Renewable Energy Outlook for ASEAN: A REmap Analysis

A Renewable Energy Roadmap

RENEWABLE

ENERGY

OUTLOOK FOR

ASEAN

A Renewable Energy Roadmap

ASEAN Centre for Energy

One Community for Sustainable Energy

A Renewable Energy Roadmap

A REMAP ANALYSIS

OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN 2016 EDITION

ASEAN Centre for Energy

One Community for Sustainable Energy

ABOUT IRENA

The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) is an intergovernmental organisation that supports countries in their transition to a sustainable energy future, and serves as the principal platform for international co-

operation, a centre of excellence, and a repository of policy, technology, resource and financial knowledge on renewable energy. IRENA promotes the widespread adoption and sustainable use of all forms of renewable energy,

including bioenergy, geothermal, hydropower, ocean, solar and wind energy, in the pursuit of sustainable development, energy access, energy security and low-carbon economic growth and prosperity.

About ACE

Established on 1 January 1999, the ASEAN Centre for Energy (ACE) is an intergovernmental organisation that independently represents the 10 ASEAN Member States’ (AMS) interests in the energy sector. The Centre serves as

a catalyst for the economic growth and integration of the ASEAN region by initiating and facilitating multilateral collaborations as well as joint and collective activities on energy. It is guided by a Governing Council composed of

Senior Officials on Energy from each AMS and a representative from the ASEAN Secretariat as an ex-officio member. Hosted by the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources of Indonesia, ACE’s headquarter is located in Jakarta.

The Renewable Energy Support Programme for ASEAN (ASEAN-RESP) is a joint project by ACE and GIZ, on behalf of the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ), and it enables regional

exchange on renewable energy between ASEAN Member States. IRENA and ACE are grateful to ASEAN-RESP for its financial support for the two REmap ASEAN regional workshops.

Acknowledgements

This report was prepared by the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) and the ASEAN Centre for Energy (ACE). It was prepared under the overall guidance of Dolf Gielen, IRENA Director for Innovation and Technology,

and Ir. Dr. Sanjayan K.V. Velautham, Executive Director of ACE.

The main authors of the report were Nicholas Wagner (IRENA), Deger Saygin (IRENA), Yong Chen (IRENA) and Beni Suryadi (ACE).

Valuable review and feedback was provided by IRENA colleagues Rabia Ferroukhi, Laura Gutierrez and Jasper Rigter as well as ACE colleagues Badariah Yosiyana, Yudha Irmansyah Siregar, Nanda Febriani Moenandar and Dr.

Atit Tippichai. Additional valuable review was provided by Kohji Iwakami (UN ESCAP), Rizky Fauzianto (GIZ), Putu Marsya Sabrina (GIZ), and Cecilia Tam (APERC). The authors would like to extend a special thanks to Maria-José

Poddey (GIZ). The editor of this report was Ellen Thalman.

The report has benefited from input by numerous ASEAN Regional Energy Policy Sub-Sector Network (REPP-SSN) and Renewable Energy Sub-Sector Network (RE-SSN) Focal Points and Working Group experts, who provided

information, reviewed country analysis, and participated in two working meeting and three webinars during the period March to October 2016. Their comments and suggestions were of great value and have shaped the final

report.

AMS Working Group experts include: Brunei Darussalam: Dr. Andi Tabrani, Muhammad Rifdi; Cambodia: Kin Sothea, Ngin Yav, Munyphakdey Koet; Indonesia: Kartika Dewi Widiastut, Siti Suddatul Aisyah Novianty; Lao People’s

Democratic Republic: Litthanoulok Laspho, Phaysone Phouthonesy, Khonetavanh Douangchanh; Malaysia: Wong Tin Song, Law Yen Yang, Azah Ahmad, Nor Azaliza Damiri, Ahmad Syafiq Rosli; Myanmar: Hla Myo Aung, Swe

Swe Than, Dr. Thi Thi Soe; Singapore: Poh Wei Chian, Erica Liu, Lindy Tan, Derek Wu; Philippines: Lilibeth Morales, Diana Christine Gabito, Jane Peralta, Cynthia Mañalac, Gaspar Escobar, Jr., Michael John Velasco; Thailand: Supit

Padprem, Bubpha Kunathai, Sukanlaya Treewitthayanurak, Kulwaree Sajjawaporaporn, Lumyai Mungpanklang; Vietnam: Quach Quang Dong.

Special thanks to all the participating ASEAN Energy Ministers, Senior Officials and other Participants for their constructive feedback and discussions during the Ministers-CEO Dialogue on 23 September 2016 in Nay Pyi Taw,

Myanmar, in the occasion of the 34th ASEAN Ministers on Energy Meeting (AMEM). In a Joint Ministerial Statement released at the event the Ministers commended ACE’s productive collaboration with IRENA and GIZ towards

the publication of the ASEAN Renewable Energy Outlook. The statement noted that the Ministers were encouraged by the findings of the Outlook and called for additional effort and robust framework from all AMS towards the

timely achievement of the ASEAN renewable energy target.

IRENA is grateful to the German and Japanese governments, whose support of the REmap Programme make the publication of reports like this one a reality.

Report citation

IRENA & ACE (2016). Renewable Energy Outlook for ASEAN: a REmap Analysis. International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), Abu Dhabi and ASEAN Centre for

Energy (ACE), Jakarta.

This report is available for download from www.irena.org/publications, the REmap website www.irena.org/remap and www.aseanenergy.org/publications

For further information or to provide feedback, please contact the IRENA REmap team at remap@irena.org and ACE team at secretariat@aseanenergy.org

Unless otherwise stated, this publication and

material featured herein are the joint property of the

International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA)

and the ASEAN Centre for Energy (ACE), subject to

copyright by IRENA & ACE.

Material in this publication may be freely used, shared,

copied, reproduced, printed and/or stored, provided

that all such material is clearly attributed to IRENA &

ACE.

Material contained in this publication attributed to

third parties may be subject to third-party copyright

and separate terms of use and restrictions, including

restrictions in relation to any commercial use.

ISBN 978-92-95111-27-1 (print)

ISBN 978-92-95111-28-8 (PDF)

DISCLAIMER

This publication and the material featured herein are provided “as is”.

All reasonable precautions have been taken by IRENA and ACE to verify the reliability of the material featured in this publication. Neither IRENA, ACE nor any of its

officials, agents, data or other third-party content providers or licensors provides any warranty, including as to the accuracy, completeness, or fitness for a particular

purpose or use of such material, or regarding the non-infringement of third-party rights, and they accept no responsibility or liability with regard to the use of this

publication and the material featured therein. The ASEAN Member States or the individuals and institutions that contributed to this report are not responsible for any

opinions or judgements the report contains.

The information contained herein does not necessarily represent the views, opinions or judgements of the Members of IRENA and ASEAN Member States or of the

individuals and institutions that contributed to this report, nor is it an endorsement of any project, product or service provider. The designations employed and the

presentation of material herein do not imply the expression of any opinion on the part of IRENA and ACE concerning the legal status of any region, country, territory,

city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of frontiers or boundaries.

3

ABOUT IRENA

The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) is an intergovernmental organisation that supports countries in their transition to a sustainable energy future, and serves as the principal platform for international co-

operation, a centre of excellence, and a repository of policy, technology, resource and financial knowledge on renewable energy. IRENA promotes the widespread adoption and sustainable use of all forms of renewable energy,

including bioenergy, geothermal, hydropower, ocean, solar and wind energy, in the pursuit of sustainable development, energy access, energy security and low-carbon economic growth and prosperity.

About ACE

Established on 1 January 1999, the ASEAN Centre for Energy (ACE) is an intergovernmental organisation that independently represents the 10 ASEAN Member States’ (AMS) interests in the energy sector. The Centre serves as

a catalyst for the economic growth and integration of the ASEAN region by initiating and facilitating multilateral collaborations as well as joint and collective activities on energy. It is guided by a Governing Council composed of

Senior Officials on Energy from each AMS and a representative from the ASEAN Secretariat as an ex-officio member. Hosted by the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources of Indonesia, ACE’s headquarter is located in Jakarta.

The Renewable Energy Support Programme for ASEAN (ASEAN-RESP) is a joint project by ACE and GIZ, on behalf of the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ), and it enables regional

exchange on renewable energy between ASEAN Member States. IRENA and ACE are grateful to ASEAN-RESP for its financial support for the two REmap ASEAN regional workshops.

Acknowledgements

This report was prepared by the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) and the ASEAN Centre for Energy (ACE). It was prepared under the overall guidance of Dolf Gielen, IRENA Director for Innovation and Technology,

and Ir. Dr. Sanjayan K.V. Velautham, Executive Director of ACE.

The main authors of the report were Nicholas Wagner (IRENA), Deger Saygin (IRENA), Yong Chen (IRENA) and Beni Suryadi (ACE).

Valuable review and feedback was provided by IRENA colleagues Rabia Ferroukhi, Laura Gutierrez and Jasper Rigter as well as ACE colleagues Badariah Yosiyana, Yudha Irmansyah Siregar, Nanda Febriani Moenandar and Dr.

Atit Tippichai. Additional valuable review was provided by Kohji Iwakami (UN ESCAP), Rizky Fauzianto (GIZ), Putu Marsya Sabrina (GIZ), and Cecilia Tam (APERC). The authors would like to extend a special thanks to Maria-José

Poddey (GIZ). The editor of this report was Ellen Thalman.

The report has benefited from input by numerous ASEAN Regional Energy Policy Sub-Sector Network (REPP-SSN) and Renewable Energy Sub-Sector Network (RE-SSN) Focal Points and Working Group experts, who provided

information, reviewed country analysis, and participated in two working meeting and three webinars during the period March to October 2016. Their comments and suggestions were of great value and have shaped the final

report.

AMS Working Group experts include: Brunei Darussalam: Dr. Andi Tabrani, Muhammad Rifdi; Cambodia: Kin Sothea, Ngin Yav, Munyphakdey Koet; Indonesia: Kartika Dewi Widiastut, Siti Suddatul Aisyah Novianty; Lao People’s

Democratic Republic: Litthanoulok Laspho, Phaysone Phouthonesy, Khonetavanh Douangchanh; Malaysia: Wong Tin Song, Law Yen Yang, Azah Ahmad, Nor Azaliza Damiri, Ahmad Syafiq Rosli; Myanmar: Hla Myo Aung, Swe

Swe Than, Dr. Thi Thi Soe; Singapore: Poh Wei Chian, Erica Liu, Lindy Tan, Derek Wu; Philippines: Lilibeth Morales, Diana Christine Gabito, Jane Peralta, Cynthia Mañalac, Gaspar Escobar, Jr., Michael John Velasco; Thailand: Supit

Padprem, Bubpha Kunathai, Sukanlaya Treewitthayanurak, Kulwaree Sajjawaporaporn, Lumyai Mungpanklang; Vietnam: Quach Quang Dong.

Special thanks to all the participating ASEAN Energy Ministers, Senior Officials and other Participants for their constructive feedback and discussions during the Ministers-CEO Dialogue on 23 September 2016 in Nay Pyi Taw,

Myanmar, in the occasion of the 34th ASEAN Ministers on Energy Meeting (AMEM). In a Joint Ministerial Statement released at the event the Ministers commended ACE’s productive collaboration with IRENA and GIZ towards

the publication of the ASEAN Renewable Energy Outlook. The statement noted that the Ministers were encouraged by the findings of the Outlook and called for additional effort and robust framework from all AMS towards the

timely achievement of the ASEAN renewable energy target.

IRENA is grateful to the German and Japanese governments, whose support of the REmap Programme make the publication of reports like this one a reality.

Report citation

IRENA & ACE (2016). Renewable Energy Outlook for ASEAN: a REmap Analysis. International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), Abu Dhabi and ASEAN Centre for

Energy (ACE), Jakarta.

This report is available for download from www.irena.org/publications, the REmap website www.irena.org/remap and www.aseanenergy.org/publications

For further information or to provide feedback, please contact the IRENA REmap team at remap@irena.org and ACE team at secretariat@aseanenergy.org

Unless otherwise stated, this publication and

material featured herein are the joint property of the

International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA)

and the ASEAN Centre for Energy (ACE), subject to

copyright by IRENA & ACE.

Material in this publication may be freely used, shared,

copied, reproduced, printed and/or stored, provided

that all such material is clearly attributed to IRENA &

ACE.

Material contained in this publication attributed to

third parties may be subject to third-party copyright

and separate terms of use and restrictions, including

restrictions in relation to any commercial use.

ISBN 978-92-95111-27-1 (print)

ISBN 978-92-95111-28-8 (PDF)

DISCLAIMER

This publication and the material featured herein are provided “as is”.

All reasonable precautions have been taken by IRENA and ACE to verify the reliability of the material featured in this publication. Neither IRENA, ACE nor any of its

officials, agents, data or other third-party content providers or licensors provides any warranty, including as to the accuracy, completeness, or fitness for a particular

purpose or use of such material, or regarding the non-infringement of third-party rights, and they accept no responsibility or liability with regard to the use of this

publication and the material featured therein. The ASEAN Member States or the individuals and institutions that contributed to this report are not responsible for any

opinions or judgements the report contains.

The information contained herein does not necessarily represent the views, opinions or judgements of the Members of IRENA and ASEAN Member States or of the

individuals and institutions that contributed to this report, nor is it an endorsement of any project, product or service provider. The designations employed and the

presentation of material herein do not imply the expression of any opinion on the part of IRENA and ACE concerning the legal status of any region, country, territory,

city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of frontiers or boundaries.

FOREWORD IRENA

The nations of Southeast Asia stand at a crossroads in terms of their collective energy future. Over the next decade, the region will experience

rapid economic growth and a 50% rise in energy demand. With this growth comes challenges, as the region strives to supply energy affordably,

sustainably and securely.

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), recognising this challenge, has decided to chart a course towards a sustainable, secure and

prosperous future based more heavily on renewable energy. Accordingly, the region has set out to make 23% of its primary energy renewable – more

than double the current share.

This aspirational target, although ambitious to reach by 2025, is grounded in a firm awareness of the region’s wealth of renewable energy resources.

It also recognises a compelling business case, as tumbling technology costs for renewables make access to modern energy services increasingly

feasible and affordable for all while bringing the region closer to a trajectory in line with the objectives of the Paris Agreement and the Sustainable

Development Goals.

The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) has worked intensively with the ASEAN Centre for Energy and ASEAN’s ten member states to

find ways to accelerate renewable energy deployment across the region. As this report indicates, renewable energy can bring lower overall costs,

cleaner cities, and a more secure and robust energy supply.

But this future depends on action now – not only to scale up significantly the amount of renewable power, but also to switch to more renewable-

based heating, cooking and transport. All ASEAN countries must act, at a national and regional level.

IRENA stands ready to support ASEAN Member States in charting out this exciting journey as they work together to build a secure, accessible,

affordable and sustainable energy future.

Adnan Z. Amin

Director-General

International Renewable

Energy Agency

A Renewable Energy Roadmap

4

FOREWORD ACE

At the beginning of this year, the ASEAN Centre for Energy (ACE) published the 4th ASEAN Energy Outlook (AEO4). Against the backdrop

of various developments effecting the energy sectors, AEO4 presents two scenarios of the region’s energy demand and supply to 2035: a

Business as Usual Scenario which reflects the continuous trend of the energy sector’s development from the past; and and Advancing Policy

Scenario that incorporates progressive policy and action plans from each ASEAN Member States to achieve their official national targets for

renewable energy and energy efficiency. The findings raised concerns in terms of energy security as the region will continue to depend on

fossil fuels, with coal as the main energy source to meet the rapid growth of electricity demand. However, AEO4 also outlines the potentials

to reduce energy intensity while highlighting the potentials to increase the contribution from renewable energy.

Seeing the importance to analyse these findings further ACE started a collaboration with the IRENA with the support of ASEAN Member

States to identify the path for the region to achieve its aspirational target of 23% of RE in the energy mix by 2025. This regional target was set

by the AMS at the 33rd ASEAN Ministers on Energy Meeting in 2015. This study not only indicates the status of renewables in Member States,

but also available options for ASEAN to achieve its aspirational renewable energy target. Beyond that, it supports the main objectives of the

ASEAN Plan of Action for Energy Cooperation 2016-2025 towards ‘energy security, accessibility, affordability and sustainability for all’.

This publication is part of ACE's efforts to fulfil its function as a regional centre of excellence that builds a coherent, coordinated, focused

and robust energy policy agenda and strategy for ASEAN. In its development process, it also received support from the Renewable Energy

Support Programme for ASEAN, a project jointly implemented by ACE and Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ)

GmbH on behalf of the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ). We are glad that the findings of this study have

provided key discussion points during the Ministers-CEO Dialogue on the occasion of the 34th AMEM on 23 September 2016 in Nay Pyi Taw,

Myanmar, and received positive feedback. We hope this publication will motivate all stakeholders in enhancing cooperation for renewables

promotion and deployment in the region.

