Effectiveness of forestry best management practices in the United

Review and synthesis

Effectiveness of forestry best management practices in the United States:

Literature review

Richard Cristan

⇑

, W. Michael Aust

, M. Chad Bolding

, Scott M. Barrett

, John F. Munsell

Erik Schilling

Department of Forest Resources & Environmental Conservation (FREC), Virginia Tech, 228 Cheatham Hall, 310 West Campus Drive, VA 24061, USA

FREC, Virginia Tech, 304 Cheatham Hall, 310 West Campus Drive, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA

National Council for Air and Stream Improvement, Inc., 8270 McNatt Road, Aubrey, TX 76227, USA

article info

Article history:

Received 28 July 2015

Received in revised form 14 October 2015

Accepted 15 October 2015

Keywords:

Forestry best management practices (BMPs)

BMP effectiveness studies

Water quality

Sediment delivery

Erosion

Forest operations

abstract

In response to the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (a.k.a., Clean Water Act) of 1972, forestry best

management practices (BMPs) were developed and subsequently implemented to address NPS pollution

during forest management. BMP guidelines vary by state and can be non-regulatory, quasi-regulatory, or

regulatory. To determine how effective the guidelines for protecting water quality are, research literature

relating to BMP effectiveness was evaluated. Forestry BMP effectiveness studies are often site or region

speciﬁc. Therefore, BMP research in the United States was divided into three regions: northern, southern,

and western. Thirty research studies were reviewed for the southern region with the majority being con-

ducted in the Piedmont and Coastal Plain physiographic regions. The western region had thirty-one stud-

ies, most of which were in the Paciﬁc Border physiographic region. The northern region had twenty

studies primarily in the northeastern states. Forestry BMP effectiveness research generally focused on

forest water quality from timber harvesting, site preparation, forest road construction and maintenance,

stream crossings, and other categories of forest operations. The literature indicates that forestry BMPs

protect water quality when constructed correctly and in adequate numbers. Forestry BMP effectiveness

studies allow state forestry BMP programs to evaluate progress in reducing non-point source pollution

and achieving water quality goals established under the Clean Water Act (CWA). Furthermore, states have

used research ﬁndings to change BMPs and improve their guidelines. Although forestry BMPs have been

proven to protect water quality, they are still being reﬁned to enhance their performance.

Ó 2015 Published by Elsevier B.V.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . ...................................................................................................... 134

2. Forestry BMP effectiveness study literature review methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................. 134

2.1. Southern states . . . . . . . . ......................................................................................... 135

2.1.1. Academia. .............................................................................................. 135

2.1.2. State . . . . .............................................................................................. 139

2.1.3. Federal. . . .............................................................................................. 139

2.1.4. Industry. . .............................................................................................. 140

2.2. Northern states . . . . . . . . ......................................................................................... 140

2.2.1. Academia. .............................................................................................. 140

2.2.2. State . . . . .............................................................................................. 142

2.2.3. Federal. . . .............................................................................................. 143

2.2.4. Non-profit .............................................................................................. 143

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2015.10.025

0378-1127/Ó 2015 Published by Elsevier B.V.

⇑

Corresponding author.

E-mail addresses: [email protected] (R. Cristan), [email protected] (W.M. Aust), [email protected] (M.C. Bolding), [email protected] (S.M. Barrett), [email protected] (J.F. Munsell),

[email protected] (E. Schilling).

Forest Ecology and Management 360 (2016) 133–151

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Forest Ecology and Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foreco

2.3. Western states. . . ............................................................................................... 143

2.3.1. Academia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................................................. 143

2.3.2. Federal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................................................. 147

2.3.3. State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................................................. 148

2.3.4. Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................................................. 149

2.3.5. Private . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................................................. 149

2.3.6. Non-profit . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................................................. 149

3. Conclusion . ......................................................................................................... 149

3.1. Overall BMP effectiveness study conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................ 149

3.2. Specific BMP guideline conclusions . . . . . ............................................................................ 149

Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . ......................................................................................... 149

References . ......................................................................................................... 150

1. Introduction

Following passage of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of

1972 (Clean Water Act or CWA), states developed and imple-

mented forestry best management practices (BMPs) to reduce non-

point source pollution (NPSP) during forest management (Phillips

and Blinn, 2004). The CWA includes requirements for both point

source pollution (PSP) and NPSP and deﬁnes PSP to include identi-

ﬁable pollution discharge areas that are traceable to an outlet. Con-

versely, NPSP is pollution where discharge areas are not readily

identiﬁable and typically include agricultural and forestry opera-

tions because a pollutant cannot be attributed to a speciﬁc site or

operation and is usually induced by natural erosive processes, such

as surface runoff from rainfall or snowmelt (US EPA, 2005). The

CWA (section 208) deﬁnes timber harvesting and silvicultural

operations as NPSP (Grace, 2005). The U.S. Environmental Protec-

tion Agency (EPA) required states to adopt NPSP control programs

for forestry activities and suggest states follow either a regulatory

or non-regulatory approach to meet NPSP recommendations and

goals for water quality (Ice et al., 2004). In 1987, congress amended

the CWA (Water Quality Act) to include Section 319 to assist states

with the development and funding of state NPSP control programs

(US EPA, 2005). In essence, Section 319 allows EPA to grant state

forestry agencies ﬁnancial assistance for implementing manage-

ment programs to reduce NPSP.

Although forestry BMPs differ by state, prescriptions are typi-

cally similar in that they include some variation of the following

forestry operational categories: forest road construction and main-

tenance, log landings (decks), skid trails, stream side management

zones (SMZs), stream crossings, wetland protection and manage-

ment, timber harvesting, site preparation, and reforestation. Some

states have also developed additional BMPs for wildlife protection

(FDACS, 2014) or woody biomass harvesting (Fritts et al., 2014).

Northeastern and Paciﬁc Northwest (includes California) states

typically follow a Forest Practice Act (FPA) that requires use of

speciﬁc BMPs during forest management. In contrast southeastern

states generally use a voluntary approach whereby the logger or

landowner can select from a suite of BMP recommendations and

decide which prescription best meets water quality protection

needs. Finally, some states have quasi-regulatory BMP programs

where prescriptions may be voluntary but landowners have certain

legal requirements such as notifying a state agency of intent to har-

vest or applying for permits to install stream crossings. Regardless

of the approach, all states have regulatory authority to stop or reg-

ulate ‘bad actors’ if they fail to follow recommended BMPs and

damage water resources (NCASI, 1994, 1996). State forestry agen-

cies most commonly lead BMP implementation and compliance

reports. Forestry BMP strategies, techniques, and monitoring vary

signiﬁcantly by state and region. States also differ regarding how

they select and monitor sites to document BMP implementation

and compliance.

Appropriately implemented BMPs have positive inﬂuences on

stream health, including stream temperature and nutrients

(Arthur et al., 1998; Clinton, 2011; Edwards and Williard, 2010;

Keim and Schoenholtz, 1999; Wilkerson et al., 2006). However,

sediment is typically considered to be the most signiﬁcant water

pollutant associated with forest management (US EPA, 2005;

Yoho, 1980). Forestry BMPs have been reported to improve water

quality (80–90%) when compared prior practices (Ice, 2004;

NCASI, 2012; Loehle et al., 2014). BMP development has been an

ongoing process which began with deﬁning potential water quality

problems, formulating solutions, adopting practical and cost-

effective BMPs, and monitoring their implementation (Ice, 2004).

Forestry BMP effectiveness studies evaluate whether BMP imple-

mentation fully achieves the goal of protecting water quality. For-

estry BMPs will continue to evolve over time as water quality

standards are redeﬁned and performance measures are changed

(Rummer, 2004). Federal and state agencies and universities have

completed or have ongoing implementation and effectiveness

studies (NCASI, 2012).

Literature reviews addressing the effectiveness of forestry BMPs

have been previously conducted. Aust and Blinn (2004) reviewed

timber harvesting and site preparation BMP research results in

the eastern US.

Ice et al. (2004) assessed the implementation and

effectiveness of BMPs in the western US. Shepard (2006) reviewed

BMP use in the US with emphasis on suitability for biomass har-

vesting operations. Croke and Hairsine (2006) reviewed sediment

delivery in managed forests. Anderson and Lockaby (2011) evalu-

ated the effectiveness of BMPs for sediment control in the south-

eastern US. These previous literature reviews focus on broader

categories of operations such as timber harvesting, site prepara-

tion, and biomass harvesting while this review focuses on more

speciﬁc operational categories (timber harvesting, skid trails, forest

roads, streamside management zones, site preparation, etc.) and

seeks to comprehensively evaluate BMP effectiveness studies for

the three major wood producing regions of the US so that forest

managers and agency personnel have current documentation of

BMP efﬁcacy within their operational area.

2. Forestry BMP effectiveness study literature review

methodology

This review provides an overview of forestry BMP effectiveness

and related studies by region of the United States (US). Southern,

western, and northern regions are based on the geographic

grouping of states as noted by the Southern Group of State Fores-

ters (SGSF), Council of Western State Foresters (CWSF), and the

Northeastern Area Association of State Foresters (NAASF). This

review concentrated on BMP research that was published in

peer-reviewed literature, had a direct emphasis on how BMP

implementation levels would affect soil erosion and or stream

134 R. Cristan et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 360 (2016) 133–151

sedimentation, and primarily focused on relatively recent litera-

ture (past 20 years) so that the ﬁndings are more indicative of

current forest operations, techniques, and equipment and BMP

prescriptions. To ﬁll in gaps, a few studies dating farther back

were included in the review. However, we acknowledge that this

limitation does not account for much of the early BMP research

established by US Forest Service researchers at sites such as Hub-

bard Brook, Coweeta, Parsons, and the HJ Andrews watersheds.

Our BMP efﬁcacy deﬁnition is intentionally more inclusive than

Edwards and Williard (2010) who focused only on studies that

compared in-stream sediment levels to differing levels of BMP

prescriptions. Finally, we include comparisons of soil erosion with

different levels of BMPs as we believe it is a reasonable assump-

tion that reduced levels of soil erosion result in reduced

sedimentation.

2.1. Southern states

Thirty BMP effectiveness studies from 1985 to 2015 were

reviewed and documented by state and physiographic region for

the Southern US (Fig. 1). The majority of effectiveness studies were

conducted in the Coastal Plain and Piedmont regions since these

physiographic regions have extensive areas of intensively managed

forests and highly mechanized forest operations (Allen et al., 2005;

Fox, 2000). The BMP effectiveness studies reviewed in the south

varied by organization conducting the study (academia, state

agency(s), federal agency(s), and industry), location, included

assessment of evaluations and treatments, and offered key major

conclusions (Table 1).

2.1.1. Academia

Twenty-two of the thirty reviewed studies were conducted by

academia. The studies were divided into ﬁve categories depending

on study topic (water quality, SMZ, forest roads, skid trails, and

stream crossings).

2.1.1.1. Water quality. Arthur et al. (1998) studied the effects of

BMPs on stream water quality in Appalachian Plateau region of

eastern Kentucky. Their study included two treatment watersheds

(with BMPs and no BMPs) and one reference watershed. The

authors found that water yield, suspended sediment ﬂux, and con-

centrations of nitrate and other nutrients were higher on the no

BMP watershed and concluded that the BMP applied watershed

which included a stream buffer strip reduced water yield and sed-

iment ﬂux impacts.

Williams et al. (1999) evaluated the effectiveness of South

Carolina BMPs on water quality in the Piedmont physiographic

region. Their study consisted of monitoring four experimental

watersheds on the Clemson Experimental Forest (3 treatment

watersheds). Each treatment watershed was harvested and site

prepared (shear, rake and pile, herbicide and burn, and natural

regenerated) using South Carolina BMPs. The authors measured

suspended sediment, nitrate, phosphate, pH, and water tempera-

ture and found that suspended sediments levels were 10 times

lower when BMPs were applied.

