSources.NewYork:JohnWileyandSons,1995.

4.Conzen,MichaelP.,ThomasA.Rumney,andGraemeWynn.AScholar sGuidetoGeographicalWritingontheAmericanand

CanadianPast.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1993.

4.CurrentGeographicalPublications.NewYork:AmericanGeographicalSocietyofNewYork,1938 .Alsoat

http://www4.uwm.edu/libraries/AGSL/.

4.GeographicalAbstracts.Norwich,UK:GeoAbstracts,1966 .

4.Okuno,Takashi.AWorldBibliographyofGeographicalBibliographies.Japan:InstituteofGeoscience,UniversityofTsukuba,

1992.

5.Durrenberger,RobertW.,JohnK.Wright,andElizabethT.Platt.GeographicalResearchandWriting.NewYork:Crowell,1985.

5.Northey,Margot,DavidB.Knight,andDianneDraper.MakingSense:AStudent sGuidetoResearchandWriting;Geography

andEnvironmentalSciences.5thed.DonMills,ON:OxfordUniversityPress,2012.

Law

1.Garner,BryanA.,ed.Black sLawDictionary.9thed.St.Paul,MN:Thomson/West,2009.

1.Law,Jonathan,andElizabethA.Martin,eds.ADictionaryofLaw.7thed.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2009.

1.Richards,P.H.,andL.B.Curzon.TheLongmanDictionaryofLaw.8thed.NewYork:PearsonLongman,2011.

2.Baker,BrianL.,andPatrickJ.Petit,eds.EncyclopediaofLegalInformationSources.2nded.Detroit:GaleResearch,1993.

2.CorpusJurisSecundum.Brooklyn,NY:AmericanLawBook;St.Paul,MN:West,1936 .

2.GaleEncyclopediaofAmericanLaw.3rded.14vols.Detroit:GaleCengageLearning,2011.Alsoat

http://www.gale.cengage.com/.

2.Hall,Kermit,andDavidScottClark,eds.TheOxfordCompaniontoAmericanLaw.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2002.

Alsoathttp://www.oxfordreference.com/.

3.Campbell,EnidMona,LeePoh-York,andJoyceyG.Tooher.LegalResearch:MaterialsandMethods.4thed.NorthRyde,

Australia:LBCInformationServices,1996.

3.OnlineLegalResearch:BeyondLexisNexisandWestlaw.LosAngeles:UniversityofCalifornia.

http://libguides.law.ucla.edu/onlinelegalresearch.

4.CurrentIndextoLegalPeriodicals.Seattle:UniversityofWashingtonLawLibrary,1948 .Alsoat

http://lib.law.washington.edu/cilp/cilp.html.

4.CurrentLawIndex.LosAltos,CA:InformationAccess;FarmingtonHills,MI:GaleCengageLearning,1980 .

4.IndextoLegalPeriodicalsandBooks.NewYork:H.W.Wilson,1924 .Alsoathttp://www.ebscohost.com/wilson/.

5.Bast,CarolM.,andMargieHawkins.FoundationsofLegalResearchandWriting.4thed.CliftonPark,NY:DelmarCengage

Learning,2010.

5.Garner,BryanA.TheElementsofLegalStyle.2nded.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2002.

6.TheBluebook:AUniformSystemofCitation.19thed.Cambridge,MA:HarvardLawReviewAssociation,2010.Alsoat

https://www.legalbluebook.com/.

PoliticalScience

1.Robertson,David.ADictionaryofModernPolitics.4thed.London:Europa,2005.

2.TheAlmanacofAmericanPolitics.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1972 .Alsoathttp://nationaljournal.com/almanac.

2.Hawkesworth,MaryE.,andMauriceKogan,eds.EncyclopediaofGovernmentandPolitics.2nded.2vols.London:Routledge,

2004.

2.Lal,Shiv,ed.InternationalEncyclopediaofPoliticsandLaws.17vols.NewDelhi:ElectionArchives,1987.

2.Miller,David,ed.TheBlackwellEncyclopaediaofPoliticalThought.Oxford:Blackwell,1991.

3.Green,StephenW.,andDouglasJ.Ernest,eds.InformationSourcesofPoliticalScience.5thed.SantaBarbara,CA:ABC-Clio,

2005.

3.Johnson,JanetButtolph,andH.T.Reynolds.PoliticalScienceResearchMethods.7thed.LosAngeles:CongressionalQuarterly

Press,2012.

4.ABCPolSci.SantaBarbara,CA:ABC-Clio,1969 2000.

4.Hardy,GayleJ.,andJudithSchiekRobinson.SubjectGuidetoU.S.GovernmentReferenceSources.2nded.Englewood,CO:

LibrariesUnlimited,1996.

4.PAISInternationalJournalsIndexed.NewYork:PublicAffairsInformationService,1972 .Alsoathttp://www.csa.com/.

4.UnitedStatesPoliticalScienceDocuments.Pittsburgh:UniversityofPittsburgh,UniversityCenterforInternationalStudies,

1975 91.

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4.WorldwidePoliticalScienceAbstracts.Bethesda,MD:CambridgeScientificAbstracts,1976 .Alsoathttp://www.csa.com/.

5.Biddle,ArthurW.,KennethM.Holland,andTobyFulwiler.Writer sGuide:PoliticalScience.Lexington,MA:D.C.Heath,1987.

5.Lovell,DavidW.,andRhondaMoore.EssayWritingandStyleGuideforPoliticsandtheSocialSciences.Sydney:Australasian

PoliticalStudiesAssociation,1992.

5.Schmidt,DianeE.WritinginPoliticalScience:APracticalGuide.4thed.Boston:Longman,2010.

5.Scott,GregoryM.,andStephenM.Garrison.ThePoliticalScienceStudentWriter sManual.7thed.Boston:Pearson,2012.

6.AmericanPoliticalScienceAssociation.APSAStyleManual/orPoliticalScience.Rev.Washington,DC:AmericanPoliticalScience

Association,2006.http://www.ipsonet.org/data/files/APSAStyleManual2006.pdf.

Psychology

1.Colman,AndrewM.OxfordDictionaryofPsychology.3rded.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2009.Alsoat

http://www.oxfordreference.com/.

1.Eysenck,MichaelW.,ed.TheBlackwellDictionaryofCognitivePsychology.Oxford:Blackwell,1997.

1.Hayes,Nicky,andPeterStratton.AStudent sDictionaryofPsychology.4thed.London:Arnold,2003.

1.Wolman,BenjaminB.,ed.DictionaryofBehavioralScience.2nded.SanDiego,CA:Academic,1989.

2.Colman,AndrewM.,ed.CompanionEncyclopediaofPsychology.2vols.London:Routledge,1997.

2.Craighead,W.Edward,CharlesB.Nemeroff,andRaymondJ.Corsini,eds.TheCorsiniEncyclopediaofPsychologyand

BehavioralScience.4thed.4vols.NewYork:JohnWileyandSons,2010.

2.Kazdin,AlanE.,ed.EncyclopediaofPsychology.8vols.Washington,DC:AmericanPsychologicalAssociation;Oxford:Oxford

UniversityPress,2000.

2.Weiner,IrvingB.,andW.EdwardCraighead,eds.TheCorsiniEncyclopediaofPsychology.4thed.4vols.Hoboken,NJ:Wiley,

2010.

3.Breakwell,GlynisM.,SeanHammond,ChrisFife-Schaw,andJonathanA.Smith.ResearchMethodsinPsychology.3rded.

London:Sage,2006.

3.Elmes,DavidG.,BarryH.Kantowitz,andHenryL.RoedigerIII.ResearchMethodsinPsychology.9thed.Belmont,CA:

WadsworthCengageLearning,2012.

3.Reed,JeffreyG.,andPamM.Baxter.LibraryUse:AHandbookforPsychology.3rded.Washington,DC:AmericanPsychological

Association,2003.

3.Shaughnessy,JohnJ.,EugeneB.Zechmeister,andJeanneS.Zechmeister.ResearchMethodsinPsychology.7thed.Boston:

McGraw-Hill,2005.

3.Wilson,Christopher.ResearchMethodsinPsychology:AnIntroductoryLaboratoryManual.Dubuque,IA:Kendall-Hunt,1990.

4.AnnualReviewofPsychology.PaloAlto,CA:AnnualReviews,1950 .Alsoathttp://arjournals.annualreviews.org/journal/psych.

4.APAPsycNET.Washington,DC:AmericanPsychologicalAssociation,1990s .http://www.apa.org/pubs/databases/psycnet/.

4.NASPSPAAbstracts.Champaign,IL:HumanKineticsPublishers,1990s .Alsoathttp://journals.humankinetics.com/.

4.PubMed.Bethesda,MD:USNationalLibraryofMedicine.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/.

4.ScienceCitationIndex.Philadelphia:InstituteforScientificInformation,1961 .Alsoathttp://wokinfo.com/.

5.Solomon,PaulR.AStudent sGuidetoResearchReportWritinginPsychology.Glenview,IL:ScottForesman,1985.

5.Sternberg,RobertJ.,andKarinSternberg.ThePsychologist sCompanion:AGuidetoWritingScientificPapersforStudentsand

Researchers.5thed.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2010.

6.PublicationManualoftheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation.6thed.Washington,DC:AmericanPsychologicalAssociation,

2010.

Religion

1.Bowker,John,ed.TheConciseOxfordDictionaryofWorldReligions.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2005.Alsoat

http://www.oxfordreference.com/.

1.Pye,Michael,ed.ContinuumDictionaryofReligion.NewYork:Continuum,1994.

2.Freedman,DavidNoel,ed.TheAnchorYaleBibleDictionary.6vols.NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,2008.

2.Jones,Lindsay,ed.EncyclopediaofReligion.2nded.15vols.Detroit:MacmillanReferenceUSA,2005.

2.Martin,RichardC.,ed.EncyclopediaofIslamandtheMuslimWorld.2vols.NewYork:MacmillanReferenceUSA,2003.

2.RoutledgeEncyclopediasofReligionandSociety(series).NewYork:Routledge.

2.Skolnik,Fred,andMichaelBerenbaum,eds.EncyclopaediaJudaica.2nded.22vols.Detroit:MacmillanReferenceUSA,2007.

3.Kennedy,JamesR.,Jr.LibraryResearchGuidetoReligionandTheology:IllustratedSearchStrategyandSources.2nded.,rev.

AnnArbor,MI:Pierian,1984.

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Philosophy,1995.

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Sociology

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WomenʼsStudies

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NaturalSciences

General

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Biology

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Chemistry

1.Hawley,GessnerGoodrich,andRichardJ.LewisSr.Hawley sCondensedChemicalDictionary.15thed.NewYork:Wiley,2007.