Ir. Dr. Sanjayan Velautham

Executive Director

ASEAN Centre for Energy

A Renewable Energy Roadmap

ASEAN Centre for Energy

One Community for Sustainable Energy

5

CONTENTS

C

CONTENTS

FOREWORD IRENA ��3

FOREWORD ACE

��4

LIST OF FIGURES

�� 7

TABLES

��8

BOXES

��8

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

��9

ASEAN TO 2025

�� 27

Growing population and prosperity �� 28

Rapidly growing energy demand

��31

Issues related to growing energy demand ��35

●● Energy security

��35

●● Air pollution

��35

●● CO

2

emissions ��36

Drivers for renewables

��38

●● Increasing cost-competitiveness

��38

●● Abundant renewable resource availability

�� 38

●● Socio-economic benefits

�� 40

RENEWABLE ENERGY PROSPECTS IN ASEAN ��42

Role of renewables to 2025 ��43

●● Developments for renewables

in the Reference and REmap cases

��43

●● Renewable energy shares by sector

��48

●● The renewable technology mix

�� 49

Accelerating renewables – the REmap Options �� 52

●● Overview

��52

●● Power

�� 54

●● Transport

��59

●● Buildings

�� 61

●● Industry

��64

●● Bioenergy

��65

CONTENTS

1. 2. 3.

INTRODUCTION ��20

The International Renewable Energy Agency

and REmap programme �� 21

ASEAN Centre for Energy

�� 22

Approach and country stakeholder engagement ��23

●● REmap programme

��23

●● Country engagement

��24

●● The baseline to 2025 – the Reference Case

�� 24

●● Objective of this study: identifying renewable

energy technology options to close the gap

��25

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

6

COSTS, BENEFITS AND INVESTMENT NEEDS

OF RENEWABLES

��68

Substitution costs ��69

Benefits relating to air pollution and CO

2

��71

CHANGES IN CO

2

EMISSIONS �� 73

Investment needs to close the gap

��75

ACTION AREAS FOR ENABLING ASEAN’S

RENEWABLES POTENTIAL

�� 78

REFERENCES

..........................................................................81

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

��83

4. 5. A

ANNEX A: COUNTRY OVERVIEW TABLES ................ 84

ASEAN �� 85

Brunei Darussalam

��86

Cambodia ��87

Indonesia

��88

Lao PDR ��89

Malaysia

�� 90

Myanmar

��91

Philippines ��92

Singapore

��93

Thailand

��94

Vietnam �� 95

ANNEX B: WORKSHOP PROCEEDINGS ��96

ANNEX C: DATA SOURCES FOR COUNTRIES

�� 97

ANNEX D:

ASEAN COMMODITY PRICE AND

TECHNOLOGY COST ASSUMPTIONS

��98

ANNEX E:

REMAP METHODOLOGY, METRICS AND

TERMINOLOGY DESCRIPTIONS

�� 101

PHOTO CREDITS

��106

C

7

FIGURES AND TABLES

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 6: Primary energy demand by fuel or source,

2014 and Reference Case in 2025 ��34

Figure 7: External costs associated with air pollution

by energy carrier in ASEAN ��36

Figure 8: ASEAN's energy-related CO

2

emissions by

sector and fuel, 2014 and Reference Case�� 37

Figure 9: Levelised cost of electricity or heat, by

technology, ASEAN, in 2025 �� 39

Figure 10: Solar and wind resource map from

IRENA’s Global Atlas, ASEAN region�� 40

Figure 11: Expected change in GDP due to climate

change by 2060 ��41

Figure 12: TPES growth and renewable energy share ��46

Figure 13: Renewable energy share in ASEAN

Member States by sector, 2025 ��49

Figure 14: TPES by fuel in 2014, and 2025 for the

Reference Case and REmap ��50

Figure 15: Renewable energy consumption in TFEC

in 2014, and in 2025 for the Reference Case and REmap ��51

Figure 16: Breakdown of REmap Options by technology

and by country �� 52

Figure 17: Breakdown of power generation in ASEAN,

2014 and 2025 for the Reference Case and REmap �� 55

Figure 18: Power capacity in ASEAN region, 2014,

Reference Case and REmap ��56

Figure 19: Power sector renewable energy share,

renewable energy additions and total, 2014-2025 ��56

Figure 20: Annual installation rate for various

renewable power technologies per year, by country,

to 2025 �� 57

Figure 21: Variable renewable energy shares of

ASEAN Member States in power generation, 2014-2025

��58

Figure 22: Transport sector renewable energy

share, renewable additions and total, 2014-2025

��60

Figure 23: Building sector modern renewable energy

share, renewable additions and total, 2014-2025

��61

Figure 24: Development of the modern renewable

energy share in buildings of the ASEAN Member States,

2014-2015

��62

Figure 25: Industry sector renewable energy share,

renewable additions and total, 2014-2025

��64

Figure 26: Total demand for primary biomass in

ASEAN, 2025

�� 65

Figure 27: Demand vs supply ratio of biomass in

select ASEAN Member States, 2025

��66

Figure 28: REmap Options substitution cost by

country from the government perspective

�� 70

Figure 29: Energy system costs and reduced

externalities relating to REmap Options, by sector

��72

Figure 30: Cost and savings of REmap Options,

share of GDP in 2025

�� 73

Figure 31: CO

2

emissions from energy, increases

in Reference Case and REmap in 2025 �� 74

Figure 32: Annual renewable energy investment needs

to 2025

��76

Figure ES1: Renewable energy share in the ASEAN

region in total primary energy supply to 2025

��10

Figure ES2: Air pollution external costs (left figure)

and energy-related CO

2

emissions (right figure) in the

ASEAN region, 2014 and Reference Case in 2025 �� 11

Figure ES3: Renewable energy additions in the Reference

Case and REmap Options, by electricity and direct-use

�� 12

Figure ES4: Breakdown of REmap Options by sector and

renewable energy source

�� 13

Figure ES5: Renewable energy shares in the ASEAN

region by sector to 2025

��14

Figure ES6: Physical capacity growth of select

renewable technologies in the Reference Case and

REmap Options to 2025

��15

Figure ES7: Costs and savings of REmap Options

in 2025

�� 17

Figure ES8: Annual investment needs in renewable

energy capacity between 2014 and 2025 in the ASEAN

region for Reference Case and REmap Options

��18

Figure 1: Map of countries participating in IRENA’s

REmap programme and ASEAN regional report

��21

Figure 2: Renewable energy share in ASEAN

Member States to 2025 and 2030

��25

Figure 3: Relation between urbanisation rate and

electricity consumption, 1990-2013

�� 30

Figure 4: Total final energy consumption by sector,

2014 and Reference Case 2025

�� 32

Figure 5: Increase in energy demand by 2025 over

2014 levels

�� 33

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

8

LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF BOXES

Box 1: Case and terminology overview ��23

Box 2: Overview of terminology: RE share, TPES, TFEC, and sectors grouping

��26

Box 3: Closing the gap by country and a differentiated approach

��47

Box 4: Electrifying the rural population in ASEAN

�� 63

Box 5: A view to 2030 for renewable energy

��67

Box 6: Energy efficiency and energy intensity Improvement

��74

Table 5: REmap Options importance by

technology and sector

�� 53

Table 6: Flexibility mechanisms in the

ASEAN power system, in 2025

��59

Table 7: Electrification rates in select

ASEAN Member States

�� 63

Table 8: Key indicators and shares in ASEAN,

2025 and 2030

��67

Table 9: Renewable energy shares in TPES in

ASEAN Member States, 2025 and 2030

��67

Table 10: Change in fuel cost expenditures

by 2025 due to REmap Options

��71

Table 11: Technology investment in ASEAN,

average between 2014 and 2025

�� 77

Table 1: Population and GDP growth in

ASEAN Member States, 2014 and 2025

��29

Table 2: Total primary energy supply by

country, 2014 and Reference Case 2025

��31

Table 3: REmap ASEAN roadmap table

�� 44

Table 4: Country contribution towards

increasing ASEAN’s renewable energy

share to 23%

��47

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

ES

9

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

10

The renewable energy share will need to increase two-and-a-half fold by 2025

with a six percentage-point gap between the Reference Case and 23% target

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

2014 2020 2025

2030

Renewable energy share in TPES

ASEAN Target:

2014 Share

17%

23%

The "Gap"

9.4%

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) has set the

aspirational target of securing 23% of its primary energy from

modern, sustainable renewable sources by 2025. This objective

implies a two-and-a-half-fold increase in the modern renewable energy

share compared to 2014� At the same time, power generation will

double by 2025, and overall energy demand will grow by almost 50%�

A TARGET FOR A CLEAN, SUSTAINABLE AND PROSPEROUS FUTURE

Figure ES1: Renewable energy share in the ASEAN region in total primary energy supply to 2025

This target is well in line with the global thinking and ambition

levels for renewables, but it will require a significant acceleration

of renewable energy deployment over the coming decade. In 2014,

the ASEAN region's renewables share in total primary energy supply

(TPES) was 9�4%� By 2025 it is expected to increase to just under 17%

if current policies and those under consideration are followed� Thus,

the region must overcome a six percentage-point gap to reach its goal�

The challenge is how to implement this 23% renewable energy

target. Doing so will require an understanding of what can individual

countries contribute, what can different sectors contribute, and what

are the costs and benefits of different technologies� This study explores

the potential for deploying renewable energy technologies across the

entire energy system of ASEAN Member States� It also quantifies costs

and investments, environmental benefits, and identifies key challenges

to ramping up renewables in the region�

GROWING ECONOMIES, POPULATION

AND ENERGY DEMAND

The population of the ASEAN region will increase from around

615 million in 2014 to 715 million by 2025. The economy will grow

more than 5% per year, resulting in a rapid rise in energy demand.

The region will see 4% annual growth in energy demand until 2025,

amounting to a rise of 50% over 2014 levels� Electricity demand will

double between 2014 and 2025�

The region has insufficient indigenous fossil fuel resources to

meet its growing energy demand, and the share of imported fossil

fuel will increase, which has important energy security implications�

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

ES

11

Energy demand for electricity production will rise at the fastest

pace, but fuel demand in industry and transport will also increase

rapidly. According to developments likely to occur based on current

or planned policies or expected market developments (known in this

report as the Reference Case), most demand will be met with fossil

fuels, but it also foresees significant growth in hydropower, geothermal

power, and some forms of modern bioenergy for heating and cooking�

Rising fossil fuel demand will boost carbon dioxide (CO

2

)

emissions and exacerbate local air pollution. This has global

implications� The share of global energy consumed in the region will

increase from 5�7% today to 7�5% by 2025� In the Reference Case,

energy-related CO

2

emissions will increase by 61% and total energy-

related CO

2

emissions will amount to over 2�2gigatonnes (Gt) annually

in 2025�

External costs related to air pollution from the combustion of

fossil fuels will increase by 35%, from USD 167 billion annually in

2014 to USD 225 billion in 2025. This would equal around 5% of the

ASEAN region’s gross domestic product (GDP) in 2025� Therefore, the

region will see rising costs for energy supply, as well as rising costs

from the negative effects of greater fossil fuel use in increasingly urban

societies�

Figure ES2: Air pollution external costs (left ﬁgure) and energy-related CO

2

emissions (right ﬁgure) in the ASEAN region, 2014 and Reference Case in 2025

Air pollution external costs (USD bln/yr)

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

2014

22%

64%

82%

Reference Case

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

84%

54%

91%

32%

66%

73%

35%

Energy-related CO

2

emissions (Mt/yr)

Power

Industry Buildings

Coal

Oil

Gas

2014

Reference

Case 2025

Transport

Energy-related CO

2

emissions will increase

by over 60% by 2025

External costs associated with air pollution could

reach USD 225 billion annually by 2025

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

12

THE CASE

FOR RENEWABLES

Renewable energy has emerged as the single largest source of

new power capacity additions in recent years. The year 2016 has

seen record low prices for utility-scale solar photovoltaics (PV) and

onshore wind, as low as USD 0�03 per kilowatt-hour (kWh) for the

lowest-cost project proposals� More and more countries are showing

how significant shares of variable renewables can be integrated into

existing grids, while maintaining or even improving power reliability

and quality� This shifting energy landscape also comes at an important

time for the climate, with the Paris Agreement entering into force�

The shared objective to keep climate change below 2 degrees Celsius

implies a global decarbonised energy system between 2050 and 2070�

Renewable energy has a key role to play on the supply side to realise

this objective�

ASEAN Member States can benefit from these global trends. This

roadmap shows that by 2025 across most of the ASEAN region,

renewable power technologies will be able to supply electricity

at or below the cost of generation from non-renewable energy

sources. Additionally, the region’s ample renewable energy resources

can provide opportunities for the cost-effective deployment of

renewable technologies for heating and cooking, with large potential

for solar thermal and modern bioenergy�

THE RENEWABLE

TECHNOLOGY MIX

The REmap approach covers energy supply and demand – it looks at

power, heating, transport and cooking, and at all renewable sources�

Given the short time horizon and ambitious ASEAN target for 2025 –

which is under a decade away – this broad, multi-sector scope is the

best way to find a viable pathway�

Renewable

energy share

23%

9.4%

17%

REmap Option

Renewable electricity

Renewable direct-uses

additions

Reference Case

additions

51%

49%

70%

30%

Figure ES3: Renewable energy additions in the Reference Case and REmap Options, by electricity and direct-use

Renewable electricity

plays an important

role in increasing the

region’s renewable

share, but much of the

additional potential

identified in REmap

comes from direct-

uses of renewables for

heating, cooking and

transport

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

ES

13

Note: Geo. stands for geothermal.

Around half of the modern renewables potential for 2025 is in

the power sector. The other half is in end-use sectors, i.e. renewable

fuels or direct-uses of renewables for heat, cooking, and transport�

However, renewables deployment under government plans, knows as

the Reference Case, and the additional potential identified in REmap

differ significantly�

The Reference Case sees significant increases in hydropower, and

more modest growth in geothermal power, liquid biofuels, and a

reduction of around one-third in the traditional uses of bioenergy�

The REmap Options, which are the additional potential of

renewables on top of the Reference Case, and which close the six

percentage-point gap to reach the region’s aspirational target,

are made up of about one-third renewable power and about two-

thirds renewables in heating, cooking and transport. Around 15%

come from solar PV, with another 15% from wind, geothermal and

bioenergy-based power� The remainder of the additions are made

up of 25% from solar thermal, 35% from mainly biogas and modern

bioenergy cookstoves in buildings (residential and commercial), as

well as bioenergy used in industry and transport, and 10% from other

renewable sources�

The distribution of renewable energy use varies significantly by

country and sector, with renewable shares in countries ranging from

4% to 59% in REmap – a wide variation from the regional objective

of 23%� The wide range can be attributed to a different resource

endowment, different levels and growth rates of energy demand, and

different starting points based on today’s levels� Across the ASEAN

region, the power sector has the highest share, followed by buildings,

industry and transport� Additional potential for deploying renewables

on top of the Reference Case exists in all sectors, but REmap shows

that the largest increase can take place in buildings and industry by

2025�

Bioenergy

Solar thermal

Liquid biofuels

Solid

biofuels

Gaseous

biofuels

Solar thermal

Small hydro

Solid biofuels

Gaseous biofuels

Solar PV

Wind

Geo.

P

o

w

e

r

:

3

0

%

I

n

d

u

s

t

r

y

:

2

6

%

B

u

i

l

d

i

n

g

s

:

4

0

%

Transport:

4%

Figure ES4: Breakdown of REmap Options by sector and renewable energy source

Seventy percent of the

potential to increase

renewable energy beyond

the Reference Case lies in the

end-use sectors of buildings,

industry and transport

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

14

Note: End-use sectors include the consumption of electricity sourced from renewables. Shares presented in ﬁgure exclude traditional

uses of bioenergy.