Wynn et al. (2000) evaluated the impacts on surface water qual-

ity from clearcutting and site preparation in the Coastal Plain phys-

iographic region of Virginia. Their study consisted of three

watersheds (clearcut without BMPs, clearcut with BMPs, and

Fig. 1. Reviewed BMP effectiveness studies by state and physiographic region for the southeastern United States. Locations were determined from the studies as well as

Schilling and Ice (2012).

R. Cristan et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 360 (2016) 133–151

135

Table 1

Summary of forestry BMP effectiveness studies for the southern United States by investigator(s), location, evaluations and treatments, and major conclusions.

Investigators Region/location Study

conducted

Evaluations/treatments Major conclusions

Mc Clurkin et al. (1985) Upper Gulf Coastal

Plain (Tennessee)

Federal Clearcutting pine plantations on fragile soils of abandoned agricultural land Clearcutting pine plantations on fragile soils can be accomplished without

signiﬁcant impact on water quality if the proper forest practices are applied

Adams et al. (1995) South Carolina State Compared state BMP compliance results with stream bio-assessments of

benthic macroinvertebrates and stream habitats

Assessment of stream macroinvertebrates and stream habitat were an

effective approach of determining BMP effectiveness

Arthur et al. (1998) Kentucky Academia Effects of BMP implementation on stream water quality; evaluated suspended

sediment ﬂux, water yield, and concentrations of nutrients

Forestry BMPs were effective; buffer strips were effective in reducing water

yield and sediment ﬂux on clearcuts

Keim and Schoenholtz

(1999)

Mississippi bluff

hills Gulf Coastal

Plain

Academia Effectiveness of SMZs on loessial bluff forests; evaluated stream total

suspended solids (TSS), turbidity, temperature, pH, conductivity, and

dissolved oxygen

SMZs were effective in reducing overland ﬂow and TSS concentrations due to

the forest ﬂoor near the stream and stream channels not being disturbed

Ruhlman (1999) Upper Coastal Plain

(Georgia)

Industry Effectiveness of forestry BMPs on intensively managed watersheds Forestry BMPs were effective in protecting water quality

Williams et al. (1999) Piedmont (South

Carolina)

Academia Effectiveness of South Carolina BMPs for harvesting and site preparation Suspended sediments were lower on sites that applied BMPs

Wynn et al. (2000) Coastal Plain

(Virginia)

Academia Effects of timber harvesting and site preparation BMPs on surface water

quality

BMPs for timber harvesting and site preparation in the Coastal Plain region

signiﬁcantly reduced sediment when compared to not applying BMPs

Vowell (2001) Coastal Plain

(Florida)

State Evaluated if stream bio-assessment could be used to monitor forestry BMPs

for intensive silviculture activities

Stream condition index (SCI) was not signiﬁcantly different between the

reference data and treatment data; correctly implemented BMPs applied to

areas around streams provide protection to stream ecosystems

Appelboom et al.

(2002)

Coastal Plain

(North Carolina)

Academia Forest road practices for sediment reduction Found that a continuous berm along the edge of a forest road reduced

sediment by an average of 99%, gravel reduced sediment by an average of 61%,

and a grass strip reduced sediment by an average of 56%; sedimentation from

Coastal Plain roads can be reduced with appropriate forest road BMPs

Carroll et al. (2004) Central Mississippi

upper Gulf Coastal

Plain

Academia Effectiveness of SMZs on clearcut harvests; assessed water quality, mineral

soil exposure, net deposition and erosion that entered the SMZs, stream

habitat indicators, and aquatic macroinvertebrates

Found a signiﬁcant increase in stream temperature and macroinvertebrate

density and a decrease in habitat stability when SMZs were absent; concluded

that SMZs can be effective in protecting water quality

Rivenbark and Jackson

(2004)

Piedmont (Georgia) Academia Efﬁciency of BMPs with preventing overland ﬂow and sediments from

reaching waterways; assessed SMZ breakthroughs (failures) on sites that were

clearcut and site prepared

Roughly 50% of all breakthroughs were due to gullies and swales; runoff from

forest roads and skid trails caused 25% of all breakthroughs; SMZ widths

should be based on site features

Vowell and Frydenborg

(2004)

Coastal Plain

(Florida)

State Supplemented Vowell (2001) study assessing stream bio-assessments for

evaluating the effectiveness of forestry BMPs with the addition of chemical

applications

Their conclusions were similar to the previous study in that BMPs applied to

areas around streams provide protection to stream ecosystems during

intensive silviculture activities including chemical applications

Ward and Jackson

(2004)

Piedmont (Georgia) Academia Effectiveness of SMZs for reducing sediment transport from concentration

overland ﬂow on two clearcuts that applied mechanical and chemical site

preparation and planting

Estimated the sediment delivery ratio was 25%; SMZs were effective for

trapping sediment from concentrated overland ﬂow with an average of 81%

efﬁciency

Grippo and McCord

(2006)

Arkansas Academia Effectiveness of Arkansas BMPs adjacent to timber harvests; bio-assessment of

benthic macroinvertebrates and water quality

Water chemistry and benthic macroinvertebrates were not affected by timber

harvesting where BMPs were applied

McBroom et al. (2008) Western Gulf

Coastal Plain (east

Texas)

Academia Storm runoff and sediment loss associated with clearcutting and stand

establishment (intensive and conventional site preparation) with BMPs

First year sediment loss was signiﬁcantly lower than if BMPs were not applied

Simpson et al. (2008) Texas State Effectiveness of Texas forestry BMPs (2003–2007) on four perennial streams

that had intensive forestry practices; monitored biological and

physiochemical stream conditions

No signiﬁcant differences in pre-treatment and post-treatment conditions;

concluded that properly applied BMPs are effective in protecting water quality

Turton et al. (2009) Stillwater Creek

Watershed

(Oklahoma)

Academia Effectiveness of BMPs in reducing sediment from unpaved roads; evaluated

runoff and sediment yield; treatments included: (1) control, (2) widened

ditches, reshaped ditches, cut slopes, crowning of road surface, and vegetating

disturbed areas, and (3) crowning of road surface, geo-synthetic fabric on road

bed, and 127 mm gravel

Sediment yields were signiﬁcantly reduced after application of both BMP

treatments; treatment 2 had a 20% reduction in sediment yield and treatment

3 had an 80% reduction in sediment yield when compared to no BMPs applied

(control treatment)

Lakel et al. (2010) Piedmont (Virginia) Academia Effects of SMZ widths and thinning levels on sediment moving through SMZs;

SMZ treatments included widths of: 30.4 m, 15.2 m, and 7.6 m without

thinning and 15.2 m with thinning; calculated sediment delivery ratio; second

study (sub-watersheds) evaluated sediment at site preparation areas, ﬁre

lines, and streams; BMPs were followed on the study sites

Did not ﬁnd any signiﬁcant differences in sediment delivery for all SMZ

treatments; second study found signiﬁcant difference in sediment from the

harvest, ﬁre line, and SMZ treatment; ﬁre lines produced 12 times more

sediment as the harvest with a sediment delivery ratio of 14%; overall SMZs

trapped between 84% and 97% of the erosion

136 R. Cristan et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 360 (2016) 133–151

Table 1 (continued)

Investigators Region/location Study

conducted

Evaluations/treatments Major conclusions

Aust et al. (2011) Piedmont (Virginia) Academia Effects of operational forest stream crossings had on water quality; treatments

included: (1) portable steel skidder bridge, (2) culvert with poles as ﬁll

material, (3) reinforced ford, and (4) culvert with earth as ﬁll material;

assessed total dissolved solids, pH, conductivity, temperature, and sediment

concentrations prior to installations, after installation, during harvest, and

after road closure

The authors found that the bridge stream crossings had the least effects on

water quality and the culvert had the highest estimated erosion potentials;

concluded that appropriate BMPs should be followed during all periods of a

timber harvest rather than waiting until closing the site to implement BMPs

Clinton (2011) Blue Ridge

(Western North

Carolina)

Federal Riparian buffer effectiveness following timber harvesting using cable yarding;

three treatment buffers: 0 m, 10 m, and 30 m; sampled water chemistry,

water temperature, and TSS

Concluded that riparian buffers 10 m and wider minimized impacts on stream

water quality and provide an effective method to protect water quality

Grace and Elliot (2011) Northeast Georgia Federal Effectiveness of forest road BMPs in controlling sediment movement;

treatments included: (1) hay bale barrier, (2) sediment basin, and (3) sediment

basin with riser control

Mean sediment trapping efﬁciency was 99% for the sediment basin with a riser

control, 97% for the hay bale barrier, and 94% for the sediment basin; no

signiﬁcant differences in sediment trapping efﬁciency; sediment control

structures reduced runoff by greater than 98% and sediment delivery between

94% and 97%

Sawyers et al. (2012) Piedmont (Virginia) Academia Effectiveness and implementation costs of overland skid trail closure

techniques within an 11.7 ha clearcut; treatments included: (1) waterbar only,

(2) waterbar with seed, (3) waterbar with seed and mulch, (4) waterbar with

hardwood slash, and (5) waterbar with pine slash; assessed sediment loss

Found that the mulch treatment (3.3 Mg ha

1

) was the most effective

method in reducing erosion followed by hardwood slash (5.1 Mg ha

1

pine slash (5.4 Mg ha

1

), seed (13.6 Mg ha

1

), and control

(24.2 Mg ha

1

)

Wade et al. (2012) Piedmont (Virginia) Academia Compared ﬁve erosion control techniques on bladed skid trails; treatments

included: (1) waterbar only, (2) waterbar with seed, (3) waterbar with seed

and mulch, (4) waterbar with hardwood slash, and (5) waterbar with pine

slash

Similar results to Sawyers et al. (2012) in that the waterbars with mulch

treatment was the least erosive followed by the slash treatment; concluded

that applying mulch and slash provide good erosion control

Witt et al. (2013) Cumberland

plateau (Kentucky)

Academia SMZ effectiveness on ephemeral streams; four treatments: (1) no SMZ, (2)

SMZ with no limitations, (3) SMZ with limitations, and (4) control;

unimproved and improved stream crossings were used; sampled TSS,

turbidity, and sediment transport rate

Both SMZ treatments signiﬁcantly lowered TSS and turbidity when compared

to the no SMZ treatment; When compared to control, treatment 2 resulted in

higher TSS and turbidity while treatment 3 resulted in no difference in TSS;

concluded that improved stream crossings signiﬁcantly lower stream TSS and

turbidity

Wear et al. (2013) Piedmont (Virginia) Academia Effectiveness of BMPs for reducing sediment at operational steel bridge stream

crossings; skid trail stream approaches included three treatments: (1) slash,

(2) mulch and grass seed, and (3) mulch, grass seed, and silt fence; sampled

TSS

Both slash and mulch with grass seed treatments effectively reduced TSS and

the silt fence treatment increased TSS due to soil disturbance from installation

Brown et al. (2013) Piedmont (Virginia) Academia Sediment delivery from bare and graveled stream approaches; compared road

derived trapped sediment on ﬁve re-graded bare legacy stream approaches to

four graveled approaches

Sediment delivery for the bare approaches were 7.5 times higher (34–

287 Mg ha

1

) than the gravel road approaches (10–16 Mg ha

1

);

concluded that sediment delivery rates were due to inadequate road surface

cover and water control structures and that proper BMPs such as gravel and

appropriate spacing of water control structures can reduce sediment

DaSilva et al. (2013) Gulf Coast Plain

(northcentral

Louisiana)

Academia Stream metabolic rates to test the effects of timber harvesting with Louisiana

BMPs; sampled dissolved oxygen, water temperature, and stream depth above

and below a timber harvest of loblolly pine

Calculated metabolic rates and none of the results were signiﬁcantly changed

from the timber harvest; concluded that similar timber harvests applied with

Louisiana BMPs should not signiﬁcantly change stream biological conditions

Brown et al. (2014) Piedmont (Virginia) Academia Effect of increasing gravel cover on forest roads to reduce sediment delivery to

stream crossings; reopening of legacy forest road stream crossings;

treatments included: (1) no gravel, (2) low gravel, and (3) high gravel

Reopened and unsurfaced stream crossing approaches may produce

signiﬁcant sediment delivery and surface runoff into streams and that low

cost BMPs can be used to protect water quality when reopening forest roads

Lang et al. (2015) Piedmont (Virginia) Academia Identiﬁed and characterized SMZ breakthroughs (partial and complete) by

frequency and potential causes for 10 km of SMZs

Found 33 complete breakthroughs and 8 partial breakthroughs over 16 sites,

averaging 1 complete breakthrough every 0.3 km; 42% of complete

breakthroughs were from stream crossings, 27% from reactivation of legacy

agricultural gullies, and 24% from harvest related soil disturbances

Morris et al. (2015) Piedmont (Virginia) Academia Effectiveness of stream crossing BMPs for sediment control (bridge, culvert,

ford); three treatments: (1) minimal BMP erosion control (low), (2) BMP

erosion control recommended by the Virginia BMP Manual (medium), and (3)

erosion control exceeding the Virginia BMP Manual recommendations (high)

Found that the culvert stream crossing produced double the sediment

concentration (2.9 g/L) than the ford (1.4 g/L) and ten times more than the

bridge (0.2 g/L); current Virginia BMPs were effective in reducing

sedimentation

R. Cristan et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 360 (2016) 133–151

137

control). The no BMP watershed resulted in signiﬁcant increases in

storm event concentrations and loadings (sediment, nitrogen, and

phosphorus) following clearcutting and site preparation. The

authors concluded that applying BMPs during harvesting and site

preparation can reduce the impacts of sediment and nutrients on

water quality.