2.Haynes,WilliamM.,ed.CRCHandbookofChemistryandPhysics.92nded.BocaRaton,FL:CRCPress,2011.

2.Kirk-OthmerEncyclopediaofChemicalTechnology.5thed.2vols.Hoboken,NJ:Wiley-Interscience,2007.Alsoat

http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/0471238961.

2.Meyers,RobertA.,ed.EncyclopediaofPhysicalScienceandTechnology.3rded.18vols.SanDiego,CA:Academic,2002.Alsoat

265

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/referenceworks/9780122274107.

3.Leslie,Davies.EfficiencyinResearch,Development,andProduction:TheStatisticalDesignandAnalysisofChemical

Experiments.Cambridge:RoyalSocietyofChemistry,1993.

3.Wiggins,Gary.ChemicalInformationSources.NewYork:McGraw-Hill,1991.

4.ACSPublications.Columbus,OH:AmericanChemicalSociety.http://pubs.acs.org/.

4.CrossFireBeilstein.SanLeandro,CA:MDLInformationSystems,1996 .Alsoathttps://www.reaxys.com/.

4.ChemicalAbstracts.Columbus,OH:AmericanChemicalSociety,1907 .AISOathttp://www.cas.org/.

4.CompositeIndexforCRCHandbooks.3rded.3vols.BocaRaton,FL:CRCPress,1991.

4.ScienceDirect.NewYork:ElsevierScience,1999 .http://www.sciencedirect.com/.

5.Davis,HollyB.,JulianF.Tyson,andJanA.Pechenik.AShortGuidetoWritingaboutChemistry.Boston:Longman,2010.

5.Ebel,HansFriedrich,ClausBliefert,andWilliamE.Russey.TheArtofScientificWriting:FromStudentReportstoProfessional

PublicationsinChemistryandRelatedFields.2nded.Weinheim,Germany:Wiley-VCH,2004.

5.Schoenfeld,Robert.TheChemist sEnglish,with SayItinEnglish,Please! 3rdrev.ed.NewYork:Wiley-VCH,2001.

6.Dodd,JanetS.,ed.TheACSStyleGuide:EffectiveCommunicationofScientificInformation.3rded.Washington,DC:American

ChemicalSociety,2006.

ComputerSciences

1.Gattiker,UrsE.TheInformationSecurityDictionary:DefiningtheTermsThatDefineSecurityforE-Business,Internet,

Information,andWirelessTechnology.Boston:KluwerAcademic,2004.

1.LaPlante,PhillipA.DictionaryofComputerScience,Engineering,andTechnology.BocaRaton,FL:CRCPress,2001.

1.Pfaffenberger,Bryan.Webster sNewWorldComputerDictionary.10thed.Indianapolis,IN:Wiley,2003.

1.RandomHouseConciseDictionaryofScienceandComputers.NewYork:RandomHouseReference,2004.

1.South,DavidW.TheComputerandInformationScienceandTechnologyAbbreviationsandAcronymsDictionary.BocaRaton,

FL:CRCPress,1994.

2.Henderson,Harry.EncyclopediaofComputerScienceandTechnology.Rev.ed.NewYork:FactsonFile,2009.

2.Narins,Brigham,ed.WorldofComputerScience.2vols.Detroit:GaleGroup/ThomsonLearning,2002.

2.Wah,BenjaminW.,ed.WileyEncyclopediaofComputerScienceandEngineering.5vols.Hoboken,NJ:Wiley,2009.

3.Ardis,SusanB.,andJeanA.Poland.AGuidetotheLiteratureofElectricalandElectronicsEngineering.Littleton,CO:Libraries

Unlimited,1987.

4.DirectoryofLibraryAutomationSoftware,Systems,andServices.Medford,NJ:LearnedInformation,1993 2007.

5.Eckstein,C.J.StyleManualforUseinComputer-BasedInstruction.BrooksAirForceBase,TX:AirForceHumanResources

Laboratory,AirForceSystemsCommand,1990.Alsoathttp://dodreports.com/ada226959.

GeologyandEarthSciences

1.McGraw-HillDictionaryofGeologyandMineralogy.2nded.NewYork:McGraw-Hill,2003.

1.Neuendorf,Klaus,JamesP.MehlJr.,andJuliaA.Jackson,eds.GlossaryofGeology.5thed.rev.Alexandria,VA:American

GeologicalInstitute,2011.

1.Smith,Jacqueline,ed.TheFactsonFileDictionaryofEarthScience.Rev.ed.NewYork:FactsonFile,2006.

2.Bishop,ArthurC.,AlanR.Woolley,andWilliamR.Hamilton.CambridgeGuidetoMinerals,Rocks,andFossils.Rev.ed.

Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2001.

2.Bowes,DonaldR.,ed.TheEncyclopediaofIgneousandMetamorphicPetrology.NewYork:VanNostrandReinhold,1989.

2.Dasch,E.Julius,ed.MacmillanEncyclopediaofEarthSciences.2vols.NewYork:MacmillanReferenceUSA,1996.

2.Good,GregoryA.,ed.SciencesoftheEarth:AnEncyclopediaofEvents,People,andPhenomena.2vols.NewYork:Garland,

1998.

2.Hancock,PaulL.,andBrianJ.Skinner,eds.TheOxfordCompaniontotheEarth.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2000.Alsoat

http://www.oxfordreference.com/.

2.Nierenberg,WilliamA.,ed.EncyclopediaofEarthSystemScience.4vols.SanDiego,CA:AcademicPress,1992.

2.Selley,RichardC,L.R.M.Cocks,andI.R.Plimer,eds.EncyclopediaofGeology.5vols.Amsterdam:ElsevierAcademic,2005.

2.Seyfert,CarlK.,ed.TheEncyclopediaofStructuralGeologyandPlateTectonics.NewYork:VanNostrandReinhold,1987.

2.Singer,Ronald,ed.EncyclopediaofPaleontology.2vols.Chicago:FitzroyDearborn,1999.

2.Steele,JohnH.,S.A.Thorpe,andKarlK.Turekian,eds.EncyclopediaofOceanSciences.2nded.6vols.Boston:Elsevier,2009.

Alsoathttp://www.sciencedirect.com/science/referenceworks/9780122274305.

4.BibliographyandIndexofGeology.Alexandria,VA:AmericanGeologicalInstitute,1966 2005.Alsoat

http://www.proquest.com/(asGeoRef).

4.Geobase.NewYork:ElsevierScience.http://www.dialogweb.com/,http://www.ovid.com/,andhttp://www.ei.org/geobase/.

4.Wood,DavidN.,JoanE.Hardy,andAnthonyP.Harvey.InformationSourcesintheEarthSciences.2nded.London:Bowker-

Saur,1989.

5.Bates,RobertL.,MarlaD.Adkins-Heljeson,andRexC.Buchanan,eds.Geowriting:AGuidetoWriting,Editing,andPrintingin

EarthScience.Rev.5thed.Alexandria,VA:AmericanGeologicalInstitute,2004.

5.Dunn,J.,etal.OrganizationandContentofaTypicalGeologicReport.Rev.ed.Arvada,CO:AmericanInstituteofProfessional

Geologists,1993.

Mathematics

1.Borowski,E.J.,andJ.M.Borwein,eds.CollinsDictionary:Mathematics.2nded.Glasgow:HarperCollins,2002.

1.James,RobertClarke,andGlennJames.MathematicsDictionary.5thed.NewYork:VanNostrandReinhold,1992.

1.Schwartzman,Steven.TheWordsofMathematics:AnEtymologicalDictionaryofMathematicalTermsUsedinEnglish.

266

Washington,DC:MathematicalAssociationofAmerica,1994.

2.Darling,DavidJ.TheUniversalBookofMathematics:FromAbracadabratoZeno sParadoxes.Hoboken,NJ:Wiley,2004.

2.Ito,Kiyosi,ed.EncyclopedicDictionaryofMathematics.2nded.2vols.Cambridge:MITPress,1993.

2.Weisstein,EricW.CRCConciseEncyclopediaofMathematics.2nded.BocaRaton,FL:ChapmanandHall/CRC,2003.

3.Pemberton,JohnE.HowtoFindOutinMathematics:AGuidetoSourcesofInformation.2ndrev.ed.Oxford:Pergamon,1969.

4.MathematicalReviews:50thAnniversaryCelebration.Providence,RI:AmericanMathematicalSociety,1990.

4.MathSci.Providence,RI:AmericanMathematicalSociety.Alsoathttp://www.ams.org/mathscinet/.

4.USSRandEastEuropeanScientificAbstracts:PhysicsandMathematics.Arlington,VA:JointPublicationsResearchService,

1973 78.

5.AManualforAuthorsofMathematicalPapers.Rev.ed.Providence,RI:AmericanMathematicalSociety,1990.

5.Miller,JaneE.TheChicagoGuidetoWritingaboutMultivariateAnalysis.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2005.

Physics

1.Basu,Dipak,ed.DictionaryofPureandAppliedPhysics.BocaRaton,FL:CRCPress,2001.

1.Daintith,John,ed.ADictionaryofPhysics.6thed.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2009.Alsoat

http://www.oxfordreference.com/.

1.Sube,Ralf.Dictionary:PhysicsBasicTerms;English-German.Berlin:A.Hatier,1994.

1.Thewlis,James.ConciseDictionaryofPhysicsandRelatedSubjects.2nded.rev.andenl.Oxford:Pergamon,1979.

2.Lerner,RitaG.,andGeorgeL.Trigg,eds.EncyclopediaofPhysics.3rded.Weinheim,Germany:Wiley-VCH,2005.

2.McGraw-HillConciseEncyclopediaofPhysics.NewYork:McGraw-Hill,2005.

2.Meyers,RobertA.,ed.EncyclopediaofModernPhysics.SanDiego,CA:AcademicPress,1990.

2.Trigg,GeorgeL.,ed.EncyclopediaofAppliedPhysics.23vols.Weinheim,Germany:Wiley-VCH,2004.Alsoat

http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/3527600434.

2.Woan,Graham.TheCambridgeHandbookofPhysicsFormulas.2003ed.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2003.

3.Shaw,DennisF.InformationSourcesinPhysics.3rded.London:Bowker-Saur,1994.

4.AmericanInstituteofPhysics.Journals.CollegePark,MD:AIP.http://journals.aip.org/.

4.AstronomyandAstrophysicsAbstracts.Berlin:Springer-Verlag,1969 .

4.CurrentPhysicsIndex.NewYork:AmericanInstituteofPhysics,1975 2005.Alsoathttp://journals.aip.org/.

4.IEEEXplore.NewYork:InstituteofElectricalandElectronicsEngineers.http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/Xplore/.

4.Inspec.Stevenage,UK:InstitutionofElectricalEngineers.Alsoathttp://www.ebscohost.com/academic/.