POWER

● The renewable energy share of total power generation will

increase from 20% in 2014 to 27% in the Reference Case,

and further to 34% in REmap by 2025� This would amount

to 410 terawatt-hours (TWh) of renewable power growth

from 2014 to 2025, 280 TWh of which occurs in the

Reference Case and an additional 130 TWh in the REmap

Options� Installed renewable capacity would increase from

51 gigawatts (GW) in 2014 to 184 GW by 2025, amounting

to 43% of total power generation capacity in 2025�

● The ﬁndings indicate that additional renewable energy

opportunities remain in power generation beyond what

countries plan to deploy in their Reference Cases� More

can be done especially with solar PV, both in distributed

and in utility scale, which will increase from just 2 GW in

2014 to almost 60 GW in 2025 in REmap� Also bioenergy-

based power and wind can grow faster than anticipated�

● The share of variable renewable power (VRE) across the

ASEAN region will generally be low, but shares in individual

countries and within individual power systems will vary� In

some countries, the share of VRE in generation will exceed

10% if all REmap Options are implemented� Experience

from other countries shows that such shares can be

Figure ES5: Renewable energy shares in the ASEAN region by sector to 2025

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

Power Buildings Industry Transport

Renewable energy share

End-use sectors

2014 Reference Case REmap

The highest renewable

energy share will be in

power, but high shares

will also be seen in

buildings and industry

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

ES

15

Hydropower, geothermal and liquid biofuels see significant growth in the

Reference Case; most other technologies see the majority of growth take place in the

REmap Options

● In REmap, the renewable energy share is double that of

the Reference Case, reaching 26%� Half of this increase

is driven by greater use of modern bioenergy, such as

in modern solid and biogas cookstoves, which replace

accommodated with

limited grid investments and

operational adjustments�

TRANSPORT

● The transport sector will see energy demand grow by

45% between 2014 and 2025� The sector has the lowest

share of renewables of any sector, but some of the highest

renewable growth potential� The share of renewable

energy in the sector could triple from just 3% in 2014 to

9% in REmap�

● The technologies that would enable this growth include

both biofuels and electric mobility� Most of the increase in

the Reference Case will be from biofuels, with around 20

billion litres of total demand� The REmap Options show

the signiﬁcant additional potential of electric vehicles�

There would be around 59 million electric two- and

three-wheelers, and around 5�9 million electric four-wheel

vehicles� Additionally, electriﬁed public transport would

grow rapidly within cities and for transit travel� The sector

will become more electriﬁed, with the share of transport

energy coming from electricity rising from 0�2% in 2014 to

1�6% 2025� However the role of biofuels will still be evident�

BUILDINGS

● In buildings, the share of renewable energy from modern

renewable energy sources, which excludes traditional uses

of bioenergy, increases from 6% to 13% by 2025 in the

Reference Case�

Figure ES6: Physical capacity growth of select renewable technologies in the Reference Case and REmap Options to

2025

Note: The numbers in ﬁgure refer to the total end value in 2014, Reference Case 2025, or REmap 2025. They do not refer to additions

taking place in each case.

Hydropower Solar PV Geothermal Liquid

biofuels

Electric

two/three

wheelers

Electric

vehicles

Solar thermalModern

cookstoves

(solid)

Power Transport Heating/Cooking

79

GW

82 GW

2014

Reference

Case

REmap

2 GW

14

GW

57 GW

3 GW

10

GW

11 GW

4 bln.

litres

19 bln.

litres

20 bln.

litres

0.01

mln.

0.6

mln.

8.9

mln.

1

mln.

5

mln.

59

mln.

2.0

mln.

12.5

mln.

0.4

mln.

2.5

mln.

13

mln. m

2

0.5

mln. m

2

150

mln. m

2

39

GW

Modern

cookstoves

(biogas)

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

16

much of traditional use of bioenergy� By 2025 there could

be 12�5 million modern cookstoves, 2�5 million biogas

cooking installations, and 0�4 million biofuel cookers in

operation� The other large source of renewable energy is

solar thermal� Total collector area would expand by around

150 million square metres, bringing the region average to

0�2 square metres per capita�

INDUSTRY

● Demand for energy will grow by more

in the industry sector than in any

other end-use sector, rising by

more than 60% by 2025� The

share of renewables will

only increase marginally, by 15%-18% in the Reference

Case�

● REmap shows that additional potential lies in increased

use of bioenergy to provide process heat generation

and in co-generation of power and heat, as well as in

solar thermal for lower-temperature industrial processes�

The industry sector also provides opportunities for self-

generation of power, e.g. from solar PV or bioenergy� The

share of renewables in the sector could increase to as

much as 23% in REmap�

It is important to note that there are multiple routes through which

countries can increase renewables in their energy system� More em-

phasis could be given to one sector over another, for instance the rapid

development of renewable power generation capacity and electri-

fication of transport, cooking and heating� Or more emphasis could

be put on deploying higher levels of modern, sustainable bioenergy�

Also, regional energy trade for bioenergy fuels or electricity could be

expanded and result in a shifting landscape of renewable energy de-

ployment� Therefore, there is no single “true” distribution� The REmap

insights can inform a discussion about an economically viable pathway,

but variations on this pathway are possible�

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

ES

17

Reduced externalities resulting from higher

deployment of renewables can amount to between

0.2-1.0% of GDP – at a minimum at least 10 times

higher than costs

Figure ES7: Costs and savings of REmap Options in 2025

-10

-8

-6

-4

-2

0

2

4

Transport Power Industry Buildings Total

CO

2

Air pollution

(outdoor)

Energy

system cost

Change in costs

resulting from

REmap Options

Costs

Savings

USD billion/yr

THE COSTS, BENEFITS AND INVESTMENTS NEEDED FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY

The portfolio of renewable options to increase the renewable

energy share from the Reference Case level of 17% to ASEAN’s

23% target would cost only USD 1.9 per megawatt-hour (MWh)

of final renewable energy in 2025 (equal to around USD 0�7 billion in

incremental energy system costs, or just 0�02% of annual GDP in 2025)�

Of all the REmap Options identified, around 60% are cost-effective,

and around 40% result in additional costs�

However, benefits significantly exceed costs if reduced

externalities are considered. Reduced externalities from lower levels

of outdoor air pollution and CO

2

emissions result in savings at least

10 times higher than the incremental cost of the REmap Options�

If indoor air pollution is included, savings increase significantly, to

as much as 50 times more than costs� These savings are equal to

between 0�2% and 1�0% of ASEAN’s GDP in 2025, depending on

whether indoor air pollution is considered (included in the higher level)�

These assessments are also only based on the low-end calculations

for external cost reductions� If the high end is assumed, savings as a

share of GDP could be over 2�0%� The power sector plays the key role in

realising these reductions, as do the savings from air pollution and CO

2

emission reductions� The transport sector is also an important source

of savings, resulting from lower levels of air pollution in cities�

Note: Assumes low-end estimates for externalities for outdoor air pollution and CO

2

, indoor air pollution excluded from ﬁgure.

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

18

The region will need to invest USD 290 billion in renewable energy capacity

over the next decade

CO

2

emissions from energy will rise by 61% in the Reference Case.

The REmap Options and closing the gap to ASEAN’s renewable

energy target will limit this rise to 47%. Additionally, the energy

intensity of the region’s economy will decline by around 30% by 2025

in REmap over 2005 levels, broadly in line with the region’s targets for

energy intensity improvement�

The ASEAN region will need to invest USD 27 billion annually, a

total of USD 290 billion by 2025, in renewable energy capacity in

order to meet the 23% renewable energy goal. Just under half of

this will be investment that takes place in the Reference Case, and the

remainder will come from the REmap Options� To close the gap, an

additional USD 14 billion annually will be required on top of existing

government plans� Of this, USD 5 billion annually can be redirected

from investments in fossil fuels, but additional mobilisation of USD 9

billion annually will be needed�

The power sector will account for 75% of the average annual

investment need of USD 27 billion.

USD 7�5 billion per year will need

to be invested in solar PV, and USD 6�3 billion in hydropower� The

building and industry sectors will require around USD 7 billion annually

in investment, focused largely on bioenergy and solar thermal�

Figure ES8: Annual investment needs in renewable energy capacity between 2014 and 2025 in the ASEAN region for

Reference Case and REmap Options

Investment in

renewable energy

capacity to reach

23% share

USD 27 billion/yr

Reference Case

USD 13 billion/yr

REmap Options:

New investment

USD 9 billion/yr

REmap Options: redirected fossil fuel investment

into renewable energy capacity USD 5 billion/yr

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

ES

19

Action area 1:

increase power

system flexibili-

ty in the ASEAN

region while using renew-

ables to provide modern

energy access for all

Action area 2:

expand efforts

for renewable

energy uptake

for the power sector and

for heating, cooking and

transport sectors

Action area 3:

create a sustain-

able, affordable

and reliable re-

gional bioenergy market

Action area 4:

address the infor-

mation challenge

by increasing the

availability of up-to-date

renewable energy data

and the sharing of best

practice for renewable

energy technologies

ACTION AREAS FOR ENABLING ASEAN’S RENEWABLE ENERGY

POTENTIAL

Accelerating the deployment of renewable energy technologies must take national circumstances into account.

There is therefore no single set of solutions suited to the needs of the entire ASEAN region. Suggestions can,

however, be grouped broadly into four areas:

The full report Renewable Energy Outlook for ASEAN provides in-depth findings on technology and country-level deployment

potential for renewables� It also sheds some insights into the main drivers, costs and benefits, and investments needs for

renewable energy� Please visit www.irena.org/remap to download the report�

01

INTRODUCTION

ES

21

01

In October 2015, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)

announced a region-wide aspirational target to achieve 23% renewable

energy in total primary energy supply by 2025, a significant increase

from just under 10% in 2014� The goal is part of ASEAN’s Plan of Action

for Energy Cooperation (APAEC) 2016-2025, adopted by its Member

States at the 33

rd

ASEAN Ministers on Energy Meeting (AMEM) in

September 2015 in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia�

The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) and the ASEAN

Centre for Energy (ACE) agreed to conduct a study using IRENA's

REmap analytical tools, to develop a Renewable Energy Outlook that

would build on the 4th ASEAN Energy Outlook (AEO4, released in

January 2016) (ACE, 2015)� This study is in part supported by the

Renewable Energy Support Programme for ASEAN (ASEAN-RESP),

a joint project of ACE and the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale

Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH, on behalf of the German Federal

Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ)�

ASEAN Member States must make an immediate and concerted

effort if they are to realise the 23% aspirational target by 2025� The

AEO4 study shows that, without additional efforts, the region will

only reach a 15�4% renewable energy share� Thus, there is a significant

gap to close if the region wants to achieve 23%� This study explores

the potential for deploying renewable energy technologies across the

entire energy system of ASEAN Member States in pursuit of the 23%

renewables share� It also quantifies costs, associated benefits, and

some key challenges to ramping up renewables in the region�

This report was previewed in September 2016 during the 34

th

ASEAN AMEM meeting held in Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar� The ASEAN

Member States in their Joint Ministerial Statement indicated their

encouragement of the findings of the report and called for additional

efforts and robust frameworks from all ASEAN Member States towards

a timely achievement of the renewable energy target�

Figure 1: Map of countries participating in IRENA’s REmap programme and ASEAN regional report

THE INTERNATIONAL

RENEWABLE ENERGY AGENCY

AND REMAP PROGRAMME

The IRENA REmap programme shows how it is possible to significantly

accelerate the global share of renewable energy by 2030� Such

accelerated growth helps fulfil the United Nations (UN) Sustainable

Development Goal 7 (SDG on energy), set in its 2030 Agenda for

Sustainable Development, to ensure access to affordable, reliable,

Note: 40 countries participated as of early 2016 (green) including Indonesia and Malaysia, and the 8 remaining ASEAN Member States

were added in mid-2016 as part of this study (all ASEAN Member States are marked in red).

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

22

01

sustainable, and modern energy for all� IRENA is also the hub for the

renewable energy objective of the Sustainable Energy for All initiative

(SEforALL), which aims to double the share of renewables globally by

2030�

REmap is a global study of renewable energy potential built from the

bottom up� As of March 2016, it analyses 40 countries

6

that represent

over 80% of global energy use, working closely with them to determine

the potential of renewables (Figure 1)� In addition to the power sector,

the report looks at the end-use sectors of agriculture, buildings

(residential, commercial, public, and services), industry and transport�

The study shows that when renewables are combined with

accelerated improvements in energy efficiency, the world can set itself

on a path towards a limited global temperature rise of two degrees

Celsius or lower compared to the pre-industrial level� REmap also

shows that higher levels of renewables would result in savings up to 15

times higher than costs�

REmap is developed in close cooperation and consultation with

government-nominated experts (energy statisticians, energy modellers

and energy policy experts)� It is an analysis of the potential, costs and

savings of renewable energy technology options� REmap provides a

perspective on the options available at the sector level that represent

the realistic potential of renewables beyond national energy targets

and plans up to 2030�

6 These are Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, China, Colombia,

Cyprus, Denmark, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Egypt, Ethiopia, France,

Germany, India, Indonesia, Iran, Italy, Japan, Kazakhstan, Kenya, Kuwait,

Malaysia, Mexico, Morocco, Nigeria, Poland, the Republic of Korea, the Russian

Federation, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Sweden, Tonga, Turkey, Ukraine, the

United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Uruguay�

IRENA’s approach in REmap follows two parallel tracks: (i) country-

based analysis to identify actions on technology deployment,

investment and policies in collaboration with REmap countries and

regional associations, such as in the case of this study; and (ii) series of

technology roadmaps to identify cross-country insights on the actions

required to significantly increase the share of renewables in the global

energy mix� For regions with rapidly growing energy demand, but

which REmap does not yet fully cover with country analyses, REmap

also develops regional outlooks, including for Africa (IRENA, 2015a), in

addition to the present publication for Southeast Asia�

For more information about the REmap programme, to view a wide

and expanding body of studies and reports, learn more about the

methodology or assumptions, or view and download data, please visit

www.irena.org/remap.

ASEAN CENTRE

FOR ENERGY

Established on 1 January 1999, the ASEAN Centre for Energy (ACE) is

an intergovernmental organisation that independently represents the

10 ASEAN Member States' (AMS) interests in the energy sector� The

Centre serves as a catalyst for the economic growth and integration

of the ASEAN region by initiating and facilitating multilateral

collaborations as well as joint and collective activities on energy� It is

guided by a Governing Council composed of Senior Officials on Energy

from each AMS and a representative from the ASEAN Secretariat as

an ex-officio

member� Hosted by the Ministry of Energy and Mineral

Resources of Indonesia, ACE’s headquarter is located in Jakarta� For

more information, please visit www.aseanenergy.org

ASEAN Centre for Energy

One Community for Sustainable Energy

INTRODUCTION

ES

23

01

APPROACH AND COUNTRY

STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT

REMAP PROGRAMME

REmap explores renewable energy options for decision makers for

consideration in their energy planning and policy making� It uses

information from countries’ national plans, goals or outlooks to produce

a baseline picture of a country’s energy system to 2025 for this report,

or 2030 and longer for others� This baseline is called the Reference

Case�

In addition, it identifies pathways to harness the potential of

renewable energy technologies beyond the Reference Case� These

are the REmap Options� These options are customised for specific

countries and sectors, and aim to close an important knowledge

gap by giving policy makers a clearer understanding of the available

opportunities for accelerating renewable energy deployment� The

REmap Options consider resource availability, access to finance,

local expertise and technical human resource needs, manufacturing

capacity, policy environment, the age of existing capital stock and the

costs of technologies by 2025�

The REmap programme does not set renewable energy targets�

The political feasibility and challenges to implementing each option

varies in different sectors and countries, depending on their particular

circumstances and on the level of commercialisation technologies have

reached� Targets are effective starting points, but policy makers need

to know more: what is the renewable deployment potential, in which

sectors and countries can this be found, and what barriers inhibit

realisation of this potential?