Grippo and McCord (2006) conducted a bioassessment of

Arkansas BMPs. The purpose of their study was to evaluate the

effectiveness of Arkansas’s BMPs. They evaluated benthic macroin-

vertebrates and physiochemical stream parameters (water tem-

perature, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, pH, turbidity, nitrate

and ortho-phosphate, and total suspended solids (TSS)) on sites

that were harvested and site prepared (ripped). The authors found

that water quality improved using Arkansas BMPs.

McBroom et al. (2008) studied the effects of intensive forest

operations with BMPs on stream water quality and runoff in the

Coastal Plain region of Texas. Their study included two treatments:

conventional operation (clearcut with herbicide site preparation)

and intensive operation (clearcut with herbicide, subsoiling, and

fertilization) and were compared to a previous study on the same

site without BMPs (Blackburn et al., 1986). The authors found

reduced water quality impacts when BMPs were applied for inten-

sive forest operations.

DaSilva et al. (2013) assessed timber harvesting with BMPs on

ecosystem metabolism in the Coastal Plain physiographic region

of Louisiana. Their study focused on calculating stream metabolic

rates to evaluate Louisiana BMPs. None of their calculated stream

metabolic rates were signiﬁcant and the authors concluded that

BMPs did not have a signiﬁcant effect on stream biology.

2.1.1.2. Streamside management zone (SMZ). Keim and Schoenholtz

(1999) assessed the effectiveness of SMZs with intensive timber

harvesting in loessial bluff forests in the Coastal Plain of Missis-

sippi. Their study had four treatments: (1) unrestricted harvest

with no buffer, (2) unrestricted outside of SMZ, cable only in

SMZ, (3) unrestricted harvest outside SMZ, no harvest in SMZ,

and (4) reference. The authors monitored water quality (TSS, tur-

bidity, temperature, pH, conductivity, and dissolved oxygen) for

15 months post-harvest. Keim and Schoenholtz (1999) found that

timber harvests without SMZs resulted in three times the sediment

concentration than the non-harvested watersheds. They suggested

eliminating equipment trafﬁc near the stream (at least 10 m).

Carroll et al. (2004) conducted a similar study to Keim and

Schoenholtz (1999) within the sand-clay hills in the Coastal Plain

region of Mississippi. Their study had three treatments: (1) refer-

ence, (2) clearcut with a SMZ, and (3) clearcut without a SMZ.

The authors concluded that SMZs were effective in protecting

water quality, as their data showed similar responses between

the SMZ treatment streams and the reference streams for water

quality, stream habitat indicators, and aquatic macroinvertebrate

communities.

Rivenbark and Jackson (2004) evaluated the frequency of SMZ

breakthroughs for the Piedmont physiographic region of Georgia

to determine BMP efﬁciency. This study examined 30 clearcut

and site prepared sites for breakthroughs and successes. The

authors deﬁned breakthroughs as where sediment entered the

SMZ and entered the stream while successes were when the SMZ

stopped the sediment from entering the stream. They found 187

breakthroughs on 2773 acres which was then calculated to a

breakthrough every 20 acres. The authors reported that 50% of

breakthroughs were due to gullies and swales and that roads or

skid trails caused 25% of breakthroughs. A similar study was con-

ducted by Lang et al. (2015) but for the Virginia Piedmont. The

authors used similar terminology and deﬁnitions but used the term

partial breakthroughs instead of successes and complete

breakthroughs for breakthroughs. They found 33 complete

breakthroughs and 8 partial breakthroughs on 10 km of SMZs (16

sites), which averaged one complete breakthrough every 0.3 km

of SMZ length. Lang et al. (2015) found that 42% of breakthroughs

were due to stream crossings, 27% from gullies, and 24% from soil

disturbances from timber harvesting within the SMZ.

Ward and Jackson (2004) evaluated SMZ sediment trapping efﬁ-

ciency for sites that were clearcut, site prepared (mechanical and

chemical), and replanted in the Georgia Piedmont. Their study

had two treatments: (1) SMZ and (2) no SMZ. The authors placed

a silt fence at the edge of the SMZ to accomplish the no SMZ treat-

ment. SMZs trapped sediment from overland ﬂow 81% of the time.

Ward and Jackson (2004) also estimated that the sediment delivery

ratio was 25% for their sites by taking their measured sediment

from treatment two and compared it to Revised Universal Soil Loss

Equation (RUSLE) predictions. Lakel et al. (2010) conducted a sim-

ilar study evaluating SMZs sediment trapping ability for harvested

and site prepared sites in the Virginia Piedmont. The authors com-

pared sediment trapping of different SMZ widths and thinning

levels (30.4 m, 15.2 m, 7.6 m, and 15.2 m thinned) and found that

SMZs efﬁciency for trapping sediment ranged from 84% to 97%.

Lakel et al. (2010) found the sediment delivery ratios between 3%

and 14%.

Witt et al. (2013) evaluated the effectiveness of different SMZ

treatments for ephemeral streams in the Cumberland Plateau of

Kentucky. The treatments applied in this study were: (1) harvest,

unimproved stream crossing, and no SMZ, (2) harvest, retention

of only channel bank trees, and improved stream crossing, (3) har-

vest with 7.6 m SMZ and an improved stream crossing, and (4) con-

trol (no harvest). The authors collected water samples (TSS,

turbidity, settleable solids, and sediment transport rate) and found

that treatment two and treatment three resulted in signiﬁcantly

lower TSS and turbidity levels than treatment one (no SMZ). Treat-

ment three was not signiﬁcantly different than the control for TSS

while treatment two was signiﬁcantly different than the control (4)

for both TSS and turbidity.

2.1.1.3. Forest roads. Forest roads tend to be one of the major

sources of sediment from forest operations. Appelboom et al.

(2002) assessed forest road practices for reducing sediment loss

from forest roads in the Coastal Plain of North Carolina. The

authors evaluated the effectiveness of seven road practices and col-

lected runoff samples. The road practices consisted of one contin-

uous berm treatment and six non-continuous berm treatments

(berm with drainage breaks). Appelboom et al. (2002) noted that

the continuous berm treatment reduced sediment loss by 99%

when compared to the road not having a continuous berm. The

authors also found that graveling a road can reduce sediment loss

by 61% when a continuous berm is used and a grass strip (90 cm)

can reduce sediment loss by 56% when compared to a road without

a grass strip.

Turton et al. (2009) evaluated the effectiveness of BMPs for

reducing sediment from unpaved roads in the Stillwater Creek

Watershed in Oklahoma. The authors evaluated sediment yield

and runoff on four rural unpaved road segments. They had two

treatments and a control; treatments included: (1) widened and

reshaped ditches, reshaped cut slopes, crowning of road surface,

and vegetating disturbed areas and (2) crowning the road surface,

geo-synthetic fabric, and 127 mm gravel. Turton et al. (2009) found

that BMPs signiﬁcantly reduced sediment yields.

Brown et al. (2013) assessed sediment delivery from bare and

graveled stream approaches in the Virginia Piedmont. They

trapped sediment from ﬁve re-graded legacy forest road stream

approaches and compared them to four graveled forest road

stream approaches. The authors found bare ground

stream approaches produced sediment delivery rates 7.5 times

greater (34–287 Mg ha

1

) than graveled road approaches

138 R. Cristan et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 360 (2016) 133–151

(10–16 Mg ha

1

). Brown et al. (2013) noted that lack of both

road surface cover and sufﬁcient water control structures resulted

in higher rates.

Brown et al. (2014) studied the effects of increasing gravel cover

on forest roads to reduce sediment delivery to stream crossings on

reopened legacy forest road stream crossings in the Virginia Pied-

mont. Their study had three stream approach treatments: (1) no

gravel, (2) low gravel, and (3) high gravel. The authors reported

higher median surface runoff TSS concentrations for no gravel

treatments (2.84 g l

1

), followed by low gravel treatments

(1.10 g l

1

), and high gravel (0.82 g l

1

). They noted that reopened

and unsurfaced stream crossing approaches can produce signiﬁ-

cant runoff and deliver sediment to streams; however, applying

BMPs to the approaches signiﬁcantly reduced sediment.

2.1.1.4. Skid trails. Sawyers et al. (2012) assessed erosion control

effectiveness of ﬁve overland skid trail closure methods in the

Piedmont physiographic region of Virginia. Their closure treat-

ments included: (1) waterbar only, (2) waterbar with seed, (3)

waterbar with seed and mulch, (4) waterbar with hardwood slash,

and (5) waterbar with pine slash. The authors measured trapped

sediments and predicted erosion using the Universal Soil Loss

Equation (USLE-Forest) and the Water Erosion Prediction Project

(WEPP-Roads). Waterbar with seed and mulch treatments had

the lowest erosion rate (3.3 Mg ha

1

) followed by waterbar

with hardwood slash (5.1 Mg ha

1

), waterbar with pine slash

(5.4 Mg ha

1

), waterbar with seed (13.6 Mg ha

1

), and

waterbar only (24.2 Mg ha

1

). WEPP predicted similar erosion

estimates to the measured data. Wade et al. (2012) conducted a

similar study to Sawyers et al. (2012) in assessing erosion control

effectiveness of ﬁve bladed skid trail closure techniques in the Vir-

ginia Piedmont. Their treatments were the same as Sawyers et al.

(2012) and also measured trapped sediment and modeled erosion.

Wade et al. (2012) also found that the waterbar with seed and

mulch treatment had the best erosion control (3.0 Mg ha

1

)

followed by waterbar with pine slash (5.9 Mg ha

1

), waterbar

with hardwood slash (8.9 Mg ha

1

), waterbar with seed

(31.5 Mg ha

1

), and waterbar only (137.7 Mg ha

1

Wear et al. (2013) studied the effectiveness of BMPs in reducing

sediment on operational temporary skid trail stream crossings in

the Virginia Piedmont. The authors applied three BMP closure

treatments on stream crossing approaches after steel bridges were

removed: (1) slash, (2) mulch and seed, and (3) mulch, seed, and

silt fence. They sampled water quality upstream and downstream

for TSS and found slash (1) and mulch with seed treatments (2)

reduced TSS, while mulch, seed, and silt fence (3) increased TSS.

The authors attributed increases in TSS from treatment three to soil

disturbance near the stream from silt fence installation.