4.InstituteofPhysics.Journals.London:IOP.http://iopscience.iop.org/journals.

4.PhysicsAbstracts.London:InstitutionofElectricalEngineers,1967 .

5.Katz,MichaelJ.ElementsoftheScientificPaper.NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,1985.

6.AmericanInstituteofPhysics.AIPStyleManual.4thed.NewYork:AmericanInstituteofPhysics,1990.Alsoat

http://www.aip.org/pubservs/style/4thed/toc.html.

267

Authors

WayneC.Booth(1921 2005)wastheGeorgeM.PullmanDistinguishedServiceProfessorEmeritusattheUniversityofChicago,

wherehetaughtintheEnglishDepartment,theCommitteeonIdeasandMethods,andtheCollege.HismanybooksincludeThe

RhetoricofFiction,ARhetoricofIrony,CriticalUnderstanding,TheVocationofaTeacher,andFortheLoveofIt:Amateuringand

ItsRivals,allpublishedbytheUniversityofChicagoPress.

GregoryG.Colomb(1951 2011)wasprofessorofEnglishattheUniversityofVirginiaandtheauthorofDesignsonTruth:The

PoeticsoftheAugustanMock-Epic.

JosephM.Williams(1933 2008)wasprofessoremeritusofEnglishandlinguisticsattheUniversityofChicago.Heistheauthor

ofStyle:LessonsinClarityandGrace.ColombandWilliamsjointlywroteTheCraftofArgument.

TogetherBooth,Colomb,andWilliamsauthoredTheCraftofResearch,currentlyinitsthirdedition(UniversityofChicagoPress,

2008).

268

Index
Referencesaretosectionnumbersexceptwherespecifiedaspage(p.),figure(fig.),table,ornote(n)number.
abbreviations
foracademicdegrees,24.2.3
inaddresses,24.3.2
foragencies,companies,andorganizations,24.2.4
inauthor-datestylecitations(commonexamples),18.1.6,18.3.2,24.7;Bibleandothersacredworks,19.5.2;books(additional
examples),19.1.2,19.1.5,19.1.7,19.1.8;classicalworks,19.5.1.1;dissertations,19.6.1;manuscriptcollections,19.6.4.2;
microformeditions,19.5.7;publicdocuments,19.9;USConstitution,19.9.5
capitalizationof,24.1.3
conventionsforuseof,24.1.2
indateandtimereferences,23.1.5,24.4
andend-of-linebreaks,20.4.2
formattingof,24.1.3
italicsin,24.1.3,24.7
listof(inpaper),24.1.2,A.1.3,A.2.1.10,fig.A.7
innamesandprofessionaltitles,22.1.3,24.2.1,24.2.2
innotes-bibliographystylecitations(commonexamples),16.1.6,16.4.1,24.7;Bibleandothersacredworks,17.5.2;books
(additionalexamples),17.1.4,17.1.6,17.1.7;classicalworks,17.5.1.1;dissertations,17.6.1;manuscriptcollections,17.6.4.2;
microformeditions,17.5.7;publicdocuments,17.9;USConstitution,17.9.5
forplace-names,24.3.1
pluralformsof,20.1.2.2,20.1.2.3,24.7
possessiveformsof,20.2.1,20.2.2.1
punctuationof,24.1.3
inscholarlycontexts,24.7
intablesandfigures,24.1.2,24.2.4,24.3.1,24.4.2,26.2,26.3
typesof,24.1.1
withunitsofmeasure,23.1.1,24.5,26.2.4
abstracts
citationof:inauthor-datestyle,19.5.5;innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,17.5.5
indissertationsandtheses,A.2.1.13
locatingsourcesvia,3.3.4,3.3.7
academicterms
abbreviationsfordegrees,24.2.3
namesofcoursesandsubjects,22.1.3
scholarlyabbreviations,24.7
accessdates,incitations,3.2.2,15.4.1.3
acknowledgments,A.2.1.8,A.2.1.9
addresses
e-mail,20.4.2
street,23.1.7,23.2.2,24.3.2
adjectives,compoundformsof,20.3.1,20.3.2
advertisements,citationof
inauthor-datestyle,18.2.2,19.8.1.2,19.8.3.4
innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,16.4.3.1,17.8.1.2,17.8.3.4
alphabetization,principlesof,16.2.2.1,18.2.1.1
AnnalsoftheCongressoftheUnitedStates,17.9.2.1,19.9.2.1
anthologies,citationofworksin
inauthor-datestyle,19.1.9.3
innotes-bibliographystyle,17.1.8.3
Apocrypha,abbreviationsin,24.6.2.SeealsoBibleandothersacredworks
apostrophes,20.1,20.2,21.11
appendixes
formatrequirementsfor,A.2.3.2
multimediafilesin,26.3,A.2.3.2
tablesandfiguresin,8.3.2,26.1.1,26.1.2,A.2.3.2,A.3.1.3,A.3.1.4
appositives,punctuationof,21.2.4
Arabic,namesin,16.2.2.2,18.2.1.2
argument,buildingan,5.1 5.6,fig.5.1,9.1.Seealsoclaims;drafts;evidence;hypothesis;questions,research;reasons;warrants
artexhibitioncatalogs,citationof
269

inauthor-datestyle,19.8.5.1
innotes-bibliographystyle,17.8.5.1
artworks
citationof:inauthor-datestyle,18.2.2,19.8.1;innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,16.4.3.1,17.8.1
titlesof,22.3.2.1
author-datestylecitations,3.2.1,26.1.3
basicformof,15.3.2,pp.216 17,18.1 18.3,fig.18.1
specifictypesofsourcesin:abstracts,19.5.5;artworksandgraphics,19.8.1;Bibleandothersacredworks,19.5.2;blogs,19.7.2;
books,19.1;CD-ROMsandDVD-ROMs,19.5.8;classical,medieval,andotherearlyEnglishliteraryworks,19.5.1;
dissertationsandtheses,19.6.1;electronicdiscussiongroupsandmailinglists,19.7.4;governmentdocuments,19.9;
interviewsandpersonalcommunications,19.6.3;journalarticles,19.2;lecturesandpaperspresentedatmeetings,19.6.2;
legalcases,19.9.7;liveperformances,19.8.2;magazinearticles,19.3;manuscriptcollections,19.6.4;microformeditions,
19.5.7;movies,television,radio,andthelike,19.8.3;newspaperarticles,19.4;onlinecollections,19.5.9;pamphletsand
reports,19.5.6;publicdocuments,19.9;referenceworks,19.5.3;reviews,19.5.4;socialnetworkingservices,19.7.3;sound
recordings,19.8.4;textsinthevisualandperformingarts,19.8.5;USConstitution,19.9.5;websites,19.7.1
Seealsoparentheticalcitations;referencelists;andspecificelementsofcitationsbyname
author sname,incitations,3.2.2,15.4.1.1
author-datestyle,18.1,fig.18.1,18.2.1.1,18.3,19.1.1,19.2;anonymousauthors,19.1.1.5;multipleauthors,fig.18.1,18.2.1.1,19.1.1;
pseudonyms,19.1.1.4,19.7.2,19.7.4,19.8.3.5
notes-bibliographystyle,16.1,fig.16.1,16.2.2.1,17.1.1,17.2;anonymousauthors,17.1.1.5;multipleauthors,fig.16.1,16.2.2.1,fig.
16.2,17.1.1;inparentheticalnotes,16.4.3.2;pseudonyms,17.1.1.4,17.7.2,17.7.4,17.8.3.5;inshortenednotes,16.4.1,fig.16.2
Seealsonames
backmatter,A.1.4,A.2.3.Seealsospecificelementsofbackmatterbyname
barcharts.Seecharts
Bibleandothersacredworks
abbreviationsin,24.6
citationof:inauthor-datestyle,18.2.2,19.5.2;innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,16.4.3.1,17.5.2
titlesof,22.3.2.3
BibliographicIndex,3.3.4
bibliographies
arrangementofentriesin,16.2.2
assemblyof,15.5
basicpatternof,15.3.1,pp.144 45,16.1,fig.16.1,16.2
omissionofsourcesfrom,16.2.3,26.1.3
relationshiptonotes,16.1,fig.16.1,16.2
samplepagefrom,A.2.3.5,fig.A.15
spacingof,A.1.3
typesof,16.2.1,16.2.2
bibliographies,specialized(sourcetype),locatingtopicsandsourcesin,2.1.2,3.3.4,3.3.9
bibliographystylecitations.Seenotes-bibliographystylecitations
blogs
citationof:inauthor-datestyle,18.2.2,19.7.2;
innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,17.7.2
titlesof,22.3.2.1,22.3.2.2
books
citationof,3.2.2;inauthor-datestyle,fig.18.1,19.1;innotes-bibliographystyle,fig.16.1,fig.16.2,17.1
evaluationof,assources,3.1.2,3.4.1,3.4.2
titlesof,22.3.2.1
Seealsochaptersandotherpartsofbooks
brackets,21.8.2
incitations:author-datestyle,19.1.1.5,19.1.2,19.1.3.3,19.1.4.2,19.1.7.1,19.1.9.3,19.5.2;notes-bibliographystyle,16.2.1,17.1.1.4,
17.1.1.5,17.1.2.3,17.1.6.1,17.1.6.3
andend-of-linebreaks,20.4.2
withmodificationsinquotations,7.5,25.3.1
andmultiplepunctuationmarks,21.12.2.2
brandnames,22.1.3
Britishgovernmentdocuments,citationof
inauthor-datestyle,19.9.10
innotes-bibliographystyle,17.9.10
Canadiangovernmentdocuments,citationof
inauthor-datestyle,19.9.9
innotes-bibliographystyle,17.9.9
capitalization
inabbreviations,24.1.3
incitations:author-datestyle,18.1.3;notes-bibliographystyle,16.1.3
270