REmap’s methodology is different from other scenario studies and

modelling exercises, as it is based on cooperation and consultation with

countries to develop both the Reference Case and the REmap Options�

The REmap spreadsheet tool allows the country experts to evaluate

and create their own REmap analyses� Using this clear and dynamic

accounting framework, they can evaluate and verify Reference Case

developments and REmap Options� All results are displayed in a

REmap-specific energy balance and an overview of these results on

country level are provided in Annex A of this report�

There are multiple routes through which countries can increase

renewables in their energy system� For instance, more emphasis

BOX 1: CASE AND TERMINOLOGY OVERVIEW

In this report, the two main energy pathways countries could pursue to 2025 and the gap between these are

referred to as:

2014 “base year” – 2014 is the start year because it is the latest for which complete statistical data is available

for all countries� ASEAN Member States completed a questionnaire to provide the data� This could mean that it

may differ slightly from other sources due to differences in collection methodologies or technology grouping

approaches, or if the data was subsequently revised�

The Reference Case – The most likely case based on planned policies and expected market developments

for each country’s energy sector� This Reference Case is based on energy demand forecasts submitted by

ASEAN Member States for this report, or taken from the Advancing Policies Scenario (APS) of the 4

th

ASEAN

Annual Energy Outlook (AEO4)� It does not necessarily reflect business as usual, but includes some accelerated

commitments relating to renewables and energy efficiency improvement that countries had already made as of

early 2016� The Reference Case in this report results in a slightly higher renewable energy share than in the AEO4

APS scenario, because some countries updated their renewable outlooks and other related market conditions�

The REmap Options – The renewable energy technology options for closing the gap between Reference Case

developments and the ASEAN aspirational target of a 23% renewable energy share in primary energy supply by

2025� The REmap Options are also often referred to as “the gap” in this report�

REmap – The case in which the REmap Options are assumed to be fully deployed, on top of developments in

the Reference Case� The “REmap” case is thus in line with ASEAN’s 23% goal�

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

24

01

can be given to increasing renewables in one sector over another,

i.e. countries can focus on more rapid development of renewable

electricity generation capacity and electrification of transport, cooking

and heating� Alternatively, more emphasis can be put on deploying

higher levels of modern, sustainable bioenergy� Regional energy trade

can also be expanded and result in a shifting landscape of renewable

energy deployment� Therefore, there is no single “true” distribution of

renewables deployment� The REmap insights presented in this report

are one possible pathway, developed in collaboration with experts from

countries, and they can inform a discussion on meeting the region’s

renewable energy target� But just how to meet the joint objective is a

political decision�

COUNTRY ENGAGEMENT

This study is a collaborative effort, built on IRENA’s REmap analytical

framework, and done in close collaboration with experts from ASEAN

Member States and ACE� ASEAN’s Member States include ten countries:

Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar,

the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam�

Each country identified experts for a working group to help IRENA

develop its REmap analyses over a six month period� The experts

shared data, reviewed results and took part in three webinars and two

workshops, one in Manila in March 2016 and one in Bangkok in June

2016 (see Annex B)� During the workshops, findings were discussed

and improved upon, and key drivers and needs for renewables were

outlined� Two countries, Indonesia and Malaysia, had already been

participating in REmap since 2014, and the remaining eight countries

joined in early 2016� The final results of this report were presented

during the 34

th

AMEM meeting in Myanmar in September 2016� Member

States indicated their encouragement of the findings of the report and

called for additional efforts and robust frameworks from all ASEAN

Member States towards a timely achievement of the ASEAN renewable

energy target�

This study is based largely on information, data and analysis ASEAN

Member States provided during this period� These include government

plans and studies, as well as other studies on how the region’s energy

use is expected to develop� Another important source of information

is the AEO4, prepared by ACE and released in 2015 (ACE, 2015)� The

AEO4 focuses in detail on the energy sector and identifies renewable

energy potential, but does not explore the detail a pathway to reaching

the regions 23% renewable share target� Therefore, this roadmap

serves as an important complement to the AEO4 from a renewable

energy perspective� It also updates some data with the most recent

information provided by the ASEAN Member States�

THE BASELINE TO 2025 – THE REFERENCE CASE

The starting point for a REmap analysis is the national energy plan or

outlook of a country� Each country provides information on expected

developments in the energy sector between today and 2025 or

expected developments are taken from AEO4� The data provides a

breakdown of demand among different energy carriers by sector, i.e.

electricity generation, residential, commercial, services, transport and

industry� In REmap, these sectors are then grouped into four main

sectors: electricity generation (also called power sector), industry

(including agriculture), transport and buildings (including residential,

commercial, services, and public)�

In the ASEAN region, the renewable energy share in primary energy

supply was 9�4% in 2014 (excluding traditional uses of bioenergy

7

)�

According to the AEO4 business as usual case (which is a conservative

7 Traditional uses of bioenergy are generally not considered a modern renewable

energy source for the purpose of this assessment and the ASEAN aspirational

target�

INTRODUCTION

ES

25

01

outlook for renewable energy deployment), the share would remain

at this level until 2025, estimated to rise to only around 10%� However,

according to the outlooks and plans submitted for this report, many

of which are in line with the Advancing Policy Scenario (APS) of the

AEO4, the Reference Case

8

of this report shows the share could rise

to 16�9% by 2025� This increase would result from the inclusion and

successful implementation of stronger policies ASEAN Member States

have defined in their official targets for increasing renewable energy

and reducing energy intensity� It is also slightly higher than the 15�4%

share envisioned in the APS� This difference is due in part to rapid

developments in the renewable energy sector since the release of

the AEO4� For instance, Indonesia, the Philippines and Thailand, all

large energy consumers in the region, have set renewable energy

targets that are reflected in this analysis� Despite these advances, there

remains a gap of six percentage points to reach the 23% renewable

energy share by 2025 as depicted in Figure 2�

OBJECTIVE OF THIS STUDY: IDENTIFYING

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGY OPTIONS

TO CLOSE THE GAP

This study identifies renewable energy technology options to reach

ASEAN’s target of 23% renewables by 2025, above the Reference

Case share of just below 17%� These REmap Options aim to close this

six-percentage-point gap� They were identified in consultation with

country experts, and using literature on accelerated renewable energy

deployment scenarios, sectoral or technology-focused IRENA studies

and other sources (see Annex C)�

8 For the REmap Reference Case national projections were used for most

countries� If a projection was not available, then the AEO4 APS scenario was

used (see Annex C for an overview of sources)�

Each REmap Option is characterised by its cost and benefits�

The purpose of the cost-benefit analysis is to assess the cost-

competitiveness of renewable energy technologies in several ways�

The main method is to look at substitution costs, i.e. the attractiveness

of renewable energy technologies compared to conventional variants�

Benefits are estimated related to emissions of carbon dioxide (CO

2

)

from fossil fuels as well as indoor and outdoor air pollutants (see

section 4 for more information)� Investments required to deploy

renewable energy capacity are estimated as a separate indicator�

IRENA has developed its own methodology to assess these costs

(IRENA, 2014a) and benefits (IRENA, 2016f) and more information

about these indicators is available in Annex E�

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

2014 2020 2025

2030

Renewable energy share in TPES

ASEAN Target:

2014 Share

17%

23%

The "Gap"

9.4%

Figure 2: Renewable energy share in ASEAN Member States to 2025 and 2030

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

26

01

BOX 2: OVERVIEW OF TERMINOLOGY: RE SHARE, TPES, TFEC, AND SECTORS GROUPING

This report uses terminology to describe energy demand, and assesses renewable energy shares as defined by the ASEAN target� Different countries use different accounting methods

to estimate the renewable energy share in their total energy mix� For example, the UN’s Sustainable Energy for All Initiative (SEforALL) uses Total Final Energy Consumption (TFEC)� In

comparison, other countries and regions, but most importantly ASEAN, use Total Primary Energy Supply (TPES)�

Primary energy is, for instance, crude oil and coal before conversion into gasoline and electricity – the “final energy” – that reaches consumers� As useful as this distinction is in revealing

system losses for energy sources with fuel (fossil, nuclear and biomass), it is problematic when comparing these sources to wind and solar – which have no fuel, and hence no losses between

primary and final energy� When calculating consumption of finite resources, a focus on primary energy consumption makes sense: counting what is taken from nature’s limited supply; but

for solar and wind, resources are essentially boundless� For these sources, and geothermal and nuclear energy, there are different ways to estimate primary energy, which also results in

differences in renewable energy share�

The report uses the following definitions for key indicators:

TPES: Total Primary Energy Supply –

The sum of all energy used in a country, including production and imports, but excluding exports and storage changes� To estimate primary energy

equivalents for non-fossil fuels or biofuels, the Physical Energy Content Method is used (see page 39 in this REmap report for more information: (IRENA, 2014c)�

TFEC: Total Final Energy Consumption – TFEC is the energy delivered to consumers as electricity, heat or fuels that can be used directly as a source of energy� This consumption is usually

sub-divided into transport; industry (including agriculture); and buildings (including residential, commercial and public buildings)� It excludes non-energy uses of fuels�

Renewable share – Renewable shares are calculated in TPES, TFEC and the end-use sectors listed below� The renewable energy share used for this roadmap includes all renewable energy

sources except “traditional” uses of bioenergy� This can be referred to as “modern” renewables� Traditional uses of bioenergy are used in the residential sector, which is often unsustainably

harvested fuelwood or bioenergy feedstocks burned in inefficient stoves� This rule is applied unless a country differentiated between traditional and modern bioenergy use in the residential�

For energy sources, such as nuclear, solar, wind, geothermal and hydro, the physical energy content method is used to calculate primary energy equivalents�

Definition of energy sectors in REmap: Energy demand is viewed in terms of end-users� This study groups them into three broad sectors: transport, buildings (where residential, commercial

and public sectors are combined), and industry� Electricity is consumed in all three, but the power sector is considered separately in the analysis due to its supply characteristics� The energy

use of agriculture is also included, but renewable options for the sector are not provided� Forestry and fishing are excluded from this study�

For more information about key terminology and units used in this report, please see Annex E�

02

TO 2025

28

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

02

GROWING POPULATION AND PROSPERITY

electricity consumption, for instance, is about half the global average

and the electrification rate is only 78�7% (AEO, 2015)� With a growing

population and greater economic prosperity, per capita energy demand

is expected to increase rapidly, boosting overall energy demand as the

population grows� Government plans of the ten ASEAN Member States

anticipate significantly higher energy demand in the region by 2025,

around 50% more than in 2014� In turn, ASEAN’s share of global energy

demand is expected to increase to around 7�5% by 2030 from around

5�7% today�

With higher income, more people living in cities, and more

manufacturing and other energy-intensive industries, per capita

energy demand will rise significantly� For example, Figure 3 shows how

per capita electricity consumption rises with urbanisation� As a result,

total power generation will need to double over the next 10 years�

Supplying this growing demand for energy affordably and

sustainably will become a top priority� ASEAN’s aim of a 23% renewable

energy share by 2025 will enable the region to make better use of

● By 2025, the population of the ASEAN region will increase from around 615 million in 2014 to 715 million, and the

economy will grow by over 5% annually during the period. The result will be a 4% annual growth in energy demand,

amounting to a rise of 50% over 2014.

● The region has set a goal of 23% of its energy in TPES to come from modern, sustainable renewable sources by 2025,

up from 9.4% in 2014. The expected share by 2025 is just under 17% if current policies and targets are followed. Thus,

the region must overcome a six-percentage-point gap to reach its goal.

The ASEAN population was about 615 million in 2014 (and it is estimated

that the population is around 625 million as of mid-2016), representing

about 9% of the total global population� It is growing rapidly, and will

expand to an estimated 715 million people over the next decade� While

population growth rates from country to country are similar, economic

activity is a different story�

If ASEAN were a single country, it would be the world’s fifth largest

economy, after the United States, China, Japan and Germany� The

region is one of the fastest growing in the world (together with Africa

and South Asia)� Its GDP is projected to grow significantly, and by more

than most other developing regions in the years to 2025� Countries’

own projections show an annual growth rate of 5% across the region,

with some differences� For example, some countries in the region will

see growth averaging around 3% and others almost 7% per year to

2025 (Table 1)�

Per capita energy consumption has been growing in tandem with

GDP, but it remains substantially below the global average� Per capita

29

02

ASEAN TO 2025

its indigenous – and significant – renewable resources and ensure a

more sustainable supply of energy in each country� Achieving this

goal requires a regional approach, and cannot be done by individual

countries acting alone� It is therefore of paramount importance to

understand what this target means for each country and to identify

national contributions while also keeping in mind the regional efforts

that are required� This study focuses on doing this with a main aim of

identifying key technologies�

Table 1: Population and GDP growth in ASEAN Member States, 2014 and 2025



Population GDP 

2014 2025

CAGR

(2014-2025)

CAGR

(1990-2013)

2014 2025

CAGR

(2014-2025)

CAGR

(1990-2013)

(Mln.) (Mln.) (%) (%) (Bln. USD 2014) (Bln. USD 2014) (%) (%)

Brunei Darussalam

0�4 0�5 1�6 2�1 14 26 5�9 1�2

Cambodia 15 21 2�7 2�3 15 25 4�7 7�8

Indonesia 250 276 0�9 1�5 868 1661 6�1 5�4

Lao PDR 6 7 1�5 2�1 8 14 4�7 7�4

Malaysia 31 34 0�9 2�2 313 428 2�9 4�7

Myanmar 53 64 1�7 1�0 60 100 4�7 9�5

Philippines 100 119 1�6 2�0 272 550 6�6 5�0

Singapore 5 6 1�3 2�5 297 398 2�7 5�4

Thailand 65 79 1�7 0�7 387 577 3�7 4�0

Vietnam 90 109 1�7 1�3 171 255 3�7 6�4

ASEAN 615 715 1.4 1.5 2405 4034 4.8 5.2

Note: CAGR – Compound Annual Growth Rate

Source: IRENA analysis based on country submissions for future years, historical based on ACE (2015) or ASEAN ACE (n.d.)

30

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

02

Figure 3: Relation between urbanisation rate and electricity consumption, 1990-2013

Note: First country data point is 1990 and the last is 2013

Source: ACE (2015)

Brunei Darussalam

Cambodia

Indonesia

Lao PDR

Malaysia

Myanmar

Philippines

Singapore

Thailand

Vietnam

ASEAN

10

000

9

000

8

000

7

000

6

000

5

000

4

000

3

000

2

000

1

000

–

Urbanisation rate

Electricity consumption (kWh per capita)

10% 30% 50% 70% 90%

31

02

ASEAN TO 2025

RAPIDLY GROWING

ENERGY DEMAND

● The region will see 4% annual growth in energy

demand until 2025, amounting to a rise of 50%

over 2014 levels. The share of worldwide energy

consumed in the region will increase from 5.7%

today to 7.5% over the period.

● Energy demand for electricity production will rise

at the fastest pace, but energy demand in industry

and transport will also increase rapidly. According

to the Reference Case, most demand will be met

with fossil fuels, but it also foresees signiﬁcant

growth in hydropower, geothermal power, and

some forms of modern bioenergy for heating and

cooking.

Table 2: Total primary energy supply by country, 2014 and Reference Case 2025

Total primary energy supply

2014

Reference Case

2025

Share in 2025 of

ASEAN energy

demand

Compound Annual

Growth Rate

(2014-2025)

(Mtoe/yr) (Mtoe/yr) (%) (%/yr)

Brunei Darussalam

3�2 4�0 0�4 2

Cambodia

6�0 8�8 1 4

Indonesia

233�6 397�1 42 5

Lao PDR

3�1 14�1 1 15

Malaysia

86�4 96�8 10 1

Myanmar

17�0 20�9 2 2

Philippines

47�7 73�3 8 4

Singapore

36�4 38�9 4 1

Thailand

136�8 147�4 15 1

Vietnam

72�1 154�4 16 7

ASEAN 642 956  4

Note: The compound annual growth rate in Lao PDR is very large in part due to signiﬁcant growth in electricity production from

hydropower intended for export. In 2014, 73% of electricity in the country was exported.

The challenge is how to supply the growing demand for energy while

at the same time enhancing energy security� Indigenous fossil fuel

resources are unevenly distributed across the region� But all countries

have one thing in common: a large availability of many types of

renewable energy resources� Increasing the use of these resources will

help to meet the region’s rising energy demand and reduce the growth

in fossil fuel use� That will improve the security of supply and reduce

associated hazards to human health, environment and the climate�

Assessments at the country, sector and technology levels show how

renewables can fulfil this role�

TPES in the region was 642 million tonnes of oil equivalent (Mtoe) in

2014� According to the Reference Case, this will increase to 956 Mtoe

by 2025, a rise of just under 50% (Table 2)� Indonesia will continue to

make up the largest share of the region’s energy use, estimated at over

40% by 2025�

TFEC is expected to increase from 415 Mtoe in 2014 to 595 Mtoe

by 2025, a rise of around 43% (Figure 4)� This growth in final energy

32

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

02

demand will be slightly lower than that in TPES� Growth in demand for

energy will be driven largely by the electricity and industry sectors� The

region is becoming more industrialised, raising demand for electricity

and fuels for industrial processes� Electricity is in high demand across

all sectors of the ASEAN economy� According to the Reference Case,

low-efficiency, fossil fuel-based thermal power plants along with large

hydropower dams will play the main role in meeting this growth in

electricity demand in many countries�

Energy demand for producing electricity will increase 95% by 2025,

and for industry by 63%� Demand for energy in transport will also grow,

but its share in the total mix will remain the same and will be identical

with that of industry in 2025� Figure 4 shows how fuel demand in the

end-use sectors of industry, transport and buildings will account for

80% of TFEC� This means that using renewable energy to also help

meet this increasing energy needs for these sectors, i.e. for heat,

cooking, and in fuels for transport will very important�

At country level, the growth in energy demand and by sector varies

(Figure 5)� Countries with the lowest per capita income will see some

of the largest growth over the period� Energy demand in Lao PDR will

grow by an astounding 200% across most sectors, however much

of the increase in the power sector is electricity intended for export�

Other countries, such as Cambodia, Myanmar, Vietnam, demand will

grow by 150-200%� Indonesia, the Philippines and Vietnam will all

experience significant growth in energy demand in industry, buildings

and transport� Some countries with higher per capita income and

energy demand levels will see their energy demand grow as well, but

by less than these high-growth countries�

Breaking growth down by sector shows how different renewable

energy technologies and related infrastructure are required for each�

The transport sector has traditionally required refined fuels, while the

power sector has used expansive and expensive transmission and

distribution networks� Industry requires various temperatures of heat,

from as low as 150 degrees Celsius to as high as 1000 degrees Celsius

or more� Solutions to meet these needs are equally complex�

In the Reference Case, growing energy demand is mostly met with

fossil fuels� As Figure 6 shows, demand for coal will rise by 128 Mtoe to

become the largest fuel source in 2025� Oil use will increase significantly,

by 59 Mtoe, to become the second largest source, and natural gas will

become the third largest, growing by 67 Mtoe� Compared to 2014,

growth in the use of fossil fuels by 2025 will range from 31% for oil,

with the majority still used in transport; 90% for coal, driven largely by

2015 – 595 Mtoe

Fuels and

other direct uses

Industry

28%

Transport

32%

Buildings

24%

Electricity

16%

2014 – 415 Mtoe

Electricity

20%

Industry

32%

Transport

32%

Buildings

16%

Figure 4: Total ﬁnal energy consumption by sector, 2014 and Reference Case 2025

33

02

ASEAN TO 2025

Figure 5: Increase in energy demand by 2025 over 2014 levels

Myanmar

TPES

TFEC

Power

Industry

Transport

Buildings

Lao PDR

TPES

TFEC

Power

Industry

Transport

Buildings

Cambodia

TPES

TFEC

Power

Industry

Transport

Buildings

Vietnam

TPES

TFEC

Power

Industry

Transport

Buildings

Philippines

TPES

TFEC

Power

Industry

Transport

Buildings

Thailand

TPES

TFEC

Power

Industry

Transport

Buildings

Malaysia

TPES

TFEC

Power

Industry

Transport

Buildings

Singapore

TPES

TFEC

Power

Industry

Transport

Buildings

Brunei Darussalam

TPES

TFEC

Power

Industry

Transport

Buildings

Indonesia

TPES

TFEC

Power

Industry

Transport

Buildings

ASEAN

TPES

TFEC

Power

Industry

Transport

Buildings

23%

15%

118%

91%

64%

0%

200+%

186%

200+%

12%

133%

46%

40%

200%

21%

108%

17%

114%

88%

154%

97%

92%

72%

54%

40%

85%

48%

45%

32%

12%

26%

15%

39%

30%

0%

70%

44%

137%

64%

57%

10%

16%

26%

38%

58%

5%

24%

12%

18%

32%

15%

4%

43%

25%

51%

47%

159%

18%

43%

49%

43%

93%

63%

44%

21%

34

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

02

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Primary energy (Mtoe/yr)