2.1.1.5. Stream crossings. Aust et al. (2011) evaluated the effects of

four operational forest stream crossings (portable steel skidder

bridge, culverts with poles as ﬁll material, culverts with earth as ﬁll

material, and reinforced ford) in the Piedmont physiographic

region of Virginia. The authors examined 23 operational stream

crossings and approaches during four phases (initial, install, har-

vest, and closure) and measured total dissolved solids, pH, conduc-

tivity, temperature, and sediment concentration. They found

culvert crossing approaches resulted in the highest erosion rates

and that bridge crossing had the least effects on water quality.

Additionally, the install and harvest phases had the greatest effect

on water quality and concluded that BMPs should be followed dur-

ing all phases.

Morris et al. (2015) assessed the effectiveness of BMPs for

stream crossings (permanent bridge, culvert, and improved ford)

in reducing sediment for the Virginia Piedmont. Their study

implemented a rainfall simulation to evaluate different rainfall

intensities (low: 0.5–1.0 in. per hour, medium: 1.5–2.0 in. per hour,

and high: 2.0–2.5 in. per hour). The rainfall simulations were con-

ducted on three BMP treatment levels: (1) minimal BMP erosion

control, (2) BMP erosion control from the Virginia BMP Manual,

and (3) erosion control exceeding what Virginia recommends.

The culvert crossing produced 2.9 g/L of sediment concentration,

while the ford produced 1.4 g/L and the bridge produced 0.2 g/L.

They concluded that Virginia BMP guidelines were effective.

2.1.2. State

Forestry BMP monitoring effectiveness was the main focus of

the studies reviewed in the southern US. Adams et al. (1995)

assessed the effectiveness of South Carolina BMPs by evaluating

if biomonitoring can be used as a measure of determining BMP

effectiveness. The authors conducted a BMP compliance check,

stream habitat assessment, and a benthic macroinvertebrate

bioassessment on 27 harvested sites. Adams et al. (1995) found

that assessments of stream habitat and benthic macroinverte-

brates were an effective approach in determining BMP

effectiveness.

Vowell (2001) conducted a similar study that determined if

stream bioassessments could be used to monitor BMP effectiveness

on intensively managed forests in Florida. He determined a stream

condition index (SCI) at each site before silvicultural treatments

then conducted stream bioassessments after the treatments were

applied. The author found no signiﬁcant differences in the SCI

and concluded that Florida recommended BMPs were effective in

protecting water quality in intensively managed forests. Vowell

and Frydenborg (2004) built on the study conducted by Vowell

(2001), the authors evaluated intensively managed sites that

included chemical applications. No signiﬁcant differences in SCI

were found, indicating that BMPs were effective in protecting

water quality in intensively managed forests with chemical

applications.

Simpson et al. (2008) evaluated the effectiveness of Texas BMPs

on intensively managed silvicultural operations. The authors con-

ducted water quality monitoring (biological and physiochemical)

on four perennial streams over a four year period. They concluded

that the proper application of Texas BMPs resulted in effectively

protecting water quality.

2.1.3. Federal

Three studies conducted by the US Forest Service were

reviewed for the southern region. Mc Clurkin et al. (1985) evalu-

ated water quality from clearcutting loblolly pine plantations on

erosive soils in the upper Gulf Coastal Plain of Tennessee. The

authors evaluated stormﬂow exports of sediment and nutrients

on eight catchments and concluded that clearcutting did not cause

a signiﬁcant impact on water quality as long as proper practices

were applied.

Clinton (2011) evaluated riparian buffer width effectiveness by

evaluating stream water quality in the Blue Ridge physiographic

region of western North Carolina. The author examined cable yard-

ing harvesting on three riparian buffer treatments (0 m, 10 m, and

30 m). Water quality measurements (chemistry, temperature, and

TSS) were sampled on three of four catchments. The 0 m buffer site

had increased stream nitrate concentrations and summer water

temperatures, and TSS levels remained unchanged. Ten and 30 m

buffer treatments reduced TSS levels. Clinton (2011) concluded

that the 10 m buffer was efﬁcient in protecting water quality.

Grace and Elliot (2011) assessed the effectiveness of forest road

BMPs by evaluating storm runoff and sediment loading. Their

study was conducted over a six year period in northeast Georgia

(Chattahoochee-Oconee National Forest) and included three sedi-

ment control treatments (hay bale barrier, sediment basin, and

sediment basin with riser control). The authors found that the

R. Cristan et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 360 (2016) 133–151

139

sediment basin with riser control had the highest mean sediment

trapping efﬁciency (99%), followed by hay bale barrier (97%), and

sediment basin (94%). However, no signiﬁcant differences were

found between treatments. The authors concluded that sediment

transport was reduced for all three treatments.

2.1.4. Industry

We reviewed one industry study in the southern region con-

ducted by International Paper (Ruhlman, 1999). Ruhlman (1999)

evaluated the effectiveness of forestry BMPs on intensively man-

aged watersheds near the upper Coastal Plain and Piedmont phys-

iographic border in Georgia. The author assessed water quality

(chemical sampling of sediment and nutrients and benthic

macroinvertebrates) on a treatment watershed of 780 acres and a

reference watershed of 351 acres. The treatment watershed had

an 80 foot SMZ that was selective cut. Ruhlman (1999) did not ﬁnd

signiﬁcant differences in chemical sampling and benthic macroin-

vertebrate samples and concluded properly applied forest BMPs

protected water quality.

2.2. Northern states

BMP effectiveness studies in the northern US take place primar-

ily in the northeastern and lake state regions (Fig. 2). Effectiveness

studies across the northern states cover a range of different phys-

iographic regions. Twenty effectiveness studies from 1963 to 2014

were reviewed by organization conducting the study: academia

(6), federal (6), state (6), and non-proﬁt (2) (Table 2).

2.2.1. Academia

2.2.1.1. Water quality. Lynch et al. (1985) studied BMPs for control-

ling NPSP in the Ridge and Valley physiographic region of central

Pennsylvania. Their study included three treatment watersheds:

(1) commercial clearcut, (2) clearcut with herbicide, and (3)

control. The authors evaluated stream chemistry, turbidity, sedi-

ment concentrations, water temperature, and nutrient concentra-

tions. Lynch et al. (1985) found small increases in turbidity and

sediment concentrations and suggested these increases were due

to erosion caused by windblown trees located along the intermit-

tent stream channel. The authors concluded that BMPs were effec-

tive and that a buffer strip might have helped reduce windblown

trees along the stream channel.

Lynch and Corbett (1990) evaluated the effectiveness of BMPs

from long-term (15-year) streamﬂow and water quality data in

the Ridge and Valley of central Pennsylvania. Their study was a

paired watershed on the Leading Ridge Experimental Watershed

Research Unit which consisted of a 303 acre control watershed

and a 257 acre treatment watershed (110 ac clearcut). The authors

found signiﬁcant, however relatively small, increases at two years

post-harvest in nitrate and potassium concentrations, stream tem-

perature, and turbidity. The authors also found that by year four

post-harvest, water yields returned to pre-harvest levels. Lynch

and Corbett (1990) concluded that BMPs were effective due to no

serious altercations of water quality and suggested buffer strips

on intermittent streams, increases in buffer strip width, and

post-harvest site inspections.

Paashaus et al. (2004) sampled macroinvertebrates populations

in ephemeral streams pre-harvest and post-harvest. Their study

was a paired watershed (treatment and control) study in the Cats-

kills of southern New York. The treatment watershed was thinned

(60% of the basal area). The authors did not ﬁnd any signiﬁcant

impacts on macroinvertebrate populations from the thinning

operation.

Chizinski et al. (2010) evaluated the response of macroinverte-

brate and ﬁsh communities to partial harvesting stream buffers on

four small streams located in the Superior Upland physiographic

region of northern Minnesota. Their study included three treat-

ments: (1) control, (2) clearcut with no harvesting in stream buffer,

Fig. 2. Reviewed BMP effectiveness studies by state and physiographic region for the northern United States. Locations were determined from the studies as well as Schilling

and Ice (2012).

140 R. Cristan et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 360 (2016) 133–151

Table 2

Summary of forestry BMP effectiveness studies for the northern United States by investigator(s), location, evaluations and treatments, and major conclusions.

Investigators Region/location Study

conducted

Evaluations/treatments Major conclusions

Reinhart et al. (1963) West Virginia Federal Effects of timber harvesting practices on streamﬂow; treatments included: commercial

clearcutting, diameter limit cutting, extensive selection management, and intensive

selection

Timber harvesting increases storm ﬂow; water quality is affected due

to poor skid trails and logging; unplanned skid trails caused water

quality issues

Martin and Pierce

(1980)

New Hampshire Federal Effects of clearcutting on nitrate and calcium in streams; treatments included: 9

clearcut watersheds, 7 partially clearcut watersheds, and 7 uncut watersheds

Clearcutting less than entire watersheds and leaving buffers around

streams reduced the magnitude and duration of nitrate and calcium

increases

Patric (1980) North central

West Virginia

Federal Effects of harvesting on forest soil and water relations; two treatments: (1) clearcut with

20 m buffer on both sides of the stream and (2) harvesting 20 m buffer

Treatment 1 resulted in no effect on storm ﬂow and stream

temperature, however water yield increased 38% the ﬁrst year after

harvest, sediment concentrations were low due to buffer and

management of logging roads; treatment 2 increased water yield an

additional 9% and stream temperature 7.8 °C

Lynch et al. (1985) Central

Pennsylvania

Academia BMPs for controlling nonpoint source pollution; treatments included: (1) commercial

clearcut, (2) clearcut with herbicide, and (3) control; BMPs were implemented on

clearcuts; sampled water quality, turbidity, water temperature, and nutrient

concentrations for two years after harvest

BMPs were effective in controlling nonpoint source pollution following

logging in central Pennsylvania; slight increases in turbidity and

sedimentation could have been from windblown trees near an

intermittent stream channel and that buffer strips would have helped

reduce erosion

Lynch and Corbett

(1990)

Ridge and Valley

(central

Pennsylvania)

Academia Long-term (15-year) evaluation of BMPs for controlling nonpoint source pollution;

paired watershed study included a control watershed (303 ac) and a 110 ac commercial

clearcut watershed (257 ac); evaluated changes in water quality and quantity

Found small signiﬁcant increase in nitrate and potassium

concentrations and temperature and turbidity levels for ﬁrst two years

following the harvest; BMPs applied were effective because there were

no serious changes in water quality; recommendations: conduct post-

harvest inspections, increase buffer zone width, and include buffer zone

on intermittent streams

Martin and Hornbeck

(1994)

Central New

Hampshire

Federal Compared sediment yields and stream turbidities on harvested and un-harvested

watersheds; the study consisted of three control watersheds and four treatment

watersheds; watershed treatments included: (1) clear-felled, (2) strip-cut (strips 25 m),

(3) mechanized whole tree clearcut, and (4) clearcut (no sediment data)

Watersheds were harvested before state published BMPs; however

logging did follow state BMPs for erosion control and sedimentation;

sediment yields were not greatly affected from harvesting and skidding

Kochenderfer et al.