offoreign-languageterms,22.2.1
headline-style,22.3.1.1
modificationof,inquotations,25.3.1.2
ofnames,22.1
ofpapertitleandtitlesofelements,A.1.5
sentence-style,22.3.1.2
intablesandfigures,26.2,26.3
oftitlesofworks,22.3.1
CD-ROMs,citationof
inauthor-datestyle,19.5.8
innotes-bibliographystyle,17.5.8
chaptersandotherpartsofbooks
citationof:inauthor-datestyle,fig.18.1,19.1.1.1,19.1.9;innotes-bibliographystyle,fig.16.1,17.1.1.1,17.1.8
titlesof,22.3.2.2
chapter-titlepages,A.2.2.3
charts
areacharts,table8.7
barcharts,8.2,fig.8.1,8.3,fig.8.4,fig.8.5,fig.8.6,fig.8.7,table8.7
bubblecharts,table8.7
definitionof,8n1
designof,8.3,26.3.1
effectiveuseof,8.2 8.4,table8.7
ethicaluseof,8.4,fig.8.10
histograms,table8.7
imagecharts,table8.7
labelswithin,8.3.2,fig.8.7
piecharts,8.3.3.2,table8.7
relationshiptotext,8.3.1,fig.8.4,fig.8.5
scatterplots,table8.7
Seealsofigures
ChicagoManualofStyle,The
onabbreviations,p.331,24.5
oncitations:author-datestyle,18.2.1.1,p.231;notes-bibliographystyle,16.2.2.1,p.166
oncopyrightregistration,A.2.1.3
onendashes,21n1
onforeignlanguages,22.2.1
onmathematicalexpressions,23.1.9
onnames,22.1
onpermissionsformaterialundercopyright,p.346,26.1.3,A.3.2
Chinese,namesin,16.2.2.2,18.2.1.2
citationofsources
electronicvs.print,15.4
informationrequiredfor,15.2.2
andplagiarism,7.9,15.1,25.1
reasonsfor,15.1
recordinginformationfor,3.2.2,4.2.1,15.5,15.6,16.1,fig.16.1
situationsrequiring,7.9,15.2.1
softwarefor,3.2.2,15.6
stylesfor,3.2.1,15.3
Seealsoauthor-datestylecitations;notes-bibliographystylecitations
claims
anticipationofreaders questions,5.1,5.2,5.4.3,6.2.5
inbuildinganargument,4.1,5.1 5.6
evaluationof,insources,2.1.3,4.1,4.3.3
andnote-taking,4.3.2,4.5
statementof,6.2.2,9.2,10.1.4,10.2.1
onstoryboard,6.2.1
andwarrants,5.4.4,fig.5.1
Seealsoevidence;hypothesis;questions,research;reasons
classical,medieval,andearlyEnglishliteraryworks,citationof
inauthor-datestyle,18.2.2,19.5.1
innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,16.4.3.1,17.5.1
classpapers,7.10
formatrequirementsfor,pp.371 72,A.2,fig.A.1
submissionrequirementsfor,pp.371 72,A.3.2 A.3.3
clauses,punctuationof,21.2.1,21.2.3,21.3,21.4
271

CodeofRegulations,17.9.3,19.9.3
colons,21.4
andmultiplepunctuationmarks,21.12.2.1
innotationsoftime,23.1.5
intitles,17.1.2,19.1.3
colorandshading,useof,8.3.2,8.3.3,26.2.3,A.3.1.2,A.3.1.3,A.3.1.4
commas,21.2
incitations:author-datestyle,18.1.2;notes-bibliographystyle,16.1.2
introducingquotations,25.2 25.3
andmultiplepunctuationmarks,21.12
withinnumbers,23.2.2
series,21.2.2
andtitles,22.3.3
CompilationoftheMessagesandPapersofthePresidents,1789 1897,17.9.3,19.9.3
compoundterms,spellingof,20.1.2.1,20.2.2.2,20.3.1 20.3.2
conclusion
formatrequirementsfor,A.2.2.7
inoralpresentations,13.2.3
planningandwriting,6.2,9.2,p.104,10.2
CongressionalGlobe,17.9.2.1,19.9.2.1
congressionalpublications,citationof
inauthor-datestyle,19.9.2
innotes-bibliographystyle,17.9.2
CongressionalRecord,17.9.2.1,17.9.2.3,19.9.2.1,19.9.2.3
CopyrightLaw&GraduateResearch (Crews),A.3.2
copyrightpage,A.2.1.3
dashes(em),21.2.4,21.7.2
andmultiplepunctuationmarks,21.12.1
2-em,21.7.3
3-em,16.2.2.1,18.2.1.1,21.7.3
data.Seeevidence;graphics;sources
databases,commercial,15.4.1.4.Seealsospecifictypesofsourcesaccessedthroughdatabasesbyname(e.g.,journalsandjournal
articles)
dateofpublication,incitations,3.2.2
author-datestyle,18.2.1.1,18.3.2;books,19.1.2,19.1.4,19.1.9.3;journals,19.2.2;magazinearticles,19.3
notes-bibliographystyle:books,17.1.3,17.1.4.2,17.1.6,17.1.8.3;journals,17.2.4.2;magazinearticles,17.3
datesandtime,referencesto,20.4.2
BCandAD,23.3.2,24.4.3
BCEandCE,23.3.2,24.4.3
decades,centuries,anderas,23.3.2,24.4.3
month,day,andyear,23.2.4,23.3.1,24.4.2
namesofdays,months,holidays,andthelike,22.1.2
timesofday,23.1.5,24.4.1
decimalsandfractions,20.3.2.2,23.1.3,23.1.4,23.2.2
dedication,A.2.1.4
diariesandletters(published),citationof,in
notes-bibliographystyle,17.1.9.Seealso
manuscripts,unpublished
dictionaries,selectionof,p.281.Seealsoencyclopediasanddictionaries
dissertationsandtheses
abstract,A.2.1.13
appendixes,A.2.3.2
bindingof,A.3.3
chapter-titlepages,A.2.2.3
citationof:inauthor-datestyle,19.6.1;innotes-bibliographystyle,17.6.1
citationsin,samplepageswith:author-datestyle,fig.A.11,A.2.3.5,fig.A.16;notes-bibliographystyle,fig.A.10,fig.A.14,A.2.3.4,
A.2.3.5,fig.A.15
conclusion,A.2.2.7
copyrightpage,A.2.1.3
dedicationandepigraph,A.2.1.4,A.2.1.5,fig.A.9
departmentoruniversityguidelinesfor,pp.371 72
editorialorresearchmethod,A.2.1.12
elementsof,A.2
externalrepositoriesfor,26.1.3,p.371,A.3.2,A.3.3
filepreparationof,A.3.1
272

footnotesvs.endnotesin,16.3.1
formatrequirementsfor,pp.371 72,A.1 A.2
frontmatterfor,A.2.1
glossary,A.2.1.11,fig.A.8,A.2.3.3
illustrations(inbackmatter),A.2.3.1
inappropriateassistancewith,7.10
introduction,A.2.2.1
listofabbreviations,A.2.1.10,fig.A.7
listsoftables,figures,andillustrations,A.2.1.7,fig.A.5,fig.A.6
literaturereview,3.5,10.1.1
multivolume,A.1.4.1,A.2.1.2,A.2.1.6
openaccessto,A.3.2
paginationof,A.1.4
part-titlepages,A.2.2.2
permissionsformaterialundercopyright,p.346,26.1.3,A.2.1.9,A.3.2
prefaceandacknowledgments,A.2.1.8,A.2.1.9
publicationof,A.3.2
subheadings,6.2.4,9.2,9.3,A.1.5,A.2.1.6,A.2.2.4
submissionpage,A.2.1.1
submissionrequirementsfor,A.3.2 A.3.3
tableofcontents,A.2.1.6,fig.A.3,fig.A.4
tablesandfigures,samplepageswith,fig.A.12,fig.A.13
titlepage,A.2.1.2,fig.A.2
titlesof,22.3.2.2
writingsupportgroupsfor,2.4
DOIs(digitalobjectidentifiers),incitations,15.4.1.3,fig.16.1,fig.18.1
DominionLawReports(Canada),17.9.9,19.9.9
dots,21.1.Seealsoellipses;URLs(uniformresourcelocators)
drafts
andargument,5.1 5.6
andcitationofsources,15.5
planning,6.1 6.3
revising,9.1 9.5,10.1 10.3,11.1 11.5
writing,7.1 7.11
Seealsostoryboard
DVD-ROMs,citationof
inauthor-datestyle,19.5.8
innotes-bibliographystyle,17.5.8
e-books,citationof
inauthor-datestyle,19.1.10
innotes-bibliographystyle,17.1.10
Seealsobooks
editionnumbers(books),incitations,3.2.2
author-datestyle,fig.18.1,18.1.6,19.1.2,19.1.4
notes-bibliographystyle,fig.16.1,16.1.6,17.1.3,17.1.6.3
editorialorresearchmethod,A.2.1.12
editor sname,incitations,3.2.2
author-datestyle,fig.18.1,18.1.6,18.2.1.1,18.3.2,19.1.1,19.1.5,19.1.6
notes-bibliographystyle,fig.16.1,16.1.6,16.2.2.1,fig.16.2,16.4.1,17.1.1,17.1.4,17.1.5
Seealsoauthor sname,incitations
electronicdiscussiongroupsandmailinglistscitationof:inauthor-datestyle,18.2.2,19.7.4;innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,
17.7.4
andresearchtopics,2.1.1,2.1.3
electronicsources,citationof,15.4.Seealsoonlinesources;andspecifictypesofsourcesbyname
ElementsofTypographicStyle,The(Bringhurst),A.1.2
elevatorstory,2.4,13.4
ellipses,7.5,21.1
andend-of-linebreaks,20.4.2
andomissionsfromquotations,25.3.2
e-mail
addresses,20.4.2
messages,citationof:inauthor-datestyle,18.2.2,19.6.3;innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,17.6.3
emdashes.Seedashes(em)
encyclopediasanddictionaries
citationof:inauthor-datestyle,18.2.2,19.5.3;innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,17.5.3
273