2014 Reference Case

Oil

Coal

Natural Glas

Tradutional bioenergy

Modern bioenergy

Other renewables

Hydropower

Nuclear

power generation; and 65% for natural gas, which has mixed uses� With

the exception of coal, the region has limited indigenous oil and natural

gas supplies (Brunei Darussalam and Indonesia excluded) to meet this

rising demand� An increasing share will have to be met with imports

(ACE, 2015)�

Among renewables, modern bioenergy will also grow in the

Reference Case, increasing by around 50 Mtoe for both solid and liquid

and gaseous forms� This is used largely for transport fuels or in cooking

and heating applications� Modern bioenergy will overtake traditional

bioenergy as the largest renewable energy source� Traditional uses

of bioenergy will decline by around 25%, replaced largely by either

liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) or modern biofuels, but will still remain

substantial� Hydropower will increase by over 100%� As a group, solar

thermal, solar PV, geothermal and wind will also grow by around 200%

though in the Reference Case only make up a limited amount of primary

energy�

Electricity demand will increase over the period significantly� Most of

this increase is supplied by coal (42% of total generation), natural gas

(23%) or large hydro (20%)� The remaining 15% comes from a mix of

renewable sources, including geothermal (5%), bioenergy (4%), wind

(3%) solar PV (2%) and small hydro (1%)�

How the sectors meet this rising demand for energy differs� While

the transport sector will meet most of the increase with oil, industry will

meet it with coal and natural gas� The building sector will meet greater

demand largely with oil products or electricity� In fact, around 60% of

the increase in demand for electricity will be in the building sector, with

the remainder from industry�

Figure 6: Primary energy demand by fuel or source, 2014 and Reference Case in 2025

35

02

ASEAN TO 2025

ISSUES RELATED

TO GROWING ENERGY DEMAND

resources� Recent analysis shows the depletion of natural gas reserves

between 2025 and 2035 in the APS scenario of the AEO4 (which

is largely consistent with this study’s Reference Case) (ACE, 2015)�

Accordingly, it is expected between 2020 and 2030 that the region

will become a net gas importer� Even the large coal reserves in some

countries will be reduced by around 60% (ACE, 2015)� In this context,

renewable energy is a way to increase the region’s energy security

through greater diversification of the energy mix and by reducing

demand for fossil fuel imports�

AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution from energy production is a growing problem in Southeast

Asia� The largest contributors to outdoor air pollution are generally the

power and industry sectors, particularly when coal is used to make

electricity, and the transport sector, especially in urban areas� High levels

of indoor air pollution are also a concern in some countries, typically in

rural areas, where people use traditional bioenergy� According to the

International Energy Agency (IEA, 2016), 276 million people in the

ASEAN region – more than a third of ASEAN’s population – still rely

on traditional bioenergy� Since air pollution affects most urban areas,

and the ASEAN region is experiencing growing urbanisation with more

and more megacities, the costs associated with health resulting from

air pollution will rise considerably� It is estimated that exposure to

outdoor air pollution in Southeast Asia resulted in 200 000 deaths and

an associated cost of USD 280 billion in 2010 (OECD, 2014)� In 2015,

the number of premature deaths in Indonesia alone was estimated at

70 000 from outdoor pollution and 140 000 from indoor air pollution

(IEA, 2016)�

REmap has also done a separate assessment looking only into the

associated external cost of air pollution, resulting in a similarly high

● The region has insucient indigenous fossil fuel

resources to meet its growing energy demand, and

the share of imported fossil fuel will increase, which

has important energy security implications. Rising

fossil fuel demand will mean both air pollution

levels and CO

2

emissions will grow signiﬁcantly.

● In the Reference Case, CO

2

emissions from energy

use will increase by 61% – one of the highest

growth rates worldwide. Total energy-related

CO

2

emissions will be around 2.2 gigatonnes (Gt)

annually by 2025, or just above 5% of total global

CO

2

emissions.

● External costs related to air pollution from the

combustion of fossil fuels will increase by 35%

from an average of USD 167 billion annually in

2014, to an average of USD 225 billion annually by

2025. This would equal around 5% of ASEAN’s GDP

in 2025.

ENERGY SECURITY

Fossil fuels will make up the largest share of the increase in ASEAN’s

energy demand by 2025� This means energy security will remain a

major concern across the region, as mentioned in most countries’

energy plans� All countries have emphasised the importance of

diversifying their energy mix, ensuring the sustainability and diversity of

imports, and findings ways to meet the rising demand with indigenous

36

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

02

number with an average

6

of USD 167 billion in 2014� In the Reference

Case, external costs related to air pollution from the combustion of

fossil fuels across the region will increase by 35% to an average of USD

225 billion annually by 2025 as shown in Figure 7�

REmap assesses the external costs of exposure to pollutants from

fuel combustion, including health effects from outdoor exposure, those

from indoor exposure due to traditional use of bioenergy, and effects

on agricultural yields (IRENA, 2016f)� The largest source of damages is

oil use, with 80% of its associated damage coming from the transport

sector� Although oil demand in the sector will increase by around 60%

by 2025, the rise in related external costs will be lower, at 22%� This is

due in part to improved tailpipe emission control and cleaner engines,

6 The REmap external cost assessment provides a low and high range; this

number is presented as the average of the two�

and the fact that the vehicle stock will generally be more modern and

efficient� However, oil will remain by far the largest contributor to ill

health, and policy makers will need to find solutions to address this,

particularly in large cities�

The external costs of burning coal in 2014 were split equally between

electricity generation and industry, with associated external costs

rising 64% by 2025� Natural gas will also grow strongly but it is a fairly

clean fuel and has lower external costs relative to other fossil fuels�

Bioenergy presents a complex case� Air pollution and related costs

from the combustion of modern bioenergy are expected to increase in

the Reference Case, but associated external costs will be low� Associated

costs for traditional uses of bioenergy will decrease by around 35%,

as these are replaced with modern fuels, such as LPG, kerosene or

modern bioenergy� Traditional forms of bioenergy are those that are

unsustainable or combusted inefficiently in the residential sector and

largely used in cooking� This causes high levels of indoor air pollution

which have high associated damage to human health�

CO

2

EMISSIONS

CO

2

is the largest source of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions,

and the energy sector is responsible for most of these emissions� But

this is not the case in some ASEAN Member States, where forestry and

agriculture are major sources of emissions� For instance, in Indonesia,

land-use changes and deforestation make up the largest share of GHG

emissions� This roadmap does not include these sources, and only

energy-related CO

2

emissions are calculated�

In the Reference Case, CO

2

emissions from energy will rise by 61% in

the ASEAN region by 2025 – among the fastest growth worldwide� The

primary driver will be coal-fired electricity production� CO

2

emissions

Air pollution external costs (USD bln/yr)

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

2014

22%

64%

82%

Reference Case

Gas

Coal

Oil

Figure 7: External costs associated with air pollution by energy carrier in ASEAN

37

02

ASEAN TO 2025

used to generate power will increase 84% over the period to 1 Gt

per year, much of this increase coming from coal� The industry and

transport sectors will see a similar rise in emissions� Taken together,

these two sectors’ emissions will be as high as in the power sector�

Emissions from coal across different applications will increase by

the most, at 91%, to over 1 Gt per year by 2025� Combustion of oil

products will be the second largest source of CO

2

emissions, while

natural gas will be the lowest, although natural gas consumption levels

will be about the same as oil� Energy-related CO

2

emissions across the

region will total approximately 2�2 Gt annually by 2025, or around 5% of

expected global energy-related emissions in that year�

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

84%

54%

91%

32%

66%

73%

35%

Energy-related CO

2

emissions (Mt/yr)

Power

Industry Buildings

Coal

Oil

Gas

2014

Reference

Case 2025

Transport

Figure 8: ASEAN's energy-related CO

2

emissions by sector and fuel, 2014 and Reference Case

38

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

02

DRIVERS FOR RENEWABLES

INCREASING COST-COMPETITIVENESS

is limited to regions where resources are available, e.g. geothermal

in Indonesia and the Philippines� The fastest deployment in capacity

growth will occur in solar PV and wind, both of which have average

costs of around USD 80 per MWh across the region, but could see costs

as low as USD 40 per MWh for solar PV and USD 60 per MWh for wind�

It is not just power technologies that compete well on a cost basis�

Industry largely uses coal or natural gas to deliver process heat,

typically costing between USD 18 and USD 40 per MWh� The most

common renewable energy alternative to fossil fuels in industry is

biomass and waste� Depending on availability, biomass residues can

generate process heat cost-competitively at around USD 17-42 per

MWh� Likewise, solar thermal heating technology for low-temperature

applications (such as in food processing) can be cost-competitive in the

regions and applications where they can be deployed�

There is also a strong case for renewables in buildings� Many countries

in the region have, or plan to develop, infrastructure for natural gas or

liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) for residential and commercial uses�

Where those fuels are used to heat water, solar thermal is by far the

most affordable technology� Heat can be produced at around USD 18-

22 per MWh� Bioenergy-based feedstocks, when combusted efficiently,

can provide heat for cooking at a cost below that of natural gas or LPG�

This is especially true for residues but also for biogas digested from

food or animal waste�

ABUNDANT RENEWABLE RESOURCE

AVAILABILITY

The ASEAN region has abundant renewable energy resources� It also

has some of the best untapped hydropower potential in the world,

in countries such as Myanmar and Lao PDR� This is, however, already

● This study shows that by 2025 in the ASEAN

region the average cost of renewable power

technologies will make it possible to supply

electricity at or below the cost of generation from

new, non-renewable energy sources.

● The region’s ample renewable energy resources

can provide opportunities for the cost-eective

deployment of renewable energy technologies for

heating and cooking, with large potential for solar

thermal and modern bioenergy.

Renewables are increasingly the least-cost option for electricity

production, a trend that will accelerate over the coming decade

(IRENA, 2015b, 2016d)� Renewable energy is also competitive with

some heating technologies� Figure 9 shows how various technologies

compare in terms of levelised cost of electricity (LCOE) and heat

(LCOH) for the year 2025 based on country and IRENA estimates�

By 2025 renewable power technologies in ASEAN will fall within the

cost range of conventional generation or slightly below� Coal power

generation will range from USD 60 to USD 100 per megawatt-hour

(MWh) by 2025, based on assumptions for its price development (see

Annex D)� Hydropower (which grows significantly in the Reference Case

and therefore is not assessed as having additional potential in REmap),

geothermal and bioenergy (including waste) have low estimated LCOE,

of between USD 40 and USD 60 per MWh� However, their deployment

39

02

ASEAN TO 2025

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

Levelised cost of electricity or heat

in 2025 (USD/MWh)

Power Sector

Industry Sector

Buildings Sector

Fossil fuel

range

Fossil fuel

range

Fossil fuel

range

Wind

Solar PV

Geothermal

Natural gas

Solar thermal

Bioenergy

Coal

Natural gas

Oil

Solar water

Modern bioenergy

Natural gas

Oil

Biopower (inc. waste)

Coal

Electricity generation Heat generation

High

Weighted avg.

Low

Reduced FF prices

Figure 9: Levelised cost of electricity or heat, by technology, ASEAN, in 2025

Source: IRENA analysis and forecasts based on IRENA (2015b, 2016a, 2016d)

Note: Reduced fossil fuel prices (hatched area below fossil fuel bars) assume lower average commodity prices for fossil fuels in 2025 for coal (-10%), natural gas (-20%)

and oil (-30%) compared to the standard assumptions contained in Annex D.

40

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

02

reflected in their national energy plans� But there are also other

renewable resources with significant potential� Solar irradiance – power

from the sun – in the region is very strong, averaging over 1 500-2 000

kWh per square meter annually, which allows for capacity factors of

20% and above (Figure 10)� Wind resources are more modest, but there

are regions along the coasts and inland in Vietnam, Thailand, Indonesia

and Myanmar where speeds average between six and seven metres

per second, enabling capacity factors well into the high 30s or beyond�

Some countries, namely Indonesia and the Philippines, have

significant geothermal potential – some of the best in the world� Finally,

bioenergy supply potential is very large across the entire region, with

supply estimates on the high end that are almost double expected

demand by 2025 (see Chapter 3 Bioenergy for more information)�

SOCIO-ECONOMIC BENEFITS

Many developing regions would benefit from pursuing green growth�

ASEAN Member States are no exception� The region is highly

vulnerable to climate change, posing a particular threat to farmers

and coastal communities� People living in cities are also adversely

affected, particularly by air pollution, with hundreds of thousands

dying prematurely each year, costing well into the hundreds of billions

of dollars (WHO, 2016)�

For example, Figure 11 quantifies how climate change could impact

different regions around the world by 2060� The striking finding

is that Southeast Asia (which in the analysis includes India and

other developing countries in the region) is by far the region most

negatively impacted by a changing climate� According to the analysis,

GDP could be more than 5% lower by 2060 if the region follows a

high carbon baseline compared to a more sustainable, low carbon

path (OECD, 2014)� This large decline is because the region is still very

dependent on the agricultural sector, where a predictable climate

and stable weather conditions are essential for sustaining yields� In

addition, the adverse effects of rising sea levels are also some of the

largest anywhere in the world, due to the many coastal communities

and islands in the region�

On a global scale, analysis from IRENA shows a positive correlation

between higher levels of renewable energy and economic growth� In its

report, Renewable Energy Benefits: Measuring the Economics (IRENA,

2016c), IRENA assessed the effect of two cases: a Reference Case

Figure 10: Solar and wind resource map from IRENA’s Global Atlas, ASEAN region

Source: Solar map (left): © METEOTEST; based on www.meteonorm.com, extracted from IRENA Global Atlas www.irena.org/GlobalAtlas.

Wind map (right): © VAISALA Global Wind Dataset 5km onshore wind speed at 80m height, extracted from IRENA Global Atlas

www.irena.org/GlobalAtlas

Wind

Solar

41

02

ASEAN TO 2025

Figure 11: Expected change in GDP due to climate change by 2060

Source: OECD (2014)

Note: „South and Southeast Asia“ includes ASEAN Member States plus India and other developing Asian countries. In the Organisation for Economic

Co-operation and Development (OECD) report the severity of climate change by 2060 is deﬁned as a degree pathway of 4.5-6 °C.