(1997)

Allegheny

plateau (West

Virginia)

Federal Effectiveness of West Virginia BMPs on a 39 ha watershed that was harvested to a

35.5 cm stump diameter; John Deere 850 bulldozer used for roads and skid trails,

wheeled skidders used for skidding, and tri-axle truck for hauling

Found that BMPs applied to the site were effective for reducing impacts

to soil and water quality

Pannill et al. (2000) Maryland State Effectiveness of forestry BMPs in protecting water quality on a small watershed

following forest harvesting; control watershed treatment and a timber harvested

watershed that adhered to BMPs

BMPs implemented were effective in protecting stream water quality,

biology, and habitat

Schuler and Briggs

(2000)

Catskill and

Adirondack

regions (New

York)

Academia Application and effectiveness of 42 forestry BMPs on 61 harvested sites in Catskill region

and 53 harvested sites in the Adirondack region; used evidence of sediment movement

to deﬁne effectiveness

Good application of BMPs decreased sediment movement which

provided protection for surface waters; BMPs were effective; lower

effectiveness of BMPs were due to imperfectly applied BMPs

Bent (2001) Central

Massachusetts

Federal Effects of timber harvesting and herbicide application on runoff and ground water

recharge for two separate paired drainage basins (Cadwell Creek and Dickey Brook)

Cadwell Creek basin resulted in increased streamﬂow, direct runoff,

and ground water recharge for six years following the treatments and

increased base ﬂow for 2.5 years; Dickey Brook basin only had

increased levels for one year following harvest; Dickey Brook was less

inﬂuenced by the treatments because of location of riparian zones

Paashaus et al. (2004) Southern New

York

Academia Impacts on macroinvertebrates in ephemeral streams from partial timber harvesting;

bio-monitoring conducted on paired watersheds (control and treatment)

Macroinvertebrates in ephemeral streams were not impacted from

partial timber harvesting

Germain and Munsell

(2005)

Catskills (New

York)

Academia Assessed surface area disturbance by harvest access system; 43 nonindustrial private

forest landowners northern hardwood harvested sites were evaluated

Found that high BMP implementation was positively related to the

surface area (%) disturbed; harvested sites with low disturbed area do

not always equal high BMP implementation

Wilkerson et al. (2006) Western Maine Non-proﬁt Effectiveness of different buffer widths for protecting headwater stream temperature

following timber harvests; ﬁve treatments: (1) clearcut with no buffer, (2) clearcut with

11 m partially harvest buffer, (3) clearcut with 23 m partially harvested buffer, (4)

partial cut with no deﬁned buffer, and (5) control

Streams without buffers had the highest (signiﬁcant) increase in

weekly maximum temperatures; streams with the 11 m buffer showed

minor increases but no signiﬁcant increases; buffers consisting of at

least an 11 m buffer were sufﬁcient in protecting water temperature in

small headwater streams

Wisconsin DNR (2006) Wisconsin State Evaluated state forestry BMPs from 1995 to 2005 State BMP effectiveness is high when BMPs are applied correctly; when

BMPs were not applied, impacts to water quality were found 71% of the

time; found that BMPs were effective 99% of the time

(continued on next page)

R. Cristan et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 360 (2016) 133–151

141

and (3) clearcut with harvesting within stream buffer. The authors

conducted sampling one year pre-harvest and then for three years

post-harvest. Chizinski et al. (2010) found few effects in partial

harvesting stream buffers for macroinvertebrate communities

and did not ﬁnd any signiﬁcant changes in ﬁsh communities. They

concluded that timber can be harvested to a certain degree in

stream buffers.

2.2.1.2. BMP implementation. Schuler and Briggs (2000) examined

the application and effectiveness of New York BMPs. Their study

evaluated 42 BMP guidelines for roads, landings, skid trails, equip-

ment, and buffer strips on 114 harvested sites in the Catskills (61)

and Adirondacks (53). The authors reported BMP application was

78% for roads, 87% for landings, 59% for skid trails, 88% for equip-

ment, and 73% for buffer strips. Applying BMPs decreased sediment

movement, while failure to properly apply BMPs resulted in lower

effectiveness measures.

Germain and Munsell (2005) assessed surface area disturbance

from forest roads, skid trails, and landings (harvest access systems)

in the Catskills of New York. The authors mailed a survey to

landowners who conducted recent timber harvesting and visited

sites where permission was granted. The authors used a modiﬁed

BMP site evaluation from Schuler and Briggs (2000). Their site eval-

uation included surface area disturbance measurements of land-

ings, roads, skid trails, stream crossings (roads and skid trails) on

43 sites. Germain and Munsell (2005) found low surface area dis-

turbance does not always result in high BMP implementation.

2.2.2. State

Pannill et al. (2000) evaluated the effectiveness of Maryland’s

BMPs on a paired watershed study that incorporated a control

watershed and a partially harvested watershed. The authors sam-

pled TSS, stormﬂow, stream temperature, and macroinvertebrates

and found no signiﬁcant differences between the pre-harvest per-

iod and post-harvest treatment. They concluded that properly

implemented BMPs will help protect stream water quality, biology,

and habitat.

Wisconsin ofﬁcially published their ﬁrst BMP manual in 1995

when their water quality program was developed. Wisconsin

DNR (2006) assessed the ﬁrst ten years of their water quality pro-

gram (1995–2005). They found the average BMP compliance was

83% over that time period and that BMP effectiveness was 99%

when the adequate BMPs were applied. Wisconsin DNR (2006)

reported that when BMPs were not followed, water quality was

impacted 71% of the time.

Wang and Goff (2008) assessed the application and effective-

ness of West Virginia BMPs. The authors selected a sample of 33

harvested sites with SMZs from a previous survey of 116 sites.

They evaluated 27 West Virginia BMP guidelines for forest roads,

skid trails, landings, and SMZs and found average effectiveness

was 80% with an average application of 85%. The authors also

found industrial land or land that involved a professional forester

resulted in increased application and effectiveness scores.

The Maryland DNR (2009) evaluated implementation and effec-

tiveness of Maryland’s BMPs from 2004 to 2005. Their study

assessed BMPs on 75 forest harvested sites throughout the state.

The overall BMP implementation was 81% for all 75 sites and

81% for sites that had water present. They found that BMPs were

77% effective in protecting water quality from sediment delivery.

The Maryland DNR (2009) also reported that 19% of sites delivered

measurable sediment to waterways.

McCoy and Sobecki (2011) conducted a review of Indiana for-

estry BMP monitoring from 1996 to 2011. Indiana formed their

ﬁrst BMP guidelines in 1995 with their ﬁrst monitoring conducted

in 1996. Over their 15 year review, 671 sites were monitored for

BMP implementation and effectiveness with an average BMP

Table 2 (continued)

Investigators Region/location Study

conducted

Evaluations/treatments Major conclusions

Wang and Goff (2008) West Virginia State Effectiveness of forestry BMPs; randomly selected 33 of 116 sites from a previous state

assessment that evaluated a timber harvest with an SMZ; used the West Virginia BMP

manual to evaluate haul roads, skid trails, landings, and SMZs

Found that BMP application and effectiveness rates were higher on

industrial land or with the involvement of a professional forester

Maryland DNR (2009) Maryland State Forestry BMP implementation and effectiveness for protecting water resources in the

state; evaluated 75 forest harvesting sites (2004–2005)

BMPs were 77% effective in preventing sediment delivery; 4% of sites

saw trace amounts of sediment; 19% of the sites had measureable

amounts of sediment reaching water

Chizinski et al. (2010) Northern

Minnesota

Academia Inﬂuence of partial timber harvests in riparian buffers on macroinvertebrate and ﬁsh

communities in small streams; sampled benthic macroinvertebrate and ﬁsh one year

prior to harvest and for three years following the harvest

Found few effects related to the harvest that affected

macroinvertebrate communities and no signiﬁcant changes in ﬁsh

communities; timber harvesting to a certain degree in riparian buffers

does not affect macroinvertebrate and ﬁsh communities in northern

Minnesota

McCoy and Sobecki

(2011)

Indiana State Comprehensive review of Indiana BMP monitoring results from 1996 to 2011; Indiana

division of forestry monitored 671 sites in that time frame

BMP effectiveness rate was 93%; concluded that there has been little

impact on water quality because of the high effectiveness rate (if BMPs

are applied properly)

VanBrakle et al. (2013) New York Non-proﬁt Examined if forest management plans increase BMP implementation on family forests in

the New York City watershed; evaluated forest roads, landings, forest stream crossings,

skid trails, skid trail stream crossings, and water diversion methods on private

forestland

Minimal difference in BMP implementation between landowners that

had management plans and landowners that did not have management

plans; suggest that potentially moving funds from management plans

to logger training and timber sale contract education programs

Maine FS (2014) Maine State Assessed BMP effectiveness of Maine’s BMPs; evaluated sites for sediment inputs into

waterways

Found that 91% of the time there was no sediment entering waterways;

BMPs are effective in preventing sedimentation when implemented

properly

142 R. Cristan et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 360 (2016) 133–151

implementation rate of 86% and an average effectiveness rate of

93%. Stream crossing BMPs had the lowest rating for both effective-

ness (79%) and implementation (74%). The authors concluded that

with a high overall effectiveness rating, impacts to water quality

from forest operations in Indiana is small.

The Maine FS (2014) assessed the implementation and effec-

tiveness of Maine’s forestry BMPs in protecting water quality. Their

study consisted of monitoring 101 harvested sites. Forestry BMPs

were 91% effective in protecting water quality from sediment.

Stream crossings and approaches had the proper BMPs on 83% of

the crossings monitored. The Maine FS (2014) stated that BMPs

prevent sedimentation when implemented properly.

2.2.3. Federal

Reinhart et al. (1963) evaluated the effects of timber harvesting

on streamﬂow in West Virginia. Their study started with pre-

harvest measurements of water quality for six years on ﬁve water-

sheds. After the six year pre-harvest measurement period, four of

the watersheds were harvested with different treatments (com-

mercial clearcut, diameter limit cut, extensive selection, and inten-

sive selection) and water quality was sampled again. The authors

found that harvesting timber can increase stormﬂow; careless log-

ging causes high turbidity levels; poor skid trails affect water qual-

ity; and the highest impact to water quality was immediately after

the timber harvest.

Martin and Pierce (1980) evaluated the effects of clearcutting on

nitrate and calcium in streams on the White Mountain National For-

est in New Hampshire. Their study included: (1) water quality sam-

pling of nine streams from watersheds that were completely

clearcut, (2) seven streams from partially clearcut watersheds, and

(3) seven streams from uncut watersheds. The authors did not sam-

ple the watersheds pre-harvest. The authors found that leaving buf-

fers around streams and not clearcutting entire watersheds can

reduce the magnitude and duration of nitrate and calcium increases.

Patric (1980) studied the effects of harvesting on forest soils and

water relations on the Fernow Experimental Forest in West

Virginia. His study was on a 34.7 ha watershed that evaluated dif-

ferent harvesting treatments for the previous 20 years. The ﬁrst

treatment for this study included clearcutting 31.7 ha of the water-

shed leaving a 20 m stream buffer strip on each side of the stream.

The second treatment harvested the buffer strip. The author found

that sediment concentrations in stormﬂow had small increases for

the clearcut with a buffer strips but these small increases had little

effect on water quality. Patric (1980) did ﬁnd when removing the

buffer strip, water yield and stream temperature increased, which

were not affected when the buffer strip was left.

Martin and Hornbeck (1994) compared sediment yields and

stream turbidity levels on harvested and no harvest watersheds.

Their study was on the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in

New Hampshire and consisted of three no harvest watersheds (ref-

erence) and four harvested watersheds (clear-felled, strip-cut,

mechanized whole-tree clearcut, and clearcut). The authors evalu-

ated sediment yield and turbidity on all the watersheds, however

the clearcut watershed did not include sediment yield measure-

ments. Martin and Hornbeck (1994) found that sediment yields

increased from logging but did not ﬁnd signiﬁcant differences that

affected water quality. They concluded that BMPs will help control

erosion and sedimentation.

Kochenderfer et al. (1997) evaluated the effectiveness of West

Virginia BMPs on a 39 ha watershed that was harvested to a

35.5 cm stump diameter limit. A John Deere 850 bulldozer was

used to create roads and skid trails and a wheeled skidder and

tri-axle truck for primary and secondary hauling. Harvesting

resulted in signiﬁcant increases in total stormﬂow and peakﬂows

during the growing season. However, the dormant season did not

result in any signiﬁcant increases. They also found that suspended

sediments doubled when the watershed was harvested and that

sediment exports returned to pre-treatment levels three years

post-harvest. Kochenderfer et al. (1997) concluded that West Vir-

ginia BMPs applied on the harvested watershed reduced any criti-

cal impacts to water quality.