evaluationof,assources,3.1.2,3.1.3
locatingtopicsandsourcesin,2.1.2,3.3.5
endashes,21n1
endnotes,p.145
comparedtofootnotes,16.3.1
formattingof,16.3.2 16.3.4,A.2.3.4
andparentheticalnotes,16.4.3.1
samplepageof,fig.A.14,A.2.3.4
substantivevs.bibliographical,7.6,16.3.1,16.3.5.2
Seealsonotes
epigraphs,25.2.2.3,A.2.1.5,fig.A.9
equationsandformulas,23.1.9,A.3.1.2
evidence
inbuildinganargument,5.1 5.6,9.1,14
andcompetingpointsofview,3.1.2,14
andnote-taking,4.3.2
organizingandintroducingindraft,6.2.8,7.7
andreasons,3.1.1,4.2.2,5.4.2
onstoryboard,2.3.3,4.5,6.2.1
andwarrants,5.5
Seealsoclaims;reasons
ExchequerCourtReports(Canada),17.9.9,19.9.9
exclamationpoints,21.6
andmultiplepunctuationmarks,21.12.1,21.12.2.1
intitles,17.1.2.1,19.1.3.1,22.3.3
FederalCourtsReports(Canada),17.9.9,19.9.9
FederalRegister,17.9.3,19.9.3
FederalReporter,17.9.7,19.9.7
FederalSupplement,17.9.7,19.9.7
feedback,learningfrom,12.1 12.2
figures
inappendixofpaper,26.1.1,26.1.2,A.2.3.1,A.2.3.2,A.3.1.4
captionsfor,8.3.1,26.1.1,26.1.3,26.3.2,A.2.1.7,fig.A.6,A.3.1.4
citationof:inauthor-datestyle,19.1.8.2,26.1.3;innotes-bibliographystyle,17.1.7.2,26.1.3
colorandshadingin,8.3.2,8.3.3,A.3.1.4
definitionof,8n1,p.358
designof,8.3,26.1.2,A.3.1.4
effectiveuseof,8.1 8.3,table8.7
ethicaluseof,8.4,fig.8.10,fig.8.11,fig.8.12
filepreparationfor,A.3.1.4
labelswithin,8.3.2
listof(inpaper),A.1.3,A.2.1.7,fig.A.6
numberingof,26.1.1,26.3.2,A.3.1.4
positionof,intext,26.1.1,26.3.3.2
relationshiptotext,8.3.1,fig.8.3,fig.8.4,fig.8.5,26.3.3.1
resolutionandscalingof,A.3.1.4
samplepagewith,fig.A.12
sizeandorientationof,26.1.2,A.3.1.4
sourcelinesfor,26.1.3,26.3.3.2
typesof,8n1,p.358
Seealsocharts;graphs
filepreparationandmanagement,A.3.1
films.Seemovies
first-personpronouns,appropriateuseof,11.1.7,13.1.2
fonts.Seetypographicoptions
footnotes,p.145
withauthor-datestylecitations,18.3.3
comparedtoendnotes,16.3.1
formattingof,16.3.2 16.3.4
withparentheticalnotes,16.4.3.1
samplepagewith,fig.A.10
substantivevs.bibliographical,7.6,16.3.1,16.3.5.2
totables,26.1.3,table26.2,table26.3,26.2.7
Seealsonotes
foreignlanguages
274

namesin,16.2.2.2,18.2.1.2
titlesin,17.1.2.3,17.2.2,17.4.1,19.1.3.2,19.2.3,19.4.1,22.3.1
wordsandphrasesin,22.2.1
format,paper
blockquotations,7.5,25.2.2,A.1.3
colorandshadingin,8.3.2,8.3.3,26.2.3,A.3.1.2,A.3.1.3,A.3.1.4
andfilepreparation,A.3.1
fonts,8.3.2,A.1.2
graphics,8.3,26.1,26.3
headersandfooters,A.1.4
hyperlinks,20.4.2,A.2.3.2,A.3.1.2,A.3.2
hyphenationandjustification,20.4,A.3.1.2
indentation,16.1.7,16.3.4,18.1.7,A.1.3
lists,23.4.2.1
margins,A.1.1,A.3.1.2,A.3.1.3
multiplevolumes,A.1.4.1,A.2.1.2,A.2.1.6
outlines,23.4.2.2
pagination,A.1.4
paperstock,A.3.3
spacing,A.1.3
subheadings,A.1.5,A.2.1.6,A.2.2.4
titles(main,parts,andchapters),A.1.5,A.2.1.6,A.2.2.2,A.2.2.3
typesize,A.1.2,A.1.5
typographicoptions,8.3.2,A.1.2,A.1.5,A.2.2.4
Seealsobibliographies;notes;referencelists;andspecificelementsofpapersbyname
frontmatter,A.1.3,A.1.4,A.2.1.Seealsospecificelementsoffrontmatterbyname
German,capitalizationin,22.3.1.2
glossary,A.2.1.11,fig.A.8,A.2.3.3
GoogleScholar,3.3.2
governmentalandpoliticalbodies
citationofpublicationsof:inauthor-datestyle,19.9;innotes-bibliographystyle,17.9
namesof,22.1.3,23.1.6
graphics
definitionof,8n1,p.358
designof,8.3,26.1.2
effectiveuseof,8.1 8.4,table8.7,p.358
ethicaluseof,8.4,fig.8.10,fig.8.11,fig.8.12
inposterpresentations,13.3
softwarefor,8.2,8.3,13.3,pp.358 59,A.3.1.3,A.3.1.4
typesof,8n1,p.358
Seealsofigures;tables
graphs
definitionof,8n1
designof,8.3,26.3.1
effectiveuseof,8.2 8.4,table8.7
ethicaluseof,8.4,fig.8.11,fig.8.12
labelswithin,8.3.2
linegraphs,8.2,fig.8.2,8.3,fig.8.4,fig.8.8,fig.8.9,table8.7
relationshiptotext,8.3.1,fig.8.3
Seealsofigures
humanities
abbreviationstylein,pp.330 31,24.5
citationstylein,3.2.1,15.3,pp.144 45
modelsforresearchin,3.1.2
numberstylein,p.317,23.1.1
quoting,paraphrasing,andsummarizingin,7.4
researchquestionsin,1.2.1,2.1.4
sourcesin,3.1.1,3.4.2
hyperlinks,20.4.2,A.2.3.2,A.3.1.2,A.3.2
hyphens,21.7.1
incompoundsandwordsformedwithprefixes,20.3
atendsoflines,20.4
inhyperlinks,20.4.2
innumberspans,20.3.2.2,23.2.4,table23.2
Seealsodashes(em)
275

hypothesis
developmentof,2.2,4.1.2,5.3
andnote-taking,4.3.2,4.5
onstoryboard,2.3.1
Seealsoclaims;questions,research
Ibid.,useof,16.4.2,17.5.1.1
illustrations.Seegraphics
indentation,useof,16.1.7,16.3.4,18.1.7,A.1.3
indexes,specialized,2.1.1
Internet.Seeonlinesources;andspecifictypesofsourcesbyname
interviews
citationof:inauthor-datestyle,18.2.2,19.6.3,19.8.3.3;innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,17.6.3,17.8.3.3
conducting,3.1.1
introduction
formatrequirementsfor,A.2.2.1
inoralpresentations,13.2.1
planningandwriting,6.2,9.2,p.104,10.1
issuenumbers,incitations,3.2.2
author-datestyle,19.2.5
notes-bibliographystyle,17.2.4.1
italics
inabbreviations,24.1.3,24.7
incitations:author-datestyle,18.1.4;notes-bibliographystyle,16.1.4
inforeign-languageterms,22.2.1
modificationof,inquotations,25.3.1.3
innames,22.1.3
andpluralforms,20.1.2.2,20.1.2.4
andpossessiveforms,20.2.2.4
intitlesofworks,22.3.2.1
inwordsdefinedasterms,22.2.2
Japanese,namesin,16.2.2.2,18.2.1.2
JewishBible,abbreviationsin,24.6.1.SeealsoBibleandothersacredworks
journalsandjournalarticles
accessthroughcommercialdatabases,15.4.1.4,17.2,19.2
citationof,3.2.2;inauthor-datestyle,fig.18.1,19.2;innotes-bibliographystyle,fig.16.1,fig.16.2,17.2
evaluationof,assources,3.1.1,3.1.2,3.3.8,3.4
titlesof,22.3.2.1,22.3.2.2
keyterms
locatingsourcesvia,3.3.2,3.3.6,3.4.1,4.3.4
innote-taking,4.2.1,4.2.3,4.3.4,4.5.3
inpaper,6.2.2 6.2.4,7.3,10.1.5
LawReports(UnitedKingdom),17.9.10,19.9.10
leaders(punctuation),21.1,26.2.6.1,A.2.1.6,A.2.1.7,fig.A.4,fig.A.5
LeagueofNationsTreatySeries,17.9.6,19.9.6
lecturesandpaperspresentedatmeetings,13.1 13.3
citationof:inauthor-datestyle,19.6.2;innotes-bibliographystyle,17.6.2
titlesof,22.3.2.2
legalcases
citationof:inauthor-datestyle,19.9.7;innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,16.4.3.1,17.9.7
namesof,22.1.3
lettersofthealphabet
asgrades,22.2.2
pluralformsof,20.1.2.2
possessiveformsof,20.2.1
referredtoasletters,22.2.2
Seealsoalphabetization;capitalization
library,locatingtopicsandsourcesin,2.1.1,3.3,3.4.3
LibraryofCongressdata,3.2.2,3.3.6,3.3.8
linegraphs.Seegraphs
lists
ofabbreviations,24.1.2,A.1.3,A.2.1.10,fig.A.7
oftablesandfigures,A.1.3,A.2.1.7,fig.A.6
intext,23.4.2.1
276

literarystudies,quotationpracticesin,25.2.2.1,25.3.1.2,25.3.2.3 25.3.2.5
literaturereview,10.1.1,13.1.1
liveperformances,citationof
inauthor-datestyle,18.2.2,19.8.2
innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,16.4.3.1,17.8.2
magazinesandmagazinearticles,3.1.3
citationof:inauthor-datestyle,18.3.2.3,19.2,19.3;innotes-bibliographystyle,17.2,17.3
titlesof,22.3.2.1,22.3.2.2
manuscripts,unpublished
citationof:inauthor-datestyle,19.6.4;innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,17.6.4
titlesof,22.3.2.2,22.3.2.3
maps
citationof:inauthor-datestyle,18.2.2,19.8.1;innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,16.4.3.1,17.8.1
sourcelinesfor,26.1.3
margins,generalguidelinesfor,A.1.1measure,unitsof,23.1.1,24.5,26.2.4
Merriam-Webster sBiographicalDictionary,16.2.2.2,p.281,22.1.1
Merriam-Webster sCollegiateDictionary,p.281,22.2.1,p.331
Merriam-Webster sGeographicalDictionary,p.281
microformeditions,citationof
inauthor-datestyle,19.5.7
innotes-bibliographystyle,17.5.7
money,referencesto,23.1.4
movies
citationof:inauthor-datestyle,19.8.3.1;innotes-bibliographystyle,17.8.3.1
titlesof,22.3.2.1,22.3.2.2
musicalcompositions,titlesof,22.3.2.1,22.3.2.2,22.3.2.3
musicalscores,citationof
inauthor-datestyle,19.8.5.3
innotes-bibliographystyle,17.8.5.3
names
ofacademiccoursesandsubjects,22.1.3
brand,22.1.3
capitalizationof,22.1
compoundformsof,16.2.2.2,18.2.1.2,20.3.2.1,22.1.1
ofelectronictechnology,22.1.3
ofethnicandnationalgroups,20.1.1,22.1.1
governmentalandpolitical,22.1.3,23.1.6
ofhistoricaleventsandculturalterms,22.1.2,23.1.6
initialsin,17.1.1,18.3.2.1,19.1.1,20.4.2,24.2.1
italicsin,22.1.3,22.2.1
oflegalcases,22.1.3
withnumbers,23.1.6
personal:andabbreviations,24.2.1;alphabetizationof,16.2.2.1,18.2.1.1;andend-of-linebreaks,20.4.2;inforeignlanguages,
16.2.2.2,18.2.1.2,22.2.1;withparticles,16.2.2.2,18.2.1.2,22.1;pluralformsof,20.1.1;possessiveformsof,20.2
ofplaces,p.241,21.2.4,22.1.1,24.3.1
ofplantsandanimals,22.1.3
andprofessionaltitles,22.1.1,24.2.2
ofreligiousandsecularorganizations,23.1.6
ofships,aircraft,andothervessels,22.1.3
spellingof,p.281
Seealsoauthor sname,incitations;publisher sname,incitations
naturalandphysicalsciences
abbreviationstylein,20.1.2.3,p.331,24.5
citationstylein,3.2.1,15.3,pp.216 17
numberstylein,p.317,23.1,23.2.2
quoting,paraphrasing,andsummarizingin,7.4
researchquestionsin,1.2.1
sourcesin,3.1.1,3.4.2
newspapersandnewspaperarticles,3.1.3
citationof:inauthor-datestyle,18.3.2.3,19.4;innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,16.4.3.1,17.4
titlesof,22.3.2.1,22.3.2.2
NewTestament,abbreviationsin,24.6.3.SeealsoBibleandothersacredworks
notenumbers,incitations
author-datestyle,19.1.8.2
notes-bibliographystyle,17.1.7.2
277