-6%

-5%

-4%

-3%

-2%

-1%

0%

1%

2%

OECD

America

OECD

Europe

OECD

Paciﬁc

Rest of Europe

and Asia

Latin

America

Middle East

& North Africa

South & Soth-

East Asia

Sub-Sahara

Africa

World

Fisheries

Energy

Ecosystems

Health

Tourism

Sea level rise

Agriculture

GDP

Change in GDP by 2060 (%)

2030 and the REmap 2030 case (based on country results from the

2014 global edition of the REmap report (IRENA, 2014c))� In Indonesia

(one of only two ASEAN Member States that were part of the REmap

analysis in 2014), the study shows that GDP would be 0�2%-1�3% higher

in the REmap case than in the Reference Case� Additionally, there

would be between 0�3 million and 1�1 million more jobs�

RENEWABLE ENERGY PROSPECTS

03

43

RENEWABLE ENERGY PROSPECTS IN ASEAN

03

ROLE OF RENEWABLES TO 2025

The ASEAN region is growing across the board� By 2025 its population

will increase 16%, while GDP will increase almost 70%� Primary energy

demand will see similar growth, increasing almost 50% over the period�

The region has a golden opportunity to leapfrog the polluting, resource-

inefficient, dirty technologies of the past and develop a modern, clean

and smart energy system of the future� There are three main routes

ASEAN could follow:

i) A business as usual route, which takes into account no further

policy commitments and a heavy reliance on fossil fuels

(consistent with the BAU scenario in the AEO4)� In this case

the renewable energy share in 2025 remains at the 2014 level of

around 10%�

ii) The Reference Case from this roadmap, based on planned

policies and expected market developments for the energy

sector� The Reference Case is based on plans submitted by

ASEAN Member States, or taken from the APS scenario of the

ASEAN AEO4� The Reference Case does not reﬂect business

as usual, rather already some accelerated commitments of

countries as of 2015, and as a result the share of renewable

energy in primary energy increases to 17%�

iii) The REmap case, in which the REmap Options – the technologies

necessary to close the gap between the Reference Case

renewable energy share and the ASEAN aspirational target

of a 23% share – are assumed to be fully deployed on top of

developments in the Reference Case� The REmap case is in line

with ASEAN’s goal of a 23% renewables share by 2025�

This section will outline the REmap case, which is based on the

accelerated renewable energy potential of the REmap Options� It will

describe what is needed at the sector and technology levels to achieve

higher renewable energy deployment�

DEVELOPMENTS FOR RENEWABLES IN THE

REFERENCE AND REMAP CASES

● The share of modern renewable energy in TPES was just under 10% in 2014. In the Reference

Case, the share will increase to just under 17% by 2025. An additional six percentage points

must be gained to reach the ASEAN goal of 23%.

●

By 2025 in the Reference Case, renewable electricity will make up half the renewable energy

consumed. In REmap, this will be reduced to 44% as direct-uses of renewable energy for

heating, cooking and transport take on an important role in closing the gap to the ASEAN

target.

ASEAN Member States are expected to experience some of the fastest

energy demand growth worldwide over the next 10 years, especially

in electricity� By 2025 primary energy demand is expected to increase

almost 50%� Under the Reference Case this increase in energy demand

is driven largely by expanding demand for electricity (for use in the

buildings and industry sectors) and for fuels in industry� The largest

increases in supply to meet this rapidly growing demand come from

coal and natural gas� However, renewables also grow, with higher levels

of modern bioenergy and significantly more renewable power (based

largely on large hydropower)� The result is that the renewable energy

share (excluding traditional uses of bioenergy) in primary energy will

increase from 9�4% in 2014 to 16�9% in the Reference Case in 2025

(Figure 12)�

REmap takes these developments in the Reference Case and

explores the potential to increase renewable energy use even further

44

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

03

across all energy sectors in each country� An analysis for each country

was carried out, using data and information provided by the country

combined with the REmap analytical framework� Countries were

engaged throughout the process, and contributed to the development

of the REmap Options�

Table 3 is an overview of the key indicators and energy supply for

the Reference Case and REmap� The REmap Options are technologies

identified for further renewables deployment beyond the Reference

Case� Countries not only have to meet their own goals in the Reference

Case, many of which already include higher levels of renewables, but

they have to do even more, as detailed by the REmap Options� If they

can do both, then the region can achieve its aspirational target of 23%

renewable energy�

Table 3: REmap ASEAN roadmap table

ASEAN Unit

2014 Reference Case 2025 REmap 2025

Energy production and capacity

Power sector

Total installed power generation capacity GW 195 387 422

Renewable capacity GW 51 124 180

Hydropower (excl� pumped hydro) GW 39 79 82

Wind GW 1 6 12

Biofuels (solid, liquid, gaseous) GW 6 13 18

Solar PV GW 2 13 55

CSP GW 0 0 0

Geothermal GW 3 10 11

Marine, other GW 0 3 3

Non-renewable capacity GW 144 263 242

Total electricity generation TWh 856 1 656 1 674

Renewable generation TWh 173 459 580

Hydropower TWh 129 289 303

Wind TWh 1 24 40

Biofuels (solid, liquid, gaseous) TWh 22 54 81

Solar PV TWh 2 19 81

CSP TWh 0 0 0

Geothermal TWh 20 59 67

Marine, other TWh 0 9 9

Non-renewable generation TWh 683 1202 1094

45

RENEWABLE ENERGY PROSPECTS IN ASEAN

03

ASEAN Unit

2014 Reference Case 2025 REmap 2025

Final energy use – direct uses

Buildings and Industry

Total direct uses of energy Mtoe 217 284 267

Direct uses of renewable energy Mtoe 94 89 85

Solar thermal – Buildings Mtoe 0 0 4

Solar thermal – Industry Mtoe 0 0 3

Geothermal (Buildings and Industry) Mtoe 0 0 0

Bioenergy (traditional) – Buildings Mtoe 76 57 33

Bioenergy (modern) – Buildings Mtoe 1 2 11

Bioenergy – Industry Mtoe 16 29 34

Non-renewable – Buildings Mtoe 22 38 31

Non-renewable – Industry Mtoe 102 158 151

Non-renewable – BF/CO Mtoe 0 0 0

Transport

Total fuel consumption Mtoe 133 190 184

Liquid biofuels Mtoe 4 15 16

Biomethane Mtoe 0 0 0

Non-renewable fuels Mtoe 129 176 168

Total ﬁnal energy consumption (electricity, DH, direct uses) Mtoe 416 595 573

Total primary energy supply Mtoe 634 952 929

RE shares

RE share in electricity generation 20% 27% 35%

RE share in buildings – ﬁnal energy use, direct uses (modern) 1% 3% 19%

RE share in industry – ﬁnal energy use, direct uses 14% 16% 20%

RE share in transport fuels 3% 8% 9%

Share of modern RE in TFEC 8% 13% 19%

Share of modern RE in TPES 9.4% 16.9% 23.2%

Financial

indicators

System costs (USD bln/yr in 2025) N/A N/A 0�7

RE investment needs (USD bln/yr annually (2015-2025)) N/A 13 27

Investment support for renewables (USD bln/yr in 2025) N/A N/A 5

Reduced externalities – outdoor air pollution (avg�) (USD bln/yr in 2025) N/A N/A 13

Reduced externalities – CO

2

(USD 50/tonne CO

2

) (USD bln/yr in 2025) N/A N/A 11

CO

2

emissions from energy (Mt/yr) 1 359 2 194 1 996

46

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

03

Reference Case REmap

Renewable

Energy Share

9.4%

16.9%

23.2%

2014

Renewable

Energy Share

Renewable

Energy Share

Renewable direct-uses

Renewable electricity

Traditional bioenergy

Fossil electricity

Gas

Oil

Coal

Figure 12: TPES growth and renewable energy share

47

RENEWABLE ENERGY PROSPECTS IN ASEAN

03

The ASEAN Member States vary significantly in population, economy and energy demand�

Thus, a differentiated approach to expanding renewables is necessary� The modern

renewable energy share in TPES in ASEAN was 9�4% in 2014� Under the Reference Case it

will increase to approximately 17% by 2025 – still below the aspirational target of 23%� An

additional six percentage points is needed to close this gap (the REmap Options)�

The contributions ASEAN countries have put forth to close this gap vary� Some put more

emphasis on expanding renewables than others� This can be due to a variety of factors,

such as large overall energy demand or demand growth, the availability of local renewable

resources, or the level of ambition and growth in renewables already in the Reference Case

(leaving less potential for the REmap Options)�

Table 4 shows how each country contributes to increasing the renewable energy share

from the Reference Case level of 16�9% to 23�2% in REmap in 2025� The contributions vary

significantly but are roughly proportional to the size of each country’s energy system� Based

on their relative contributions, it is clear that in order to meet the target, countries near

the top, such as Indonesia, Vietnam, Malaysia, and Thailand, must take action� These four

countries will account for 80% of the increase in share�

This method of assessing relative contribution by country is based on the REmap Options,

which explore the potential to increase renewables across all countries and sectors� The

REmap approach is a mixed approach – it looks at power, heating, transport and cooking,

and at all renewable sources� There is less than a decade to meet the target, so a mixed

approach is likely the fastest way to increase the renewable share� It also reduces the

risk of changes to markets or policies that could put individual sectors or resources at a

disadvantage�

However, there are multiple routes through which countries can increase renewables

in their energy system� More emphasis could be given to one sector over another, for

instance the rapid development of renewable power generation capacity and electrification

of transport, cooking and heating� Or more emphasis could be put on deploying higher

levels of modern, sustainable bioenergy� Also regional energy trade, for bioenergy fuels or

electricity, could also be expanded and result in a shifting landscape of renewable energy

deployment� Therefore, there is no single “true” distribution� The REmap insights can inform

a discussion but just how to meet the joint objective is a political decision�

Table 4: Country contribution towards increasing ASEAN’s renewable energy

share to 23%

Modern renewable energy share in

TPES

2014 9.4%

Reference Case 2025 16.9%

Indonesia

+1�7%

Vietnam +1�3%

Malaysia +1�0%

Thailand +1�0%

Philippines +0�4%

Myanmar +0�4%

Lao PDR +0�2%

Singapore +0�1%

Cambodia +0�1%

Brunei Darussalam +0�02%

REmap 2025 23.2%

BOX 3: CLOSING THE GAP BY COUNTRY AND A DIFFERENTIATED APPROACH

48

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

03

RENEWABLE ENERGY SHARES BY SECTOR

If all REmap Options were implemented, buildings would have the

second-highest renewable energy share� Traditional uses of bioenergy

are excluded as a renewable source, otherwise the share would be even

higher� REmap Options for the sector are plentiful, ranging from solar

thermal to modern uses of bioenergy (both solid biofuels and biogas)

to substitute its traditional uses for cooking and heating� Additionally,

over half of all electricity is consumed in the building sector, and as the

share of renewable power increases, so does the share of the renewable

energy in the overall sector demand� In REmap, most countries see

large increases in their renewable energy share in buildings, with total

shares in 2025 ranging from 10% to 45% (Lao PDR is the outlier with

88%)�

The industry sector ranks third after buildings in REmap, dropping

from second place in the Reference Case� A number of ASEAN Member

States have significant potential to increase the share of renewables

in industry – by between 5% and 23%� The key technology option is

bioenergy and electricity produced with renewable energy�

Transport remains a laggard, with the lowest share of renewable

energy in both cases� The sector does grow significantly in the

Reference Case from 3% to 8%, driven entirely by greater use of

liquid biofuels� The Indonesian government, for example, has plans

to increase its share significantly� The REmap Options assume small

quantities of additional liquid biofuels, but significantly more electric

mobility� However, because of the efficiency of electric drives, and

the fact that only the renewable portion of electricity is calculated in

the share, the effect of this electric mobility on the renewable share is

limited� Nonetheless the sector does triple the share by 2025 over 2014

levels�

● The REmap approach covers energy supply and demand – it looks at power, heating,

transport and cooking, and at all renewable sources. Given the short time horizon and

ambitious ASEAN target for 2025 – which is under a decade away – this broad, multi-sector

scope is the best way to ﬁnd a viable pathway to achieving the region’s renewable goals.

● The distribution of renewable energy use varies signiﬁcantly by country and sector.

Generally, the power sector has the highest share, followed by buildings, industry and

transport. Additional potential for renewable deployment exists in all sectors.

Countries in ASEAN are spread across a wide and rich geographical

landscape� The region has some of the most diverse and abundant

renewable sources anywhere on earth� In some regions, fossil fuels

are also available� The result is a radical mix of renewable energy use

across countries and sectors, and vast differences in how the share of

renewable energy could develop in the Reference Case and with the

REmap Options�

In most countries, the largest share of renewable energy is in the

power sector� Most have plans to increase renewables in their Reference

Cases� Many have ample hydropower and shares exceeding 60% in

their Reference Cases, such as Lao PDR, Cambodia and Myanmar�

The REmap Options show that all countries, including those with

high shares to begin with, have the potential to increase renewable

power further� If all the REmap Options were implemented, the share

of renewable energy in electricity generation would reach between 11%

(Brunei Darussalam) and 90% (Lao PDR)� Across the ASEAN region,

the overall share would reach 35% by 2025, representing an increase of

eight percentage points from the Reference Case�

49

RENEWABLE ENERGY PROSPECTS IN ASEAN

03

THE RENEWABLE TECHNOLOGY MIX

more renewable power and transport biofuels in the Reference Case

(see Figure 12)� The REmap Options focus mostly on modern bioenergy,

solar PV, solar thermal and wind� These also have the added benefit

of decreasing overall demand for energy by almost 3%, due to the

efficiency of some renewable technologies�

Viewing these findings in terms of primary energy masks changes

that occur when energy is ultimately consumed, in the end-use sectors

of buildings, industry and transport� Therefore, it is useful to look at the

breakdown in final energy terms�

4%

6%

14%

15%

23%

24%

25%

29%

35%

41%

TPES

11%

10%

32%

35%

23%

37%

71%

76%

33%

Power

10%

9%

27%

29%

26%

24%

32%

29%

45%

28%

Buildings

11%

3%

18%

21%

23%

39%

21%

33%

85%

34%

30%

Industry

0%

2%

4%

2%

9%

14%

2%

6%

13%

Transport

TPES

Power

Buildings

Industry

Transport

90% 88%

2014

Reference Case Remap

Cambodia

Philippines

Lao PDR

Myanmar

Indonesia

Thailand

ASEAN

Vietnam

Malaysia

Singapore

Brunei

Darussalam

59%

Figure 13: Renewable energy share in ASEAN Member States by sector, 2025

Note: End-use sectors of buildings, industry and transport include renewable electricity in the share.

● The technology mix changes signiﬁcantly by 2025.

The Reference Case sees slight increases in the

relative share of hydropower and geothermal

power in primary energy, and a halving of the

share of traditional uses of bioenergy. REmap

results in growth in the contribution of modern

bioenergy, solar and wind.

● The REmap Options, which are the additional

potential of renewables on top of the Reference

Case and which close the six percentage-point gap

to reach the regions aspirational target, are made

up of about one-third renewable power and about

two-thirds renewables in heating, cooking and

transport.

● In the power sector, the largest increase in

renewable power is solar PV. There are also

additions of wind, small hydropower, geothermal

and bioenergy.

● In end-uses, where most of the additional

renewable potential on top of the Reference Case

is identiﬁed, there is strong growth in modern

bioenergy (in part substituting traditional uses of

bioenergy), solar thermal energy, and increased

electriﬁcation.