Bent (2001) assessed the effects of timber harvesting and herbi-

cide applications on runoff and ground water recharge in two drai-

nage basins of central Massachusetts. Cadwell Creek and Dickey

Brook basins were examined and each included a treatment and

control section. After harvesting, the basal area was reduced by

34% and 32% in the Cadwell Creek basin and Dickey Brook basin,

respectively. The Cadwell Creek basin resulted in increased

streamﬂow, direct runoff, and ground water recharge for six years

post-harvest, while the Dickey Brook basin only had increases for

one year post-harvest. Bent (2001) suspected that the large storm-

ﬂow increases in Cadwell basin were caused by the location of har-

vest treatments and riparian zone.

2.2.4. Non-proﬁt

Wilkerson et al. (2006)

evaluated the effectiveness of stream

buffers on headwater stream temperature in western Maine. This

study was conducted by Manomet. Five treatments on 15 streams

included: (1) clearcutting with no buffer, (2) clearcutting with par-

tially harvesting 11 m buffer, (3) clearcutting with partially har-

vesting 23 m buffer, (4) partial harvest with no deﬁned buffer,

and (5) control. The authors found that after harvesting, the no buf-

fer streams had the highest increases in stream temperature. Addi-

tionally, both partially harvested 11 m and 23 m buffer treatments

were sufﬁcient in protecting stream temperature increases in

headwater streams.

VanBrakle et al. (2013) examined if forest management plans

increase BMP implementation on family forests in the New York

City watershed. This study was conducted by the Watershed Agri-

cultural Council. The authors evaluated forestry BMPs for forest

roads, skid trails, landings, stream crossings (haul roads and skid

trails), and water diversion. The only BMPs evaluated that resulted

in signiﬁcantly higher implementation scores were skid trails and

forest roads. The authors suggested that possibly providing more

programs to logger training and timber sale contract education

would help increase BMP implementation.

2.3. Western states

BMP effectiveness studies in the Western US focus primarily on

the Paciﬁc Border physiographic region where forest operations are

most prevalent (Fig. 3). Several effectiveness studies used paired

watershed experiments that included multiple studies, Alsea

Watershed (Oregon Coast Range), Caspar Creek Experimental

Watershed (northwestern California), and Mica Creek Experimen-

tal Watershed (northern Idaho). Thirty-one BMP effectiveness

studies from 1978 to 2015 were reviewed by the organization

whom conducted the study: academia (9), federal (12), state (5),

industry (2), private (1), and non-proﬁt (2) (Table 3).

2.3.1. Academia

2.3.1.1. Sediment production. Beschta (1978) assessed the long-

term patterns of sediment production from road construction

and logging on the Alsea Watershed in Oregon. This paired water-

shed study included three treatment watersheds: (1) control

(Flynn Creek), (2) clearcut, slash burning, and no stream buffers

(Needle Branch), and (3) patch-cut, roads, and burned (Deer Creek).

The author found that road construction and road failures in Deer

Creek watershed signiﬁcantly increased sediment yield for three

years post-treatment. The Needle Branch watershed resulted in

5 years of increased sediment yields due to erosion from the slash

burn and no stream buffer.

R. Cristan et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 360 (2016) 133–151

143

Karwan et al. (2007) evaluated suspended sediment loads from

timber harvesting on the Mica Creek Experimental Forest in north-

ern Idaho. The authors used a paired watershed method and mon-

itored seven stream monitoring ﬂumes for TSS from 1991 to 1997

(pre-harvest and pre-road construction/improvement), 1998 to

2001 (post-road construction/improvement), and 2001 to 2004

(post-harvest). Treatments for forest roads included constructing

new roads and improving existing roads, while treatments for har-

vesting included: (1) 50% commercial clearcut then broadcast,

burned, and replanted, (2) 50% partial harvest, and (3) control. Ida-

ho’s Forest Practice Act (FPA) guidelines were followed. No signif-

icant differences in sediment loads among forest road treatments

in both harvested watersheds were detected. However, signiﬁ-

cantly higher monthly sediment loads were reported within the

commercially clearcut watershed after the harvest, but signiﬁcant

differences dissipated after one year.

Beschta and Jackson (2008) summarized effects of road build-

ing, logging, and slash burning on sediment production from past

studies in the Alsea Watershed. Authors reported that manage-

ment practices such as minimizing road construction, clearcutting

less area, applying stream buffers, and low intensity slash burns

can reduce sediment production. The authors concluded that

paired watershed studies similar to Alsea Watershed experiments

are important for demonstrating different forest practices and their

effects on water quality.

2.3.1.2. Stream buffers. Jackson et al. (2001) assessed impacts of

timber harvesting on 15 headwater streams in Washington’s Coast

Range. The authors evaluated stream channel habitat, distributions

of bed material, and temperature. The treatments applied

included: (1) no harvest (reference), (2) clearcut with un-thinned

buffer, (3) clearcut with partial buffer, (4) clearcut with buffer con-

sisting of non-merchantable trees, and (5) clearcut with no buffer.

The authors found treatments with a stream buffer did not alter

particle size distributions and habitat distributions when com-

pared to the no harvest treatments.

Jackson et al. (2007) built onto the study conducted by Jackson

et al. (2001) by evaluating abiotic and biotic responses to timber

harvesting. The authors sampled geomorphology, macroinverte-

brates, and amphibians before and following timber harvesting.

Jackson et al. (2007) found that clearcutting with no buffers

resulted in negative short-lived effects for some amphibian spe-

cies. The authors also found that macroinvertebrate communities

remained in ﬂux for both the buffered and no buffer streams and

changes in communities were due to additional organic matter

from the harvest.

2.3.1.3. Water yield and water quality. Stednick (2008a) assessed

long-term streamﬂow changes after timber harvesting on the Alsea

Watershed. The author plotted differences in measured annual

water yield and predicted streamﬂows for the two treatment

watersheds (Deer Creek and Needle Branch). The author found that

low ﬂow metrics and peak ﬂows were not signiﬁcantly different

than pre-treatment levels and annual water yield increases in the

Needle Branch watershed were not present after 31 years. The Deer

Creek watershed had additional timber harvesting treatments and

did not result in any signiﬁcant differences in ﬂow metrics.

Stednick (2008a) concluded that BMPs were effective in not chang-

ing streamﬂow metrics.

Fig. 3. Reviewed BMP effectiveness studies by state and physiographic region for the western United States. Locations were determined from the studies as well as Schilling

and Ice (2012).

144 R. Cristan et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 360 (2016) 133–151

Table 3

Summary of forestry BMP effectiveness studies for the western United States by investigator(s), location, evaluations and treatments, and major conclusions.

Investigators Region/location Study

conducted

Evaluations/treatments Major conclusions

Beschta (1978) Coast range

(Oregon)

Academia Long-term patterns of sediment production following road construction and

logging on the Alsea Watershed; paired watershed study: (1) control watershed

(Flynn Creek), (2) clearcut, slash burning, and no stream buffer strips watershed

(Needle Branch), and (3) patch-cut, roads, and burned watershed (Deer Creek)

Deer Creek treatment resulted in signiﬁcant increases of sediment yield for

three years following treatment due to road construction and road

associated failures; Needle Creek treatment resulted in increased sediment

yield for ﬁve years following treatment with the ﬁrst year resulting in a

ﬁvefold increase primarily due to a severe slash ﬁre and logging along the

stream channel

Cook and King (1983) Idaho Federal Construction cost and erosion control effectiveness of ﬁlter windrows on ﬁll

slopes; monitored sediment barriers of slash on newly constructed roads near

stream crossings

Estimated sediment trapping efﬁciency was between 75% and 85%;

concluded that ﬁlter windrows of slash were an inexpensive and effective

way to prevent erosion

Bilby et al. (1989) Southwestern

Washington

Industry Fate of road-surface sediment in forested watersheds; used new data and data

from previous road studies

Roads with steep gradients, heavily used, and drain directly into larger

streams have the greatest potential to impact streams; problems with forest

roads can be reduced by applying appropriate management procedures

Keppeler and Ziemer

(1990)

Northwestern

California

Federal Logging effects on streamﬂow for a 21 year period on the Casper Creek

Experimental Watershed; evaluated selective tractor harvesting on volume,

timing, and duration of low ﬂows and annual water yield

Greatest increase in water yield was during the initial year following the

logging operation; water yields decreased irregularly the following years

Ketcheson and

Megahan (1996)

Southwestern

Idaho

Federal Sediment production and downslope sediment transport from forest roads in

granitic watersheds; measured annual downslope deposition of granitic

sediments from forest roads; treatments included different erosion control

practices

Found that 70% of the sediment deposited on the slopes occurred during the

ﬁrst year after construction; standard erosion control practices for road

construction resulted in an average annual erosion rate of

50.4 m

1

and intensive erosion control practices for road

construction resulted in an average erosion rate of 17.1 m

1

(reduced erosion by 66%)

Cafferata and Spittler

(1998)

Northwestern

California

Federal Compared logging impacts from the 1970s to the 1990s in the Casper Creek

Experimental Watershed

Legacy roads that were constructed before the FPA continue to affect the

South Fork watershed; concluded that legacy roads need to be properly

closed under the new FPRs

Dahlgren (1998) Northwestern

California

Federal Effects of forest harvesting on stream water quality and nitrogen cycling in the

Casper Creek watershed; sampled water quality (clearcut vs. un-harvested);

detailed nutrient cycling study

Found higher concentrations of stream water nitrate in the clearcut

watershed; nutrient losses in stream water in redwood-Douglas-ﬁr forests

after harvest were small compared to other forest types

Lewis (1998) Northwestern

California

Federal Evaluated the impacts of logging on erosion and suspended sediment transport in

the Casper Creek watershed; South Fork harvested before 1990 FPRs; North Fork

harvested after 1990 FPRs; measured and estimated suspended sediment

concentrations

Sediment load for the South Fork after road construction was

1475 kg ha

1

and 2877 kg ha

1

after harvesting; no effect in the

North Fork watershed for sediment loads

Rice (1999) Northwestern

California

Private Evaluated erosion from logging roads on the Redwood Creek watershed;

measured erosion on 100 logging roads in the middle of the watershed

Found the estimated erosion rate to be 177 m

1

; noted that FPRs helped

reduce erosion on logging roads

Jackson et al. (2001) Coast range

(Washington)

Academia Impacts of harvesting timber on 15 headwater streams; treatments included: (1)

no harvest, (2) clearcut with un-thinned buffer, (3) clearcut with partial buffer, (4)

clearcut with buffer consisting of non-merchantable trees, and (5) clearcut with

no buffer

Found that particle size distribution and habitat distributions were not

different when compared to the no harvest treatments

Rice et al. (2004) Northwestern

California

Non-proﬁt Forest management effects on erosion, sediment, and runoff; Casper Creek

Experimental Watershed

Prior to the 1973 FPA, suspended sediment loads increased almost threefold

from road construction and selective logging; under the 1990 FPRs, there

was a smaller, but signiﬁcant increase in sediment from roads and

clearcutting

Rashin et al. (2006) Coast range

(Washington)

Non-proﬁt Effectiveness of timber harvest practices for controlling sediment related water

quality impacts; used a weight-of-evidence approach to determine BMP

effectiveness and was based on sediment delivery to streams, disturbance to

stream channels, and aquatic habitat conditions

Stream buffers were effective at limiting chronic sediment delivery and

disturbance to stream channels; stream buffers of at least 10 m were most

effective for timber felling and yarding activities; factors inﬂuencing BMP

effectiveness included: proximity of ground disturbance near waterways,

use of stream buffers, use of proper timber falling and yarding practices,

minimizing stream channel disturbance, and timing of timber harvest

Jackson et al. (2007) Washington Academia Abiotic and biotic response to 15 headwater streams from timber harvesting;

treatments were same as Jackson et al. (2001)

No macroinvertebrate groups declined signiﬁcantly over a three year period

following the harvests; clearcutting with no SMZs had short-lived effects on

some amphibian recovery

(continued on next page)

R. Cristan et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 360 (2016) 133–151

145

Table 3 (continued)