notes
basicpatternof,15.3.1,pp.144 45,16.1,fig.16.1,16.3
footnotesvs.endnotes,16.3.1
formattingof,16.3.2 16.3.4,A.2.3.4
Ibid.,16.4.2,17.5.1.1
judicioususeof,7.6,16.3.5.2
formultiplecitations,16.3.5.1
numberingof,16.3.2,16.3.3
parenthetical,pp.144 45,16.4.3,25.2.1.1
relationshiptobibliographyentries,16.1,fig.16.1,16.2
samplepageswith,fig.A.10,fig.A.14,A.2.3.4
shortened,15.3.1,pp.144 45,16.4.1
spacingof,A.1.3
substantive,7.6,16.3.5.2
superscriptsintextfor,16.3.2,16.3.4,25.2.1.1,25.2.2.1
notes-bibliographystylecitations,3.2.1,26.1.3
basicformof,15.3.1,pp.144 45,16.1 16.4,fig.16.1,fig.16.2
specifictypesofsourcesin:abstracts,17.5.5;artworksandgraphics,17.8.1;Bibleandothersacredworks,17.5.2;blogs,17.7.2;
books,17.1;CD-ROMsandDVD-ROMs,17.5.8;classical,medieval,andotherearlyEnglishliteraryworks,17.5.1;dissertations
andtheses,17.6.1;electronicdiscussiongroupsandmailinglists,17.7.4;governmentdocuments,17.9;interviewsand
personalcommunications,17.6.3;journalarticles,17.2;lecturesandpaperspresentedatmeetings,17.6.2;legalcases,17.9.7;
liveperformances,17.8.2;magazinearticles,17.3;manuscriptcollections,17.6.4;microformeditions,17.5.7;movies,
television,radio,andthelike,17.8.3;newspaperarticles,17.4;onlinecollections,17.5.9;pamphletsandreports,17.5.6;public
documents,17.9;referenceworks,17.5.3;reviews,17.5.4;socialnetworkingservices,17.7.3;soundrecordings,17.8.4;textsin
thevisualandperformingarts,17.8.5;USConstitution,17.9.5;websites,17.7.1
Seealsobibliographies;notes;andspecificelementsofcitationsbyname
note-taking,4.2 4.5,fig.4.1
nouns
compoundsandformswithprefixes,20.3
effectiveuseof,11.1
pluralformsof,20.1
possessiveformsof,20.2
proper(seenames)
numbers
addresses,23.1.7,23.2.2
incitations:author-datestyle,18.1.5;notes-bibliographystyle,16.1.5
compoundsincluding,20.3.2.2
dates,23.2.4,23.3
decimalsandfractions,20.3.2.2,23.1.3,23.1.4,23.2.2
andend-of-linebreaks,20.4.2
equationsandformulas,23.1.9,A.3.1.2
graphicpresentationof,8.1 8.4,table8.1,table8.2
inlists,23.4.2.1
money,23.1.4
ordinal,23.1.1,23.3.1
inoutlines,23.4.2.2
inpaginationofpaper,A.1.4
inpartsofpublishedworks,23.1.8
percentages,20.3.2.2,23.1.3
pluralformsof,20.1.2.2,23.2.1
possessiveformsof,20.2.1
punctuationwithin,23.2.2,23.2.3
spansof,20.3.2.2,23.2.4,table23.2
spelledoutvs.numerals,23.1
intablesandfigures,26.2,26.3
timereferences,23.1.5,23.2.2,24.5
unitsofmeasure,23.1.1
verbalpresentationof,8.1,table8.1,table8.2
Seealsopagenumbersandotherlocators
numerals
arabic,23.1
roman,23.2.4,table23.1
Seealsonumbers
OldTestament,abbreviationsin,24.6.1.SeealsoBibleandothersacredworks
onlinecollections,citationof
278

inauthor-datestyle,19.5.9
innotes-bibliographystyle,17.5.9
onlinesources,22.1.3
categoriesof,15.4.1.2
citationof,15.4.1
evaluationof,3.1.3,3.3,3.4.3,15.4.1
andresearchtopics,2.1.1,2.1.2,2.1.3
revisiondateson,15.4.1.1
Seealsospecifictypesofsourcesbyname
oralpresentations,13.1 13.2
outlines,2.3,6.2.1,23.4.2.2.Seealsostoryboard
OxfordClassicalDictionary,17.5.1.1,19.5.1.1
pagenumbersandotherlocators
inauthor-datestylecitations:basicpattern,3.2.2,18.1.1,18.1.5;Bibleandothersacredworks,19.5.2;books,19.1.8;e-books,
19.1.10;journals,19.2.6;magazinearticles,19.3;manuscriptcollections,19.6.4.2;microformeditions,19.5.7;newspaper
articles,19.4.2;referenceworks,19.5.3
innotes-bibliographystylecitations:basicpattern,3.2.2,16.1.1,16.1.5;Bibleandothersacredworks,17.5.2;books,17.1.7;e-
books,17.1.10;journals,17.2.5;magazinearticles,17.3;manuscriptcollections,17.6.4.2;microformeditions,17.5.7;
newspaperarticles,17.4.2;inparentheticalnotes,16.4.3.2;referenceworks,17.5.3;inshortenednotes,16.4.1
spansof,20.3.2.2,23.2.4,table23.2
intext,23.1.8,23.2.2
pagination,generalguidelinesfor,A.1.4
paintings
citationof:inauthor-datestyle,18.2.2,19.8.1;innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,16.4.3.1,17.8.1
titlesof,22.3.2.1
pamphlets,citationof
inauthor-datestyle,19.5.6
innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,17.5.6
paraphrasing,25.3.1.4
andcitationofsources,15.2.1
indrafting,7.4
innote-taking,4.2,4.4
andplagiarism,7.9
parentheses,21.2.4,21.8.1,23.4.2
incitations:author-datestyle,18.3;notes-bibliographystyle,16.1.2,16.4.3
anddefinitionsofforeignterms,22.2.1
andend-of-linebreaks,20.4.2
andmultiplepunctuationmarks,21.12.2.2
parentheticalcitations
basicpatternof,15.3.2,pp.216 17,18.1,fig.18.1,18.3,p.231
withfootnotes,18.3.3
formattingof,18.3.2
formultiplecitations,18.3.2.5
placementof,intext,18.3.1,25.2.1.1,25.2.2.1
relationshiptoreferencelists,18.1,fig.18.1,18.2.1.1
samplepagewith,fig.A.11
parentheticalcitations referenceliststylecitations.Seeauthor-datestylecitations
part-titlepages,A.2.2.2
PDF,submissionofpaperas,A.3.1.2,A.3.2
percentages,20.3.2.2,23.1.3
periodicals.Seejournalsandjournalarticles;magazinesandmagazinearticles;newspapersandnewspaperarticles
periods,21.1
inabbreviations,21.12.1,24.1.3
incitations:author-datestyle,18.1.2;notes-bibliographystyle,16.1.2
andmultiplepunctuationmarks,21.12
spaceafter(terminal),A.1.3permissions,formaterialundercopyright,p.346,26.1.3,A.2.1.9,A.3.2
personalcommunications,citationof
inauthor-datestyle,18.2.2,19.6.3
innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,17.6.3
photographs
citationof:inauthor-datestyle,18.2.2,19.8.1;innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,16.4.3.1,17.8.1
titlesof,22.3.2.1
physicalsciences.Seenaturalandphysicalsciences
place-names,p.241,21.2.4,22.1.1,24.3.1
placeofpublication,incitations,3.2.2
279

author-datestyle,19.1.7
notes-bibliographystyle,17.1.6
plagiarism,avoiding,4.2.3,7.9,15.1,25.1
plays
citationof:inauthor-datestyle,18.2.2,19.8.5.2;innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,17.8.5.2
quotationofdialoguefrom,25.2.2.2
titlesof,22.3.2.1
pluralterms,spellingof,20.1,20.2.1,23.3.1
podcasts,citationof
inauthor-datestyle,19.8.3.5
innotes-bibliographystyle,17.8.3.5
poetry
citationof:inauthor-datestyle,19.1.8.2,19.5.1.3;innotes-bibliographystyle,17.1.7.2,17.5.1.3
quotationsfrom,25.2.1.2,25.2.2.2,25.3.2.5
titlesof,22.3.2.1,22.3.2.2
possessiveterms,spellingof,20.2
posterpresentations,13.3
preface,A.2.1.8
prefixes,spellingofwordswith,20.3.3
presidentialpublications,citationof
inauthor-datestyle,19.9.3
innotes-bibliographystyle,17.9.3
procrastination.Seetimemanagement
professionaltitles,22.1.1,24.2.2
proofreading,11.4,p.282
ProQuestDissertationsandThesesdatabase,p.371,A.2.1.13,A.3.2
pseudonyms,incitations
author-datestyle,19.1.1.4,19.7.2,19.7.4,19.8.3.5
notes-bibliographystyle,17.1.1.4,17.7.2,17.7.4,17.8.3.5
publicdocuments,citationof
inauthor-datestyle,18.2.2,19.9
innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,17.9
PublicPapersofthePresidentsoftheUnitedStates,17.9.3,19.9.3
publisher sname,incitations,3.2.2,15.4.1.1
author-datestyle:books,19.1.4.2,19.1.7;websites,19.7.1
notes-bibliographystyle:books,17.1.3.2,17.1.6;websites,17.7.1
punctuation,21.1 21.12
inabbreviations,20.1.2.3,24.1.3
incitations:author-datestyle,18.1.2,18.3.1;notes-bibliographystyle,16.1.2,16.3.2
andend-of-linebreaks,20.4.2
modificationof,inquotations,25.3.1.2,25.3.2
withinnumbers,23.2.2,23.2.3
spaceafter(terminal),A.1.3
oftitles,22.3.3
Seealsospecificpunctuationmarksbyname
questionmarks,21.5
andmultiplepunctuationmarks,21.5,21.12.1,21.12.2.1
intitles,17.1.2.1,19.1.3.1,22.3.3
questions,research
developmentof,1.1 1.2,2.1 2.2
andnote-taking,4.3.2,4.5
statementof,10.1.2,10.1.3
typesof,1.2
Seealsoclaims;hypothesis
quotationmarks,21.10
incitations:author-datestyle,18.1.4;notes-bibliographystyle,16.1.4
arounddefinitionsofforeign-languageterms,22.2.1
andend-of-linebreaks,20.4.2
ironicuseof,22.2.2
andmultiplepunctuationmarks,21.10,21.12.2.1
andpluralforms,20.1.2.4
andpossessiveforms,20.2.2.4
aroundquotedmaterial,25.2 25.3
single,21.10,21.12.2.1,25.2.1.2,25.3.1.2
aroundtitlesofworks,22.3.2.2
280