The technology mix in ASEAN will change significantly by 2025� As

energy demand rises by almost 50%, the relative share of coal and

natural gas increases, as does the share of renewables, largely through

50

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

03

In 2014, almost 70% of all final renewable energy consumption

was traditional uses of bioenergy� Modern biofuel use in buildings (a

charcoal, biogas or efficiently combusted solid bioenergy) contributed

only around 1%� Biofuel use in industry for process heat generation

via decentralised boilers made up the second-largest share of final

renewables use (15%)� Only 3% of renewable energy use came from

liquid biofuel use in transport� Renewable electricity made up the

remaining 12%, mainly from hydropower�

In the Reference Case, total final renewable energy consumption

increases from 110 Mtoe to 136 Mtoe� The share of traditional uses

of bioenergy declines as countries replace it with modern fuels�

The relative share of bioenergy in industry increases� Biofuel use in

transport also grows, largely the result of policy action in Indonesia, but

also in Thailand and the Philippines� The amount of hydropower and its

share increase significantly, while solar PV and wind also make up small

shares, at around 1% each� The amount of modern renewable energy

increases from 34 Mtoe to 79 Mtoe, a much higher increase than overall

renewable energy when traditional uses of bioenergy are included (see

Figure 15)�

The REmap Options more aggressively replace traditional uses of

bioenergy, increase the types of uses of direct heat from solar thermal

sources, and increase renewable power� In ASEAN, less than 40% of

all REmap Options are renewable power technologies, the bulk are

technologies related to heating or cooking in industry, buildings, or

fuels used in transport� For heat and other direct uses in the building

and industry sectors, two main trends occur: significant growth in solar

thermal heat, both in low-temperature process heating applications

in industry, and growth in solar hot water in the commercial and

residential sectors� Also, a little under half of the traditional uses of

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

2014

Reference

Case

REmap

TPES (Mtoe/yr)

Other RE

Geothermal

Wind

Solar PV

Solar thermal

Modern Bioenergy

Traditional bioenergy

Hydro

Nuclear

Gas

Oil

Coal

Figure 14: TPES by fuel in 2014, and 2025 for the Reference Case and REmap

51

RENEWABLE ENERGY PROSPECTS IN ASEAN

03

Figure 15: Renewable energy consumption in TFEC in 2014, and in 2025 for the Reference Case and REmap

Traditional uses of bioenergy 42%

15% Hydropower

3% Biofuel power

1% Solar PV

Geothermal power 3%

Heat &

other direct uses

65%

REmap – 142 Mtoe

Reference Case – 136 Mtoe

Other 1%

11% Liquid biofuel (transport)

<1% Solar thermal

21% Biofuel (industry)

Wind 1%

2% Modern biofuel (buildings)

24% Power

11% Transport

3% Liquid biofuel (transport)

9% Hydropower

<1% Solar thermal

1% Modern biofuel (buildings)

15% Biofuel (industry)

12% Power

3% Transport

2014 – 110 Mtoe

Traditional uses of bioenergy 69%

Biofuel power 1%

Geothermal power 1%

Heat &

other direct uses

85%

Solar PV, Wind 0%

29% Power

11% Transport

Heat &

other direct uses

60%

Traditional uses of bioenergy 23%

Other <1%

Geothermal power 3%

16% Hydropower

3% Biofuel power

4% Solar PV

2% Wind

11% Liquid biofuel (transport)

5% Solar thermal

8% Modern biofuel (buildings)

Biofuel (industry) 24%

52

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

03

bioenergy are replaced with modern forms of bioenergy, so that the

share of modern biofuels in industry rises from just 2% to 8%�

The largest increase in renewable power is solar PV, which sees four

times more additions than the next highest – wind� There are also

additions of small hydropower, geothermal and biofuel power�

With all the REmap Options, total final modern renewable energy use

in ASEAN will triple to 109 Mtoe per year by 2025 compared to 2014�

These options are sufficient to close the gap to ASEAN’s renewable

energy target in 2025� The next section will highlight some key trends

and country findings of the REmap Options�

ACCELERATING RENEWABLES –

THE REMAP OPTIONS

OVERVIEW

The previous section highlighted the key sectors and big-picture

technology trends across the ASEAN region in view of the region’s

23% renewables target� However, reaching this share and realising a

more sustainable, diverse and affordable energy supply requires an

understanding of what must be done at the country level� This section

examines key trends and differences between countries in terms of

their renewable energy potential�

Figure 16 details the sector breakdown of the REmap Options by

country to show the importance of exploring renewable potential in

all sectors and energy applications� The renewable energy potential

varies significantly between countries� In only two countries will half

or more of the REmap Options occur in the power sector – Singapore

0%

ASEAN

Myanmar

Cambodia

Philippines

Thailand

Vietnam

Indonesia

Malysia

Lao PDR

Brunei Darussalam

Singapore

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Share of REmap Options by technology, 2025

(% of total)

Power - other

Power - geothermal

Power - wind

Power - CSP

Power - solar PV

Power - gaseous biofuels

Power- solid biofuels

Power - small hydro

Buildings - solar thermal

Buildings - gaseous biofuels

Buildings - solid biofuels

Transport - electricity

Transport - liquid biofuels

Industry - solar thermal

Industry - biofuels

Power Options

End-use Options

Figure 16: Breakdown of REmap Options by technology and by country

53

RENEWABLE ENERGY PROSPECTS IN ASEAN

03

Table 5: REmap Options importance by technology and sector

Brunei

Darussalam

Cambodia

Indonesia

Lao PDR

Malaysia

Myanmar

Philippines

Singapore

Thailand

Vietnam

Industry Sector

Bioenergy +++ + +++ +++ +++ ++ +++ ++ ++ ++

Solar thermal ++ + ++ ++ + + +++ + +++ ++

Transport Sector

Liquid biofuels + ++ + ++ + ++ + +

Electric mobility ++ + ++ + ++ + ++ ++ + ++

Building Sector

Solid bioenergy +++ +++ + + ++ +++ +++

Biogas + ++ + +++ +++ + +++ ++

Solar thermal + + +++ ++ ++ ++ + +++ ++

Power Sector

Small hydro + +

Solid bioenergy + + +++

Biogas ++ + + ++ + ++ ++ + ++ +

Solar PV +++ ++ +++ +++ +++ ++ +++ +++ ++ ++

Wind

+ + + + ++ ++ +++ ++ ++

Geothermal ++ + +

Note: The colour and + indicator is meant to provide a qualitative perspective on the relative importance of the technology in the REmap Options. One + (light orange)

indicates a low contribution, ++ (blue) indicates a moderate contribution, and +++ (green) indicates a high contribution.

and Brunei Darussalam� These countries have limited land, and per

capita income and electricity demand have already risen� In other

countries, additional renewable energy potential comes largely from

technology options in end-use sectors� In the power sector, solar PV

by far dominates the additions, followed by wind� Some countries

do have a small amount of additional bioenergy, geothermal or small

hydropower�

Countries with large renewable energy potential in industry are also

those experiencing rapid industrialisation� Growing demand for energy

54

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

03

generally entails investments in greenfield capacity that allows for

easier and more affordable integration of renewables� Some countries,

such as Myanmar, Cambodia, the Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam

all have significant potential from both ample bioenergy and solar

resources�

In transport, electric mobility is shown as a separate category� This is

a key enabling technology for the sector, even though it is not a source

of renewable energy on its own� REmap assumes that renewable power

can supply the additional demand from more electric mobility, making

an important contribution to the sector’s total renewable energy share�

Table 5 also shows the relative importance of different sectors and

technologies among the REmap Options� The power sector has the

most diverse set of technology options, and all countries have either

medium (++) or high (+++) deployment of solar PV� All countries also

have low (+) or medium deployment of wind and biogas (including

waste, sewage, or landfill gas)� The industry sector, which details only

heating applications, shows high potential for bioenergy, and generally

medium potential for solar thermal process heating technologies�

The building sector has a mix of technologies with varying levels of

deployment� In countries where traditional uses of bioenergy are used,

the potential to substitute it with modern solid or biogas technologies

is large� Generally, there is potential across the region for solar thermal

systems for hot water� In transport the potential is lowest, but all

countries have low-to-medium potential for electric mobility, and low-

to-little potential for liquid biofuels�

To better understand this broad technology deployment at the

sector and country level, the following sections will break down the key

technology potential in more detail�

POWER

● Gross electricity generation will double in the

ASEAN region by 2025. The largest increase in

renewable electricity in the Reference Case will

be from hydropower. The REmap Options show

that signiﬁcant additional potential will come

from solar PV, making up half of the additional

renewable power generation potential.

● The share of renewable power generation

will increase from 20% in 2014, to 27% in the

Reference Case, and further to 35% in REmap.

In the coming years, demand for electricity will almost double in the

region� Today the share of electricity in total final energy demand

is 15%� This will likely grow to 20% by 2025 as its use increases in

the residential sector (for instance for appliances and cooling) and

in services, and as electric mobility, transport, and industrial activity

grow� As the use of electricity grows as does the share of electricity

that is supplied with renewables�

REmap suggests that 35% of ASEAN’s power generation can be

sourced with renewable power by 2025, up from 20% in 2014, and

compared to a 27% share in the Reference Case� Figure 17 shows how

the power generation mix changes over the period, during which gross

electricity generation doubles�

Development in the renewable energy mix according to the

Reference Case is dominated by hydropower, continuing the existing

trend� Today, hydropower has the largest installed capacity, totalling

39 GW� This is expected to double to approximately 79 GW by 2025,

accounting for more than half of the renewable capacity additions

55

RENEWABLE ENERGY PROSPECTS IN ASEAN

03

between now and 2025� Geothermal, biofuels-based power and solar

PV follow hydropower, but all in comparatively moderate amounts� In

total, renewable energy-based power-generation capacity will likely

increase from 52 GW in 2014 to 125 GW by 2025 according to the

Reference Case, accounting for a third of the total installed capacity of

389 GW in 2025�

Capacity additions differ remarkably in the REmap Options (see

Figure 18)� Solar PV represents half of all additions in renewable

power capacity, with a total installed capacity of 57 GW by 2025�

This compares with 14 GW in the Reference Case, implying all country

plans underestimate solar PV’s promising potential in the region�

Hydropower additions are much lower in comparison to the Reference

Case, only 3 GW, taking the total to 82 GW� Onshore wind and biofuels-

based power, from both solid and gaseous biofuels, also play a large

role, representing 20% of the total� REmap suggests total onshore wind

capacity of 13 GW and biofuels-based power capacity of 15 GW by

2025� In total, renewables-based power generation capacity will reach

184 GW according to REmap�

Each addition in renewables-based power generation capacity in

REmap compared to the Reference Case results in the substitution of a

fossil fuel-based capacity� This analysis mainly assumes the substitution

of coal-based power generation capacity� The REmap Options would

cut 21 GW of coal-based power generation capacity by 2025 to an

installed 118 GW from 139 GW in the Reference Case� Total capacity for

gas, oil and nuclear remains nearly the same in the two cases at 13 GW,

110 GW and 2 GW, respectively� Coal is the most emission-intensive

type of fossil fuel and its substitution reduces both air pollutants and

CO

2

emissions�

The way ASEAN Member States contribute to these developments

differs substantially� Figure 20 shows the overview of annual installation

Figure 17: Breakdown of power generation in ASEAN, 2014 and 2025 for the Reference Case and REmap

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2014 Reference Case REmap

Power generation (TWh/yr)

Marine, others

Geothermal

Wind

CSP

Solar PV

Bioenergy

Hydro

Nuclear

Natural gas

Oil

Coal

20%

RE share

35%

RE share

27%

RE share

56

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

03

rates for various renewable power technologies by country� Indonesia

and Lao PDR foresee a significant increase in hydropower capacity�

Lao PDR’s Reference Case triples annual installations from 2015 to

2025 compared to the period 2006-2015� Indonesia will add even

more hydropower capacity, an increase of more than 8 times over the

previous period� In all other countries, annual installations are projected

to continue at rates similar to what was achieved in the past decade,

except Vietnam which will see its installation rate decline� There are also

efforts to step up annual capacity additions in bioenergy� According

to the Reference Case, Indonesia, which already has a large share of

bioenergy, is projected to quadruple its capacity additions from its

approximately 75 MW per year to 300 MW per year in the next decade�

The Philippines needs to triple its installation rates� Vietnam also have

bioenergy installations, but its Reference Cases project an increase

of approximately 25 MW per year� The largest increase in REmap is

estimated for Malaysia and to some extent for Indonesia, mainly driven

by the increased use of bioenergy for heating in industry, coupled with

power cogeneration and biogas-based power-alone systems�

Solar PV requires the most effort to ramp up capacity installations

as it has generally the largest gap between rates occurring in the

Reference Case and the potential deployment identified in REmap� In

the past decade, annual installations have averaged about 15-20 MW

per year in the Philippines and Malaysia� The largest rate of installation

is in Thailand with about 175 MW per year� According to the Reference

Case, Thailand needs to double this trend, while Malaysia needs to

increase its efforts by a factor of six and triple this further if it is to realise

its REmap potential� Indonesia faces the biggest challenge� Today,

annual installation rates are just around 1 MW per year� The Reference

Case foresees an ambitious rate of 500 MW per year between 2015 and

2025� REmap’s potential is significantly higher at 2 500 MW per year,

0

Coal

Natural gas

Oil

Nuclear

Hydro

Solar PV

Bioenergy

Wind

Geothermal

Marine, others

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

Power capacity (GW)

2014 Reference Case REmap

20%

27%

35%

0 10% 20% 30% 40%

RE share in power

generation

2014

Reference

Case

REmap

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Reference Case

additions

REmap

additions

REmap

2025

Other

Geothermal

Wind

Solar PV

Biopower (gaseous)

Biopower (solid)

Hydropower

Figure 18: Power capacity in ASEAN region, 2014, Reference Case and REmap

Figure 19: Power sector renewable energy share, renewable energy additions and total, 2014-2025

57

RENEWABLE ENERGY PROSPECTS IN ASEAN

03

due in part to the significant potential of island and off-grid solar PV

systems�

Realising the large potential of other renewable energy technologies,

such as onshore wind and geothermal, requires similarly ambitious

increases in annual installation rates according to Indonesia’s Reference

Case, as well as in REmap�

THE NEED FOR FLEXIBILITY IN ASEAN’S POWER

SYSTEM

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

MW/year

Geothermal

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

MW/year

Hydropower

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

MW/year

Solar PV

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

MW/year

Bioenergy

2006-2015 2016-2025 Reference Case 2016-2025 REmap

Brunei Darussalam

Cambodia

Indonesia

Lao PDR

Malaysia

Myanmar

Philipinnes

Singapore

Thailand

Vietnam

Brunei Darussalam

Cambodia

Indonesia

Lao PDR

Malaysia

Myanmar

Philipinnes

Singapore

Thailand

Vietnam

Brunei Darussalam

Cambodia

Indonesia

Lao PDR

Malaysia

Myanmar

Philipinnes

Singapore

Thailand

Vietnam

Brunei Darussalam

Cambodia

Indonesia

Lao PDR

Malaysia

Myanmar

Philipinnes

Singapore

Thailand

Vietnam

Figure 20: Annual installation rate for various renewable power technologies per year, by country, to 2025

● The share of variable renewable power (VRE)

across ASEAN will generally be low, but shares in

individual countries and within individual power

systems will vary. In some countries, the share of

VRE in generation will exceed 10% if all REmap

Options are implemented.

Hydropower will provide most of the growth in the renewable energy

share of power� However, solar PV, and to some extent onshore

wind, will also play a role� Solar PV and wind are variable renewable

energy (VRE) sources� Their output is correlated to the availability

of the resource at any given time, as opposed to demand for power�

Consequently, wind and solar generators cannot follow power demand

as thermal or hydropower can� A high share of variable renewable

power in a power system can pose challenges to the stability of the

grid� Thus, it requires the power system to be flexible�

In ASEAN, the VRE share will reach 8�2% of generation by 2025 with

deployment of all REmap Options, up from only 3�4% in the Reference

Case� But it is important to look at VRE shares on a country basis, to

58

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

03

see which countries will have to deal with greater volumes of VRE�

Experience in countries like Spain, Ireland, Italy or Germany, has shown

that it is feasible to accommodate VRE shares of up 15%, but every

grid is different� These countries generally have strong national grids,

interconnection capacity with neighbouring countries with a large

dispatchable capacity, and they plan in advance for transition�

The Reference Case shows low VRE shares generally across ASEAN

Member States, with Thailand the only exception� In REmap, the picture

is different� Individual countries, such as Thailand, Myanmar, Cambodia

and Singapore would have even higher shares of VRE than the ASEAN

average, reaching 10% or more by 2025�

One way to overcome the challenge of integrating VRE into the

grid is through a better integration of the region’s ten power markets�

One approach is the ASEAN Power Grid (APG)� Regional power grid

expansion to date amounts to 3�5 GW of interconnector capacity

operating across 11 connectors, between six pairs of countries as of

the end of 2014� Another 13 projects with a total capacity of 7 GW

are under development to be completed latest by 2020, but still

delayed compared to initial plans� Another 20 GW of interconnector

capacity is envisaged after 2020 (Andrews-Speed, 2016)� If all were

to be built, interconnector capacity would total over 30 GW� ASEAN’s

newly adopted plan for energy cooperation, APAEC, prioritises the

integration of power markets and connectivity� The main challenge

is differences in how power markets are coordinated among Member

States� With better and more consistent regulatory frameworks within

countries and across the power interconnectors, standards for trade

and grid codes for planning, design, operation and maintenance of

power markets could help to overcome these challenges�

In addition to expanding interconnector capacity within ASEAN

and with neighbours such as China, flexibility can be created within

each country’s power mix� Nearly all countries have large capacity for

hydropower, for example� But the expected rapid growth in demand

for electricity will not only be met with renewable energy, but also

with new coal and gas capacity� If this expansion can be achieved

using flexible generation technologies, it can create another source of

flexibility for the power system�

Outside its own structure, the power system can gain flexibility

through links with other energy sectors, especially transport� REmap

suggests a significant uptake of electric forms of transport in most

Figure 21: Variable renewable energy shares of ASEAN Member States in power generation, 2014-2025

0%

2%

4%

6%

8%

10%

12%

14%

Variable renewable energy share

in power generation (%)

2014 Reference Case REmap

Brunei Darussalam

Cambodia

ASEAN

Lao PDR

Malaysia

Myanmar

Philipinnes

Singapore

Thailand

Vietnam

59

RENEWABLE ENERGY PROSPECTS IN ASEAN

03

ASEAN Member States, such as two-, three-, and four-wheel electric

vehicles� These vehicles store electricity� For some, charging can be

synchronised during the peak hours of solar and wind generation�

However, bi-directional charging must be possible in the vehicle and

charging station, which will not be possible in all cases� The stored

power can then be released when the electricity is needed� Together

with the pumped hydro storage capacity of 3�5-4 GW, energy storage

capacity offered by electric vehicles would include 45-80 GW of active

stock available on the grid, and 15-20 GW of second life batteries

(Table6)�

TRANSPORT

Southeast Asia has a low share of passenger car ownership� Today

there are 43 cars per 1000 inhabitants� In Japan, the rate is 10 times

higher� The only two ASEAN Member States with high ownership

rates are Malaysia and Singapore, at 325 and 117 per 1 000 people,

respectively� Car ownership rates will rise as the economy grows� By

2025 it could increase to 60 out of 1 000 across the region, meaning the

number of passenger four-wheelers on the road would rise to 43million

from 26million today� In addition, many people drive two- and three-

wheelers in cities and between population centres� Population growth

and more passenger cars mean future energy use in the sector will be

45% higher than today�

In 2014, only 3% of this was covered by renewables� This share is

projected to increase to 8% in the Reference Case� Nearly all renewable

energy additions are related to liquid biofuels� Malaysia and Indonesia

are well-known producers of biofuels in ASEAN, supplying biodiesel to

domestic and global markets� However, biofuel exports are expected to

decline as they are redirected towards domestic use� Their production

and consumption would account for three-quarters of ASEAN’s total

20 billion litres by 2025� The remainder of the additions are largely in

Thailand and the Philippines� The 20 billion litres of liquid biofuels is

made up of six billion litres of conventional ethanol and 13 billion litres of

biodiesel� The main feedstocks for conventional ethanol will be palm oil

● The transport sector will see energy demand grow by 45% between 2014 and 2025. The sector has the lowest share

of renewables of any sector, but some of the highest renewable growth potential. The share of renewable energy in

the sector could triple from just 3% in 2014 to 9% in REmap.