Investigators Region/location Study

conducted

Evaluations/treatments Major conclusions

Karwan et al. (2007) Northern Idaho Academia Effects of timber harvesting on suspended sediment loads in the Mica Creek

Experimental Watershed; monitored seven automated stream monitoring

ﬂumes; pretreatment samples (1991–1997), post road construction samples

(1998–2001), and post timber harvest samples (2001–2004); paired watershed

approach (clearcut, partial harvest, reference)

Road construction did not signiﬁcantly affect sediment loads; harvesting

timber did have a signiﬁcant and immediate impact on sediment loads for

the clearcut watershed; no signiﬁcant differences in partial harvest; after

one year there were no signiﬁcant differences between the clearcut and

control watersheds

O’Connor et al. (2007) Northwestern

California

Federal Evaluated sediment yield from ﬁrst order streams from recent harvests and legacy

practices; treatments included: (1) clearcut with a HCP, (2) clearcut without a

HCP, and (3) control (un-harvested); captured transported sediment in sediment

basins

Authors did not report any signiﬁcant differences between sites that used a

HCP and sites that did not; However, sites with a HCP tended to have lower

sedimentation levels

Beschta and Jackson

(2008)

Coast range

(Oregon)

Academia Summarized sediment production from forest roads, logging, and slash burning

on the Alsea Watershed

Management practices such as minimizing road construction, small

clearcuts, buffer strips, and low severity burns help reduce sediment

problems

Keppeler et al. (2008) Northwestern

California

Federal Long-term patterns of hydrologic response after logging in a coastal redwood

forest; Casper Creek Experimental Watershed

Post-treatments, sediment loads recovered quickly; however between 10

and 20 years after logging, sediment loads increased due to road failures on

South Fork Watershed or due to pre-commercial thinning modifying

hydrologic conditions on North Fork Watershed

Stednick (2008a) Coast range

(Oregon)

Academia Long-term streamﬂow changes following timber harvesting on the Alsea

Watershed study sites

Annual water yield increases were not detectable on the Needle Branch

watershed after 31 years; peak ﬂow and low ﬂow metrics were not

signiﬁcant from pretreatment measurements; Deer Creek had timber

harvests since the original treatments and there were no signiﬁcant ﬂow

metrics from pretreatment measurements; application of BMPs resulted in

no signiﬁcant differences

Stednick (2008b) Coast range

(Oregon)

Academia Long-term changes in water quality following timber harvesting on the Alsea

Watershed study sites

Multiple timber harvests on Deer Creek did not have any signiﬁcant changes

in water quality (BMPs followed); Needle Branch (no buffer strips) had a

signiﬁcant increase in nitrate-nitrogen ﬂuxes immediately after the

treatment, but showed a quick return to pretreatment conditions

Gravelle et al. (2009) Northern Idaho Academia Effects of timber harvesting on aquatic macroinvertebrate communities;

sampling from 1994 to 2005 on Mica Creek Experimental Watershed; treatments:

four year calibration period, four years of monitoring after forest roads were

installed, and four years monitoring after timber harvest

Macroinvertebrate communities were not affected by road construction and

timber harvesting; concluded that if BMPs are used appropriately, that

similar areas to this study should have minimal effects on water quality and

macroinvertebrate communities

Litschert and

MacDonald (2009)

Sierra Nevada and

Cascade

mountains

(California)

Academia Assessed the frequency and characteristics of sediment delivery pathways on

harvested sites on National Forest land; evaluated 200 harvested sites that

included SMZs; used ‘features’ to describe eroded areas of the harvest

Found 19 features on the 200 sites caused by rills or gullies (15) and

sediment plumes (4); 16 of the features started from skid trails; ﬁve skid

trail features connected to streams; feature length was signiﬁcantly related

to hillslope gradient, mean annual precipitation, and elevation; sediment

delivery to streams can be reduced by: (1) locating skid trails away from

streams, (2) using waterbars with high surface roughness, and (3) closing

skid trails

Reiter et al. (2009) Cascade

mountains

(Washington)

Industry Temporal and spatial turbidity patterns over 30 years in a managed forest;

assessed sediment control methods and trends in turbidity

Turbidity had a declining trend even with active forest management;

concluded that this was due to improvements to road construction and

maintenance practices for reducing road sedimentation and runoff

Dubé et al. (2010) Washington State Washington road sub-basin scale effectiveness monitoring program; evaluated

new FPRs for forest roads for improving protection of runoff and sediment

delivery and determined how many roads meet the FFR performance targets;

sampled 60-4 mile units

Found FFR targets for hydrology performance were met in 62% of the units

and FFR targets for sediment protection were met in 88% of the units

Elliot (2010) Western United

States

Federal Effects of forest biomass used on watershed processes Two general guidelines to reduce or minimize impacts on the watershed

from biomass harvesting: (1) minimize disturbance to duff layer and (2)

minimize number of roads and maintain roads; concluded that increased

trafﬁc on forest roads and compacting and disturbing the soil can affect

runoff and erosion and that BMPs should be used to reduce any risks

Klein et al. (2012) Northern

California

Federal Turbidity during winter runoff seasons after logging in 28 coastal watersheds Rate of timber harvesting and watershed drainage areas can affect water

quality; stated that hillslope hydrologic changes due to tree removal and

root strength from decay should be included in the current BMPs and that

erosion susceptible areas should limit rate of timber harvesting

146 R. Cristan et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 360 (2016) 133–151

Stednick (2008b) assessed the long-term water quality changes

after timber harvesting on the Alsea Watershed. The author found

signiﬁcantly lower nitrate–nitrogen concentrations after timber

harvesting in the Needle Branch (no buffer treatment) watershed

when compared to the control (Flynn Creek) and Deer Creek

(patch-cut treatment) watersheds. However, there was a signiﬁ-

cant increase in nitrate–nitrogen ﬂuxes when compared to pre-

treatment water quality measurements. The Deer Creek watershed

did not have any signiﬁcant water quality changes after multiple

timber harvests. The author suggested this was caused by BMPs

that were applied on the watershed.

Gravelle et al. (2009) evaluated timber harvesting impacts on

aquatic macroinvertebrates in the Mica Creek Experimental Water-

shed in northern Idaho. Their study consisted of three measure-

ment periods over four years each: (1) calibration, (2) post roads,

and (3) post-harvest. The authors sampled feeding groups,

densities, taxa richness, diversity, and sediment tolerance indices.

Additionally, they assessed three main macroinvertebrate taxa

(mayﬂies, stoneﬂies, and caddis ﬂies). Gravelle et al. (2009) did

not ﬁnd any changes in macroinvertebrate communities from road

construction and timber harvesting and suggested it was due to

BMPs being followed.

2.3.2. Federal

2.3.2.1. Sediment production. Cook and King (1983) assessed the

erosion control effectiveness of ﬁlter windrows on ﬁll slopes on

the Nez Perce National Forest in Idaho. The authors evaluated ﬁlter

windrows (sediment barriers) of slash on newly constructed roads

near stream crossings to determine their effectiveness of reducing

ﬁll material from entering streams. The authors found that the ﬁl-

ter windrows trapped 75–95% of sediment and concluded that they

are an inexpensive effective method of preventing erosion from

entering streams.

Ketcheson and Megahan (1996) evaluated sediment production

and sediment transport downslope caused by forest roads in grani-

tic watersheds of southwestern Idaho. The authors measured sed-

iment deposits on constructed roads for four years. They found that

70% of the total erosion occurred during the initial year following

road construction. Ketcheson and Megahan reported that erosion

control treatments reduced erosion.

Cafferata and Spittler (1998) compared harvesting impacts in

the Casper Creek watershed from the 1970s to the 1990s. Two

treatment watersheds (North Fork and South Fork) were com-

pared. South Fork roads were constructed in the 1960s and located

near stream channels. This watershed was selectively harvested

using tractors in the 1970s. The North Fork was cable logged

(clearcut) between 1985 and 1991 and roads were located away

from stream channels (on ridges). The South Fork had higher

sediment yield and erosion due to the harvest. The authors

suspected that much of the sediment production was produced

by legacy roads, which were constructed prior to the FPA.

Lewis (1998) assessed erosion and suspended sediment trans-

port from logging in the Casper Creek watershed. The author mea-

sured suspended sediment, turbidity, and erosion and estimated

suspended sediment load and total sediment load on timber har-

vests conducted in the North Fork (harvested with 1990 Forest

Practice Rules) and South Fork (harvested before 1990 Forest Prac-

tice Rules) watersheds. Lewis (1998) reported 1475 kg ha

1

and 2877 kg ha

1

after road construction and harvesting for

the South Fork watershed. No effect was reported in the North Fork

watershed for sediment loads.

Madej et al. (2012) assessed changes in land use practices on

sediment loads in the Panther Creek basin of the northwestern

California. The author’s evaluated timber harvesting methods and

road designs. Over half of the watershed was clearcut from

harvests occurring between 1978 and 2008 with some thinning

Table 3 (continued)

Investigators Region/location Study

conducted

Evaluations/treatments Major conclusions

Madej et al. (2012) Northwestern

California

Federal Assessed changes in land use practices on sediment loads in the Panther Creek

basin; treatment consisted of clearcut, thinning, and selective harvest and

compared results to a control (un-harvested); evaluated sediment loads from

timber harvesting methods and road designs

Found that sediment yields were higher on treatment site, however

suspended sediments concentrations have deceased compared to previous

periods due to improved management practices

Sugden et al. (2012) Montana State Assessed Montana’s forestry BMP program for the past 20 years; used past BMP

audits

Forestry BMP implementation in 1990 was 78% and 97% in 2010; Water

quality infractions per harvest site have deceased to <1 over the 20 years

Cafferata and Reid

(2013)

Northwestern

California

State 50 years of watershed research in the Casper Creek watershed; review of the past

watershed experiments on the North Fork and South Fork watersheds

Author addressed key ﬁndings from past research; stated that research

methods (monitoring technology and turbidity monitoring) conducted on

the Casper Creek watershed have been used throughout the world; research

is continuing on the watershed

USFS (2013) Paciﬁc Southwest

Region

(California)

Federal Evaluated Paciﬁc Southwest Region BMP program from 2008 to 2010; determine

BMP implementation and effectiveness; 2237 randomly selected sites

BMP implementation was 91%; BMP effectiveness was 80%; BMPs for roads,

range management, recreation, and mining were not as effective; noted

effectiveness can be increased by improving erosion control plans and wet-

weather standards

Brandow and Cafferata

(2014)

California State Evaluated California’s FPRs implementation and effectiveness from 2008 to 2013;

Coast, Cascade, and Sierra Regions

Implementation of FPRs were high and effective in preventing

sedimentation; 90% or higher implementation for watercourses and lake

protection zones, roads, and crossings; suggested improvements for stream

crossing design, construction and maintenance, and closure

Ziesak (2015) Montana State Montana’s BMPs in regard to limiting non-point source pollution from forest

operations; evaluated 42 sites for BMP effectiveness (2014 review)

42 sites evaluated for application and effectiveness; BMPs were applied 97%

of the time; BMP were effective 98% of the time in protecting water quality;

most frequent impacts on BMP effectiveness were associated with forest

road maintenance and road surface drainage

R. Cristan et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 360 (2016) 133–151

147

and selection harvesting also occurring. The authors stated that

roads were upgraded and some decommissioned between 2000

and 2009. Riparian buffers were left on streams since 1984.

Madej et al. (2012) found that the harvested area had a higher

sediment yield compared to the control (un-harvested). Most

sediment issues were caused from landslides on forest roads and

landings. However, suspended sediment concentrations decreased

due to improved management practices.

O’Connor et al. (2007) assessed the effects of recent harvests

and legacy management techniques on sediment yield from ﬁrst

order streams in northwestern California. The study had three

treatments: (1) clearcut with a Habitat Conservation Plan (HCP),

(2) clearcut without a HCP, and (3) control. The authors used sed-

iment basins to measure trapped sediment. O’Connor et al. (2007)

did not ﬁnd any signiﬁcant differences between sites, but noted

that HCP sites had lower sedimentation when compared to sites

without a HCP.