aroundwordsdefinedasterms,22.2.2
quotations
blockstyle,7.5,25.2.2,A.1.3
citationof,fromsecondarysources:inauthor-datestyle,19.10;innotes-bibliographystyle,17.10
indrafting,7.4
inendnotesorfootnotes,16.3.5.2
epigraphs,25.2.2.3,A.2.1.5,fig.A.9
fromforeignlanguages,22.2.1
incorporatingintotext,7.5,25.2
insertionsinto,25.3.1.4
modificationof,7.5,25.3
innote-taking,4.2.2,4.3.3
omissionsfrom,25.3.2
placementofsourcecitationsfor:inauthor-datestyle,18.3.1,25.2.1.1,25.2.2.1;innotes-bibliographystyle,16.3.2,16.4.3.2,
25.2.1.1,25.2.2.1
andplagiarism,7.9,15.2.1,25.1
run-instyle,7.5,25.2.1
spacingof,A.1.3
Qur an,24.6.5.SeealsoBibleandothersacredworks
radioprograms
citationof:inauthor-datestyle,19.8.3.2;innotes-bibliographystyle,17.8.3.2
titlesof,22.3.2.1,22.3.2.2
Readers GuidetoPeriodicalLiterature,3.3.7
reasons
inbuildinganargument,2.3.2,5.1 5.6,14
andevidence,3.1.1,4.2.2,5.4.2
andnote-taking,4.3.2
organizingindraft,6.2.5,6.2.8
onstoryboard,2.3.3,4.5
andwarrants,5.4.4,fig.5.1
Seealsoclaims;evidence
referencelists
arrangementofentriesin,18.2.1
assemblyof,15.5
basicpatternof,15.3.2,pp.216 17,18.1,fig.18.1,18.2
omissionofsourcesfrom,18.2.2
relationshiptoparentheticalcitations,18.1,fig.18.1,18.2.1.1
samplepagefrom,A.2.3.5,fig.A.16
spacingof,A.1.3
referenceworks,citationof
inauthor-datestyle,18.2.2,19.5.3
innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,17.5.3
Seealsoencyclopediasanddictionaries
RegisterofDebates,17.9.2.1,19.9.2.1
reports(sourcetype),citationof
inauthor-datestyle,19.5.6
innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,17.5.6
research
academic,p.5,1.2,2.1.1,2.4
asconversation,3.1.2,p.37,5.1,5.2,5.4.3,10.1.1,10.2.2,13.1 13.4,14,15.1
goalsfor,pp.12 13,3.1.2
professional,p.5,1.2.2
spiritof,14
reviews(booksandliveperformances)
citationof:inauthor-datestyle,19.5.4;innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,17.5.4
locatingsourcesvia,3.3.4
RevisedStatutesofCanada,17.9.9,19.9.9
revising,9.1 9.5,10.1 10.3,11.1 11.5
sculptures
citationof:inauthor-datestyle,18.2.2,19.8.1;innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,16.4.3.1,17.8.1
titlesof,22.3.2.1
searchengines,2.1.3,3.3.2,3.4.2.Seealsoonlinesources
semicolons,21.2.4,21.3
incitations:author-datestyle,18.3.2.5;notes-bibliographystyle,16.3.5.1
andmultiplepunctuationmarks,21.12.2.1
281

series,21.2.2,21.3
sentences,revising,11.1 11.5
seriestitles
incitations:author-datestyle,19.1.6;notes-bibliographystyle,17.1.5
titlesof,22.3.2.3
sic,useof,25.3.1.1
slashes,21.9,25.2.1.2
socialnetworkingservices,citationof,15.4.1.2
inauthor-datestyle,18.2.2,19.7.3
innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,17.7.3
socialsciences
abbreviationstylein,pp.330 31,24.5
citationstylein,3.2.1,15.3,pp.144 45,pp.216 17
modelsforresearchin,3.1.2
numberstylein,p.317,23.1.1
quoting,paraphrasing,andsummarizingin,7.4
researchquestionsin,1.2.1,2.1.4
sourcesin,3.1.1,3.4.2
softwarefunctions
alphabetizingnames,16.2.2.1,18.2.1.1
automatednumberingofelements,A.3.1.1
citationmanagement,3.2.2,15.6
definingstyles,A.1.5,A.3.1.1
filepreparationandmanagement,A.3.1
graphics,8.2,8.3,13.3,pp.358 59,A.3.1.3,A.3.1.4
hyphenationandjustification,20.4,A.3.1.2
sectionbreaks,A.1.4.1,A.3.1.1
specialcharacters,21.11,25.3.2.1,A.3.1.2
spell-checking,11.4,p.282
word-processing(general),21.11,p.372,A.2.2.4,A.3.1.1,A.3.1.2
soundrecordings,citationof
inauthor-datestyle,19.8.4
innotes-bibliographystyle,17.8.4
sources
availabilityof,2.1.4
citationof(seecitationofsources)
criticalengagementwith,2.1.3,3.1.2,4.1 4.6
limitingnumberof,2.1.2,2.1.4,6.2.2
note-takingfrom,4.2 4.5
online(seeonlinesources)
plagiarismof,7.9,15.1,25.1
primary,3.1.1,3.1.2
secondary,3.1.2,17.10
selectionandevaluationof,3.1 3.5,15.1,15.4.1.1
tertiary,3.1.3,3.4.2
Seealsospecifictypesofsourcesbyname
Sowhat?question,1.1 1.2,2.1,5.4.1,6.2.2,10.1.3,13.4
Spanish,namesin,16.2.2.2,18.2.1.2
spelling
checkingforerrorsin,11.4,12.1 12.2,p.282
ofcompoundsandwordswithprefixes,20.3
andend-of-linebreaks,20.4
modificationof,inquotations,25.3.1.1
ofnumbers,23.1
ofpluralterms,20.1,20.2.1,23.3.1
ofpossessiveterms,20.2
softwareforchecking,11.4,p.282
StatutesatLargeoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica,1789 1873,17.9.2.5,19.9.2.5
StatutesofCanada,17.9.9,19.9.9
storyboard,2.3,4.5,p.49,5.4 5.6,6.2
subheadings,6.2.4,9.2,9.3,A.1.5,A.2.1.6,A.2.2.4
submissionpage,A.2.1.1
summarizing
indrafting,7.4
innote-taking,4.2.2,4.4
SupremeCourtReporter,17.9.7,19.9.7
282

SupremeCourtsReports(Canada),17.9.9,19.9.9
tableofcontents,A.2.1.6,fig.A.3,fig.A.4
tables
abbreviationsin,26.2
inappendixofpaper,26.1.1,26.1.2,A.2.3.2,A.3.1.3
citationof:inauthor-datestyle,19.1.8.2,26.1.3;innotes-bibliographystyle,17.1.7.2,26.1.3
colorandshadingin,8.3.2,8.3.3,26.2.3,A.3.1.3
columnheads,26.2,table26.2,A.3.1.3
datain,26.2
definitionof,8n1,p.358
designof,8.3,table8.5,table8.6,26.1.2,26.2,A.3.1.3
effectiveuseof,8.1 8.4
ethicaluseof,8.4
filepreparationfor,A.3.1.3
footnotesto,26.1.3,table26.2,table26.3,26.2.7,A.3.1.3
labelswithin,8.3.2
listof(inpaper),A.1.3,A.2.1.7,fig.A.5numberingof,26.2.2,A.3.1.3
positionof,intext,26.1.1
relationshiptotext,8.3.1,table8.3,table8.4,26.2.2.1
rulesin,26.2.3
samplepagewith,fig.A.13
sizeandorientationof,26.1.2,A.3.1.3
sourcelinesfor,26.1.3,table26.1,table26.3stub,26.2.1,26.2.5,A.3.1.3
titlesof,8.3.1,table8.5,table8.6,26.1.1,26.2.2,A.2.1.7,fig.A.5,A.3.1.3
televisionprograms
citationof:inauthor-datestyle,19.8.3.2;
innotes-bibliographystyle,17.8.3.2
titlesof,22.3.2.1,22.3.2.2
textmessages,citationof
inauthor-datestyle,18.2.2,19.6.3
innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,17.6.3
theses.Seedissertationsandtheses
timemanagement,4.4,4.6,7.1,7.2,7.8,7.11,9.5
timereferences.Seedatesandtime,referencesto
titlepage,A.2.1.2,fig.A.1,fig.A.2
titlesinpaper
maintitle,10.3,A.1.5,A.2.1.2
ofpartsandchapters,A.1.5,A.2.1.6,A.2.2.2,A.2.2.3
titlesofworks
inauthor-datestylecitations:basicpattern,3.2.2,18.1.3,18.1.4;blogs,19.7.2;books,19.1.3,19.1.5,19.1.6;foreign-languagetitles,
19.1.3.2,19.2.3,19.4.1;journals,19.2.3,19.2.4,19.2.7;liveperformances,19.8.2;magazinearticles,19.3;manuscript
collections,19.6.4.2;movies,televisionprograms,andthelike,19.8.3;newspapers,19.4.1;subtitles,19.1.3,19.2.3;
unpublishedworks,19.6;websites,19.7.1
capitalizationof:headline-style,22.3.1.1;sentence-style,22.3.1.2
inforeignlanguages,22.3.1
italicsin,22.3.2.1
innotes-bibliographystylecitations:basicpattern,3.2.2,16.1.3,16.1.4;blogs,17.7.2;books,17.1.2,17.1.4,17.1.5;foreign-language
titles,17.1.2.3,17.2.2,17.4.1;journals,17.2.2,17.2.3,17.2.6;liveperformances,17.8.2;magazinearticles,17.3;manuscript
collections,17.6.4.2;movies,televisionprograms,andthelike,17.8.3;newspapers,17.4.1;inparentheticalnotes,16.4.3.2;in
shortenednotes,16.4.1,fig.16.2;subtitles,17.1.2,17.2.2;unpublishedworks,17.6;websites,17.7.1
punctuationwithinandaround,22.3.3
quotationmarksaround,22.3.2.2
spellingof,22.3
topics,research,1.1 1.2,2.1 2.2.Seealsoquestions,research
transitionalwords,6.2.6
translator sname,incitations,3.2.2
author-datestyle,fig.18.1,18.1.6,18.2.1.1,18.3.2,19.1.1
notes-bibliographystyle,fig.16.1,16.1.6,16.2.2.1,fig.16.2,17.1.1
Seealsoauthor sname,incitations
treaties
citationof:inauthor-datestyle,19.9.6;innotes-bibliographystyle,17.9.6
namesof,22.1.3
TreatiesandOtherInternationalActsSeries,17.9.6,19.9.6
typographicoptions,8.3.2,A.1.2,A.1.5,A.2.2.4
UnitedNationsTreatySeries,17.9.6,19.9.6
283