2.3.2.2. Water yield and water quality. Keppeler and Ziemer (1990)

assessed harvesting impacts on streamﬂow for 21 years on the Cas-

per Creek watershed in northwestern California. Their study

included a control (North Fork; prior to harvesting) and selective

harvest with new road construction treatment (South Fork). The

authors measured water yield, volume, timing, and duration of

low ﬂows. Keppeler and Ziemer (1990) found that the greatest

increase in water yield was the ﬁrst year after harvest. Water yield

decreased irregularly in the following years.

Dahlgren (1998) studied the effects of timber harvesting on

stream water quality and nitrogen cycling in the Casper Creek

watershed. The author collected stream water quality samples

from both control and treatment (clearcut) watersheds and com-

pleted a nutrient cycling study. He found that nitrate concentra-

tions were higher in clearcut and decreased downstream in

higher order streams. The author also reported a 1.8 kg N ha

1

loss post-harvest and less than 0.4 kg N ha

1

three years post-

harvest. The control watershed for the same period resulted in a

nitrogen loss less than 0.1 kg N ha

1

. Dahlgren noted that

the nitrogen loss was small and accredited the small loss to the

redwood and Douglas-ﬁr forest ecosystem.

Keppeler et al. (2008) evaluated the long-term patterns of

hydrologic response post-harvesting in the Casper Creek water-

shed. The authors found that both the North Fork and South Fork

had similar water yield, peak ﬂows, and low ﬂows. Low ﬂows

returned to pre-harvest conditions faster for selective logging.

Keppeler et al. (2008) also found that sediment loads recovered

quickly after harvesting on both watersheds. However, 10–

20 years post-harvest, sediment loads increased due to road fail-

ures on the South Fork or pre-commercial thinning on the North

Fork.

Elliot (2010) evaluated the watershed processes from forest bio-

mass harvesting in the western United States. The author imple-

mented BMPs to reduce impacts of biomass harvesting and

recommended two general guidelines: (1) minimize disturbances

to the duff layer and soil and (2) minimize and maintain roads.

Elliot (2010) stated that increased road trafﬁc and compacting or

disturbing the soil can increase erosion and runoff.

Klein et al. (2012) assessed turbidity levels from winter runoff

on 28 coastal watersheds in northern California. Study watersheds

ranged from un-harvested redwood forests to commercial harvest-

ing. The authors found that the rate of timber harvesting and

watershed drainage areas can affect water quality. They stated that

BMPs reduce erosion, but were not always implemented properly.

The authors also noted that in large watersheds harvested over a

short period of time can impact water quality.

USFS (2013) evaluated their Paciﬁc Southwest Region BMP pro-

gram from 2008 to 2010 to determine BMP implementation and

effectiveness. Similar evaluations were conducted in the past by

Staab (2004) and USFS (2009). BMP inspections were conducted

on 2237 randomly selected sites. Reported BMP implementation

was 91% with an effectiveness of 80%. Effectiveness was low due

to water quality being affected at streams on roughly 12% of the

sites. The USFS (2013) found that BMPs for timber harvesting, fuels

treatments, and vegetation management was effective, however,

BMPs for roads, range management, recreation, and mining were

not as effective. The USFS (2013) also noted that effectiveness

can be increased by improving erosion control plans and wet-

weather standards.

2.3.3. State

2.3.3.1. Water quality. Litschert and MacDonald (2009) assessed the

frequency and characteristics of sediment delivery pathways on

harvested sites on National Forest land in the Sierra Nevada and

Cascade mountains of California. The authors evaluated 200 har-

vested sites that included SMZs and used the term ‘features’ to

describe eroded areas of the harvest. They found 19 features on

200 sites that were caused by rills or gullies (15) and sediment

plumes (4). Sixteen of the features started from skid trails of which

ﬁve features connected to streams. The authors also found that fea-

ture length was signiﬁcantly related to hillslope gradient, mean

annual precipitation, and elevation. Litschert and MacDonald

(2009) suggested that sediment delivery to streams can be reduced

by: (1) locate skid trails away from streams, (2) use waterbars with

high surface roughness, and (3) close skid trails.

Cafferata and Reid (2013) conducted a review of the long-term

(50-year) watershed research conducted at the Casper Creek

watershed. The authors described the history and treatments

applied on both North and South Fork watersheds. They also pro-

vided key lessons learned and ﬁndings from the past research.

Some of the past research consisted of measuring peak ﬂows, water

yield, hydrology, erosion, stream temperature, and sediment

yields. Cafferata and Reid (2013) noted that results and monitoring

methods from the Casper Creek watershed were used to address

forestry issues in California and throughout the world. The authors

also stated that research is continuing on the watershed.

2.3.3.2. Implementation and effectiveness. Dubé et al. (2010) con-

ducted a study assessing the Washington road sub-basin scale

effectiveness monitoring program. The objectives of this program

were to determine if the new Forest Fish Reports (FFRs) for forest

roads improved protection of runoff and sediment delivery and

how many roads met FFR performance targets. The authors evalu-

ated characteristics of forest roads over 60 sample units across the

state of Washington (each unit was four square miles). They found

62% of the units met FFR targets for hydrology performance. FFR

targets for sediment protection were met in 88% of the units.

Sugden et al. (2012) assessed Montana’s forestry BMP program

for the past 20 years. The authors demonstrated the positive pro-

gression of Montana’s BMP using past BMP audit reports. In

1990, BMP implementation was 78% and increased to 97% 20 years

later. Water quality infractions per harvest site decreased from

eight in 1990 to less than 1 in 2010.

Brandow and Cafferata (2014) evaluated California’s Forest

Practice Rules (FPR) implementation and effectiveness monitoring

program from 2008 to 2013. This study was based off similar ear-

lier studies conducted by Cafferata and Munn (2002) and Brandow

et al. (2006). The purpose of this study was to determine rate of

implementation of FPRs and effectiveness of FPRs in protecting

water quality. The authors selected sites from California’s Coastal,

Cascade, and Sierra Regions. Evaluations of sites indicated that

implementation of FPRs were high and FRPs were effective in

preventing sedimentation. Brandow and Cafferata (2014) found

that water courses and lake protection zones, roads, and stream

148 R. Cristan et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 360 (2016) 133–151

crossings had 90% implementation or higher depending on FPR.

The authors suggested improvements to be made for stream

crossing design, construction and maintenance, and closure.

Ziesak (2015) reviewed 42 sites for BMP application and

effectiveness for Montana’s BMP monitoring study in 2014. BMP

application (implementation) was 97% and BMP effectiveness in

protecting water quality was 98%. Like previous monitoring reports

from Montana, road maintenance and road surface drainage were

the main impacts on water quality.

2.3.4. Industry

Bilby et al. (1989) assessed road surface sediment production

on ﬁve road segments in two southwestern Washington water-

sheds. Two heavily trafﬁcked roads located on valley-bottoms were

built in the 1950s. Three haul roads, built between 1968 and 1974,

were located mid-slope. Suspended sediments were analyzed on

the sites. The authors found that sediment entered ﬁrst and second

order streams 34% of the time and would temporary retain sedi-

ments from reaching larger streams. Bilby et al. (1989) stated that

steep roads that are heavily used and drain directly into large

streams will have a higher potential of impacting water quality.

Reiter et al. (2009) assessed temporal and spatial turbidity pat-

terns over 30 years in the Paciﬁc Northwest of Washington. The

authors used long-term data on stream discharge, suspended sed-

iment, turbidity, and water and air temperature to determine

impacts of sediment control practices on water quality. Data was

collected at four permanent monitoring sites throughout the study

watershed. Turbidity declined at all four monitoring sites. The

authors found that turbidity levels when evaluated for the entire

watershed declined, even during active forest operations. Reiter

et al. (2009) reported that declined sediment production was

caused by increased attention to forest practices for roads.

2.3.5. Private

Rice (1999) evaluated erosion from logging roads on the Red-

wood Creek watershed in northwestern California. The author sta-

ted that the roads were installed between 1950 and 1958 for

logging and were maintained to standards of the past decade. His

sample design consisted of 100 sites within the 180 km of roads

in the middle of the watershed. The author estimated the mean

erosion rate to be 177 m

1

from 1980 to 1997. The main

source of erosion was from the road cut banks. Rice (1999) noted

that changes in FPRs (proper placement of culverts and sizing of

culverts) reduced erosion on logging roads.

2.3.6. Non-proﬁt

Rice et al. (2004) conducted a review of the effects of forest

management on erosion, sediment, and runoff on the Caspar Creek

watershed. The authors reported sediment loads were higher

before the 1973 FPA for selective logging and road construction.

They also reported smaller but signiﬁcant increases in sediment

from clearcutting following the 1990 FPA.

Rashin et al. (2006) assessed the effectiveness of BMPs on water

quality impacts due to sediment delivery in Washington. They

evaluated BMPs for ﬁrst two years post-harvest on 26 timber har-

vested sites between 1992 and 1995. The authors used a weighted

approach to determine BMP effectiveness based on sediment

delivery, disturbance of stream channels, and aquatic habitat con-

ditions. They found stream buffers were effective at preventing

sediment delivery. The authors also listed several factors that inﬂu-

enced BMP effectiveness: (1) equipment disturbance near streams,

(2) use of stream buffers, (3) use of proper harvesting practices to

minimize stream channel disturbance, and (4) time of year.

3. Conclusion

Results from this literature review indicate that forestry BMPs

minimize water quality effects of forest operations when imple-

mented as recommended by state forestry agencies. While BMP

effectiveness studies are often site or region speciﬁc, they clearly

demonstrate a common outcome. Stuart and Edwards (2006)

emphasized that BMPs based on physical principles continue to

be effective with the passage of time. These effectiveness studies

provide critical information and insight on how state BMP pro-

grams comply with the goals of the CWA. Forestry BMP effective-

ness studies can help states formulate or update BMP guidelines.

Effectiveness research commonly notes that areas such as forest

roads, skid trails, and stream crossings should receive considerable

attention since they have the greatest potential for erosion and

sediment delivery. Research studies from multiple regions across

the U.S. have demonstrated that BMPs are effective and reduce

sediment delivery to streams. Key conclusions on BMP effective-

ness for the research studies examined here were divided into

two categories: overall BMP effectiveness study conclusions and

speciﬁc BMP guideline conclusions:

3.1. Overall BMP effectiveness study conclusions

 BMPs can minimize erosion and sedimentation.

 Implementation rates and quality are critical to BMP effective-

ness for reduction of erosion and sediment yield.

 BMP implementation can be enhanced with pre-operation plan-

ning and with the involvement of a registered professional

forester.

 Increased logger training and landowner knowledge of forestry

BMPs can help improve implementation.

 Stream macroinvertebrates are typically not signiﬁcantly

affected by forest operations when BMPs are correctly applied.

3.2. Speciﬁc BMP guideline conclusions

 Forested SMZs are effective in trapping sediment and reducing

stream TSS concentrations.

 Critically important BMP practices for forest roads include

proper drainage structures, surfacing, erosion control of cut

and ﬁll slopes, trafﬁc control, and closure.

 Sediment control structures applied to stream crossing

approaches can signiﬁcantly reduce runoff and sediment

delivery.

 BMPs need to be applied during forest operations, not only as a

closure measure.

 Effective skid trail closure practices can include installing

waterbars and/or applying slash, mulch, or a combination of

mulching and seeding.

 Improved stream crossings such as portable skidder bridges

and temporary culverts can decrease TSS concentrations

and turbidity compared to unimproved stream crossing

structures.

Acknowledgements

Funding for this research was provided by the National

Association of State Foresters, the Sustainable Forestry Initiative,

Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station, the Department of Forest

Resources and Environmental Conservation of Virginia Tech, and

the MacIntire-Stennis Program of the National Institute of Food

and Agriculture, United States Department of Agriculture.

R. Cristan et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 360 (2016) 133–151

149

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