UnitedStatesCode,17.9.2.5,19.9.2.5
UnitedStatesStatutesatLarge,17.9.2.5,17.9.6,19.9.2.5,19.9.6
UnitedStatesSupremeCourtReports,17.9.7,19.9.7
UnitedStatesTreatiesandOtherInternationalAgreements,17.9.6,19.9.6
Upanishads,22.3.2.3.SeealsoBibleandothersacredworks
URLs(uniformresourcelocators),3.2.2,15.4.1.3
alternateformsof,15.4.1.3,15.4.1.4
changeabilityof,15.4.1.1
andDOIs,15.4.1.3,fig.16.1,fig.18.1
andend-of-linebreaks,20.4.2
ashyperlinks,20.4.2
USConstitution
capitalizationofnameof,22.1.3
citationof:inauthor-datestyle,18.2.2,19.9.5;innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,17.9.5
Vedas,24.6.5.SeealsoBibleandothersacredworks
verbs,effectiveuseof,11.1
videos,citationof
inauthor-datestyle,19.8.3.5
innotes-bibliographystyle,17.8.3.5
volumenumbers,incitations,3.2.2
author-datestyle,18.1.6,19.1.5,19.2.5
notes-bibliographystyle,16.1.6,17.1.4,17.2.4.1
warrants,5.4.4,fig.5.1,5.5,6.2.8.Seealsoclaims;reasons
websites
citationof,15.4.1.1;inauthor-datestyle,19.7.1;innotes-bibliographystyle,17.7.1
titlesof,22.3.2.2,22.3.2.3
Seealsoonlinesources;andotherspecifictypesofwebsitesbyname(e.g.,blogs)
Webster sThirdNewInternationalDictionary,p.281
WeeklyCompilationofPresidentialDocuments,17.9.3,19.9.3
Wikipedia,reliabilityof,3.1.3.Seealsoencyclopediasanddictionaries
workinghypothesis.Seehypothesis
writer sblock,7.1,7.2,7.11
writing
firstdraft,7.1 7.11
preparatory,4.4
andrevising,9.1 9.5,10.1 10.3,11.1 11.5
writingsupportgroups,2.4
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TableofContents

TitlePage 3

Contents 6

ANotetoStudents 10

Preface 11

PartI:ResearchandWriting:FromPlanningtoProduction 12

1WhatResearchIsandHowResearchersThinkaboutIt 16

1.1HowResearchersThinkaboutTheirAims 16

1.2ThreeKindsofQuestionsThatResearchersAsk 17

2MovingfromaTopictoaQuestiontoaWorkingHypothesis 19

2.1FindaQuestioninYourTopic 19

2.2ProposeSomeWorkingAnswers 22

2.3BuildaStoryboardtoPlanandGuideYourWork 23

2.4OrganizeaWritingSupportGroup 23

3FindingUsefulSources 25

3.1UnderstandtheKindsofSourcesReadersExpectYoutoUse 25

3.2RecordYourSourcesFully,Accurately,andAppropriately 26

3.3SearchforSourcesSystematically 27

3.4EvaluateSourcesforRelevanceandReliability 29

3.5LookbeyondtheUsualKindsofReferences 30

4EngagingSources 31

4.1ReadGenerouslytoUnderstand,ThenCriticallytoEngageandEvaluate 31

4.2TakeNotesSystematically 33

4.3TakeUsefulNotes 34

4.4WriteasYouRead 35

4.5ReviewYourProgress 35

4.6ManageMomentsofNormalPanic 36

5PlanningYourArgument 37

5.1WhataResearchArgumentIsandIsNot 37

5.2BuildYourArgumentaroundAnswerstoReaders’Questions 37

5.3TurnYourWorkingHypothesisintoaClaim 38

5.4AssembletheElementsofYourArgument 38

5.5DistinguishArgumentsBasedonEvidencefromArgumentsBasedonWarrants 42

5.6AssembleanArgument 43

6PlanningaFirstDraft 44

6.1AvoidUnhelpfulPlans 44

6.2CreateaPlanThatMeetsYourReaders’Needs 44

6.3FileAwayLeftovers 48

7DraftingYourReport 49

7.1DraftintheWayThatFeelsMostComfortable 49

7.2DevelopProductiveDraftingHabits 49

7.3UseYourKeyTermstoKeepYourselfonTrack 49

7.4Quote,Paraphrase,andSummarizeAppropriately 50

7.5IntegrateQuotationsintoYourText 50

7.6UseFootnotesandEndnotesJudiciously 51

7.7InterpretComplexorDetailedEvidenceBeforeYouOfferIt 51

7.8BeOpentoSurprises 51

285

7.9GuardagainstInadvertentPlagiarism 52

7.10GuardagainstInappropriateAssistance 53

7.11WorkThroughChronicProcrastinationandWriter’sBlock 53

8PresentingEvidenceinTablesandFigures 55

8.1ChooseVerbalorVisualRepresentations 55

8.2ChoosetheMostEffectiveGraphic 55

8.3DesignTablesandFigures 57

8.4CommunicateDataEthically 66

9RevisingYourDraft 72

9.1CheckforBlindSpotsinYourArgument 72

9.2CheckYourIntroduction,Conclusion,andClaim 72

9.3MakeSuretheBodyofYourReportIsCoherent 72

9.4CheckYourParagraphs 73

9.5LetYourDraftCool,ThenParaphraseIt 73

10WritingYourFinalIntroductionandConclusion 74

10.1DraftYourFinalIntroduction 74

10.2DraftYourFinalConclusion 76

10.3WriteYourTitleLast 77

11RevisingSentences 78

11.1FocusontheFirstSevenorEightWordsofaSentence 78

11.2DiagnoseWhatYouRead 82

11.3ChoosetheRightWord 82

11.4PolishItUp 82

11.5GiveItUpandPrintItOut 83

12LearningfromYourReturnedPaper 84

12.1FindGeneralPrinciplesinSpecificComments 84

12.2TalktoYourInstructor 84

13PresentingResearchinAlternativeForums 85

13.1PlanYourOralPresentation 85

13.2DesignYourPresentationtoBeListenedTo 86

13.3PlanYourPosterPresentation 87

13.4PlanYourConferenceProposal 87

14OntheSpiritofResearch 88

PartIISourceCitation 89

15GeneralIntroductiontoCitationPractices 90

15.1ReasonsforCitingYourSources 90

15.2TheRequirementsofCitation 90

15.3TwoCitationStyles 91

15.4ElectronicSources 92

15.5PreparationofCitations 93

15.6CitationManagementSoftware 93

16Notes-BibliographyStyle:TheBasicForm 94

16.1BasicPatterns 94

16.2Bibliographies 97

16.3Notes 99

16.4ShortFormsforNotes 101

17Notes-BibliographyStyle:CitingSpecificTypesofSources 105

17.1Books 106

17.2JournalArticles 114

17.3MagazineArticles 116

286

17.4NewspaperArticles 116

17.5AdditionalTypesofPublishedSources 117

17.6UnpublishedSources 120

17.7Websites,Blogs,SocialNetworks,andDiscussionGroups 122

17.8SourcesintheVisualandPerformingArts 123

17.9PublicDocuments 126

17.10OneSourceQuotedinAnother 131

18Author-DateStyle:TheBasicForm 132

18.1BasicPatterns 132

18.2ReferenceLists 135

18.3ParentheticalCitations 137

19Author-DateStyle:CitingSpecificTypesofSources 139

19.1Books 140

19.2JournalArticles 148

19.3MagazineArticles 150

19.4NewspaperArticles 150

19.5AdditionalTypesofPublishedSources 151

19.6UnpublishedSources 154

19.7Websites,Blogs,SocialNetworks,andDiscussionGroups 155

19.8SourcesintheVisualandPerformingArts 157

19.9PublicDocuments 160

19.10OneSourceQuotedinAnother 165

PartIIIStyle 166

20Spelling 167

20.1Plurals 167

20.2Possessives 168

20.3CompoundsandWordsFormedwithPrefixes 170

20.4LineBreaks 175

21Punctuation 177

21.1Periods 177

21.2Commas 178

21.3Semicolons 180

21.4Colons 181

21.5QuestionMarks 181

21.6ExclamationPoints 181

21.7HyphensandDashes 181

21.8ParenthesesandBrackets 182

21.9Slashes 182

21.10QuotationMarks 182

21.11Apostrophes 183

21.12MultiplePunctuationMarks 183

22Names,SpecialTerms,andTitlesofWorks 185

22.1Names 185

22.2SpecialTerms 188

22.3TitlesofWorks 189

23Numbers 192

23.1WordsorNumerals? 192

23.2PluralsandPunctuation 196

23.3DateSystems 197

23.4NumbersUsedoutsidetheText 198

287

24Abbreviations 200

24.1GeneralPrinciples 200

24.2NamesandTitles 201

24.3GeographicalTerms 204

24.4TimeandDates 206

24.5UnitsofMeasure 207

24.6TheBibleandOtherSacredWorks 207

24.7AbbreviationsinCitationsandOtherScholarlyContexts 209

25Quotations 212

25.1QuotingAccuratelyandAvoidingPlagiarism 212

25.2IncorporatingQuotationsintoYourText 212

25.3ModifyingQuotations 214

26TablesandFigures 218

26.1GeneralIssues 218

26.2Tables 219

26.3Figures 223

Appendix:PaperFormatandSubmission 225

A.1GeneralFormatRequirements 225

A.2FormatRequirementsforSpecificElements 227

A.3FilePreparationandSubmissionRequirements 249

Bibliography 254

Authors 268

Index 269

288