● The technologies that would enable this growth include both biofuels and electric mobility. Most of the increase in

the Reference Case will be from biofuels, but the REmap Options show the signiﬁcant additional potential of electric

scooters and cars, and increased electriﬁed public transport within cities and across regions.

Table 6: Flexibility mechanisms in the ASEAN power system,

in 2025

Technology (GW)

New fossil fuel-based power generation capacity

that can be built with better ﬂexibility

25-35

Pumped hydro capacity

3�5-4

Electricity storage capacity from electric mobility,

active vehicles and second life batteries

60-100

Interconnector capacity 20-30

60

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

03

and sugar cane� Advanced ethanol production will amount to 1 billion

litres, around 5% of the total ethanol demand�

The renewable energy share in transport sees only minor growth of

one percentage-point in REmap, from 8% to 9%� This is because there

are already significant additions of liquid biofuels in the Reference

Case, so little additional potential is assumed� However, there is

significant potential in advanced biofuels� An upcoming IRENA report

shows that in Southeast Asia, using just one advanced production

pathway – lignocellulosic conversion – the potential for advanced

biofuel on land freed by reduced food waste could supply 40%-100%

of transport fuel use today (the range depends on regional plans for

reducing food waste, which would free up land for biofuel production)

(IRENA, forthcoming)� This is just one example of a possible liquid

biofuel production pathway that would enable higher production

without negatively affecting or degrading land� However, the REmap

Options have not assumed significant additions of liquid biofuels due

to cost and time constraints� Nevertheless, additional potential could

be assumed after 2025�

REmap sees the main increase in renewable energy in transport from

electrification� It expects the total number of electric two- to three-

wheelers to reach 59 million (up from just 5 million in the Reference

Case) by 2025� Four-wheel battery-electric vehicles will amount to

5�9million, and there will be three million plug-in hybrids for a total of

8�9 million electric four-wheel vehicles (EVs) by 2025 (up from around

0�6 million EVs in the Reference Case)� EVs would make up about

20% of the passenger automobile stock on the roads� Despite this

significant increase in electric vehicle ownership in ASEAN Member

States, electricity would only represent 2% of energy demand in its

transport sector� This is explained by the significant efficiency gains

from electric vehicles compared to internal combustion engines,

which are 3-4times more efficient than internal combustion engines�

Nonetheless, increasing power consumption in the sector would also

boost its share of renewables� This is because renewables supply 35%

of the region’s electricity production, significantly higher than the

transport sector average�

3%

8%

9%

0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10%

RE share in transport

sector energy

2014

Reference

Case

REmap

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Reference

Case additions

REmap

additions

REmap

2025

Renewable electricity

Biofuels

Figure 22: Transport sector renewable energy share, renewable additions and total, 2014-2025

61

RENEWABLE ENERGY PROSPECTS IN ASEAN

03

The building sector includes the residential, commercial and public

subsectors� It accounts for a quarter of ASEAN’s total energy demand�

When only the total demand for fuels is considered (excluding electricity

demand), the sector’s renewable energy share is 78%� Including

electricity demand lowers the share to 62%, but it is still significant�

The decrease is explained by the fact that a smaller fraction of the total

electricity consumed originates from renewable energy sources� These

shares also include traditional uses of bioenergy� If these traditional

uses were excluded, as they are in the accounting for the regional

ASEAN target, then the shares would be significantly lower, at just 6%

when considering only renewable fuels and direct uses, and 8% when

also considering renewable electricity�

Traditional use of bioenergy was the main form of energy use in

buildings in 2014� Traditional bioenergy is typically combusted in

inefficient stoves to generate heat for cooking or for heating water�

Figure 23: Building sector modern renewable energy share, renewable additions and total, 2014-2025

● In the building sector, the modern renewable

energy share increases from 6% to 13% by 2025

in the Reference Case, due largely to greater

electricity consumption sourced with renewables.

● In REmap, the share is double that of the Reference

Case, reaching 26%. Half of this increase is driven

by more use of modern energy, such as ecient

cookstoves and biogas or electric cooking, which

replaces much of the traditional use. The other

half is split equally between solar water heaters

and use of renewable power.

0%

6%

13%

26%

10% 20% 30%

RE share in building

sector energy

2014

Reference

Case

REmap

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Reference

Case additions

REmap

additions

REmap

2025

Renewable electricity

Solar thermal

Modern bioenergy

It is often unsustainably harvested from forests to produce firewood

in rural areas to serve basic energy needs� Depending on the size

of the population, the use of traditional bioenergy can contribute to

deforestation� There is limited knowledge about the volume and the

actual extent of firewood use in country statistics� The International

Energy Agency (IEA) definition suggests that all solid biofuel use in

the residential sector can be regarded as traditional uses of biofenergy�

For the Reference Case, countries indicated whether they used

modern bioenergy, otherwise all bioenergy used in the sector was

assumed to be traditional� Based on this definition, modern renewable

energy in buildings made up only 6% out of the 62% in 2014� As

populations grow, households’ demand for energy will also increase in

the years up to 2025� Continuing to rely on traditional uses of bioenergy

will threaten sustainability, with the pressure on land, water and forest

resources intensifying even further� Therefore, more efficient use and

BUILDINGS

62

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

03

sustainable sourcing of biofuels is a key part of the transition towards

a sustainable bioenergy supply� But as the sector grows, there is also

a trend to using more LPG� The Reference Case shows this growing

by 140% over the period� Therefore, solutions for meeting both the

challenge of traditional bioenergy and supplying growing fossil fuel

demand will need to take centre stage�

According to the Reference Case, the share of modern renewable

energy in buildings will more than double from 6% to 13% between 2014

and 2025� Although in absolute terms, total demand for traditional

biofuels will decrease from 180 megatonnes (Mt) to 130 Mt per year,

people will continue to rely mainly on this fuel type to meet their basic

energy needs� Renewable electricity is the main technology used to

raise the modern renewable energy share in the Reference Case (see

Figure 23)� The share of electricity in building sector energy demand

will increase to 41% by 2025 from 29% in 2014� About a quarter of this

total demand is sourced with renewable energy, making it the biggest

contributor to raising the share of modern renewable energy in this

sector, according to the Reference Case� The remainder is split into

modern biofuels (half solid biofuels and half biogas), and some solar

water heater capacity (mainly in Thailand as foreseen in its national

energy plan)�

In REmap, the modern renewable energy share doubles to 26% from

13% in the Reference Case� The REmap additions are quite different than

those in the Reference Case� In many rural areas modern biofuels play a

major role due to their ability to substitute much of the traditional uses

of bioenergy� For instance, in the Reference Case only an estimated

3million modern cookstoves will be deployed across the entire region�

In REmap, however, this number increases to a total of 12�5 million

modern cookstoves, 2�5 million biogas installations, and 0�4 million

cooking units running on biofuels� The result is that the traditional use

of bioenergy would be cut in half (the remainder would be phased out

by 2030)� Electric cooking provides another alternative, in particular

induction stoves, which are highly efficient�

The remaining increase in the renewable energy share comes from

solar water heaters and additional renewable electricity (mostly the

result of the increasing share of renewable power)� Solar water heater

capacity grows from just three GW in the Reference Case to 45 GW in

REmap, with additions across all ASEAN Member States� This would

result in around nine million units in operation� Assuming the region

has around 140 million households, approximately 6% would be served

by a solar hot water system� Biogas plays a key role in providing energy

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

Modern renewable

energy share (%)

2014 Reference Case REmap

Brunei Darussalam

Cambodia

ASEAN

Indonesia

Lao PDR

Malaysia

Myanmar

Philipinnes

Singapore

Thailand

Vietnam

Figure 24: Development of the modern renewable energy share in buildings of the ASEAN Member States, 2014-2015

63

RENEWABLE ENERGY PROSPECTS IN ASEAN

03

BOX 4: ELECTRIFYING THE RURAL POPULATION IN ASEAN

Some countries in the ASEAN region have achieved full electrification, such as Brunei Darussalam, Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand, or near

full in the case of Vietnam (estimated at 99%)� Some countries have high levels of access today and are expected to reach full electrification

by 2025 according their Reference Cases� This is the case for Indonesia, Lao PDR and the Philippines (Table 7)�

Two countries, however, are still devising electrification schemes to enable full access for their populations� Cambodia aims to achieve 100%

electrification of its villages by 2020, including battery lighting� An estimated 32% of Myanmar’s population had access to electricity as of

2014, the year it developed a national plan to fully electrify by 2030 (Castalia, 2014)�

Table 7: Electriﬁcation rates in select ASEAN Member States

 2014/2015 2025

ASEAN 78% 100%

Vietnam 99% 100%

Indonesia 88% 100%

Lao PDR 88% 90% by 2020

Philippines 90%; 100% (village) 100%

Myanmar 32% 100% by 2030

Cambodia 30% 100% (village) by 2020

Note: Remaining ASEAN Member States have full electriﬁcation.

Most rates in the table refer to household electriﬁcation rates.

64

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

03

INDUSTRY

23%

18%

15%

0 5% 10% 15% 20% 25%

RE share in industry

sector energy

2014

Reference

Case

REmap

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Reference

Case

additions

REmap

additions

REmap

2025

Renewable electricity

Solar thermal

Bioenergy

Figure 25: Industry sector renewable energy share, renewable additions and total, 2014-2025

● Demand for energy will grow by more in the

industry sector than in any other end-use sector,

rising by more than 60% by 2025. The share of

renewables will only increase marginally, from

15% in 2014 to 18% in the Reference Case.

● REmap shows that additional potential lies in

increased use of bioenergy to provide process

heat generation and in co-generation of

power and heat, as well as in solar thermal for

lower-temperature industrial processes. The

industry sector also provides opportunities for

self-generation of power, e.g. from solar PV or

bioenergy. The share of renewables in the sector

could increase to as much as 23% in REmap.

for cooking and water heating, with total consumption of 9 billion m

3

by 2025�

The modern renewable energy share of various ASEAN Member

States would double or quadruple according to REmap, depending on

the starting point and the potential offered by biofuels and renewable

electricity� Lao PDR, which already had a modern renewable energy

share of 70% in 2014 would reach about a 90% modern renewable

energy share by 2025�

The industry sector accounted for more than a third of ASEAN’s total

final energy demand in 2014� This share is projected to increase to

almost 40% by 2025, driven by a 63% increase in energy in the sector,

by far the highest of all sectors� This growth is explained by a number

of factors� Demand for bulk materials produced in energy-intensive

sectors, such as cement, iron, steel or chemicals, will increase as the

region’s economy and population grow� These materials are required

for the construction of buildings and infrastructure� Energy for the

production of food and other consumer goods will also grow� The

region is expected to increasingly become a material production hub

for neighbouring countries, as more production capacity shifts to

growing economies like Indonesia and Vietnam�

65

RENEWABLE ENERGY PROSPECTS IN ASEAN

03

In 2014, the sector’s renewable energy share was approximately 15%�

Solid biofuels made up 11% and renewables-based electricity made up

4%� Biofuels are a readily available source of renewable energy as they

are by-products of various agricultural and production processes linked

with the industry sector� Their use is projected to make up the majority

of the renewable energy additions in the Reference Case by 2025 as

the share of renewables will increase to 18%� In REmap, there is also

large potential for solar water heaters of 23 GW for industrial process

heat generation, making up about a quarter of the additional potential�

This would supply about 1�7% of the region’s total final process heat

demand, up from no use today� The remaining increase comes from

renewable electricity as the overall share of renewable power in the

grid increases�

BIOENERGY

process heat, space heating and cooking in buildings, and liquid

biofuels for transport�

Total demand for primary biomass would reach 146 Mtoe per year

in REmap by 2025 (see Figure 26)� This compares with a total supply

potential of 155-265 Mtoe per year in 2025, according to an assessment

Figure 26: Total demand for primary biomass in ASEAN, 2025

● Bioenergy is a unique resource that can to be used

for power and heat production or as a transport

fuel. Its potential in the ASEAN region is large,

however important sustainability concerns exist.

Scaling up sustainable, modern forms of bioenergy

will be crucial both to address the energy access

challenge, and to increase renewable energy use in

both industry and transport.

Power; 15

Industry; 31

Transport; 30

Buildings; 60

Other sectors; 1

Reference

Case

Power; 26

Industry;38

Transport; 32

Buildings; 49

Other sectors; 1

REmap

Bioenergy is particularly important in ASEAN as it could represent 15%

of ASEAN’s total primary energy supply by 2025� In REmap, around

60% of this total would be considered modern forms of bioenergy,

with the remainder traditional uses of bioenergy� But bioenergy has a

wide range of applications, including electricity generation, industrial

Note: units in Mtoe

66

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

03

high-end of the supply potential in IRENA’s supply assessments (IRENA,

2014b)� A few countries might reach the limits of their supply potential

if only the low end of the base supply assessment is considered� This

potential can be sustainably raised through a number of strategies

and guidelines� These would increase the efficient use of land and

make more land available without adverse environmental, social and

economic effects on local communities and their ecosystems� These

strategies include the systematic collection of agricultural residues,

planting of grasses and trees on land freed up by more intensive

cultivation of croplands, and reduced waste and losses in the food

chain� This should be coupled with sustainable forest management and

efficient biofuel conversion technologies�

Accelerating yield growth by promoting research and development

and expanding the use of modern agricultural practices should make

it possible to grow the same amount of food on less land� Intensified

agricultural extension services in rural communities could help close the

gap between projected and potential yields, which remains substantial

for many crops� Farmland needed for food production could also be

reduced by curtailing waste and losses in the food chain (considering

losses in production, post-harvesting handling and storage, processing

and packaging, retail market distribution, and consumption), which,

according to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United

Nations (FAO), amount to 32% of food produced in South and Southeast

Asia (FAO, 2011)�

The supply potential identified in IRENA’s bioenergy working paper

(IRENA, 2014b) does not consider several practices that could increase

sustainable bioenergy supply� Based on a forthcoming analysis, the

low end of supply estimates will be increased, thereby decreasing the

utilisation share for supply potential (see IRENA, forthcoming)�

Figure 27: Demand vs supply ratio of biomass in select ASEAN Member States, 2025

Note: Brunei Darussalam, Lao PDR and Singapore have been excluded from the graph, either because of limited data or no demand or

supply.

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

120%

140%

160%

180%

Ratio of bioenergy demand

versus supply (%)

Low estimate High estimate

Myanmar

Cambodia

Indonesia

Malaysia

Thailand

Philippines

Vietnam

ASEAN

by IRENA (IRENA, 2014b)� This assessment considers bioenergy from

farm and forest residues, industrial and municipal waste, and traditional

bioenergy crops� However it does not include additional energy crops

on land that could be made available by raising food crop yields,

reducing waste and losses in the food chain, or restoring degraded land

to production – all of which would increase supply�

According to Figure 27, there would be sufficient biomass feedstocks

in all ASEAN Member States to meet demand, when compared to the

67

RENEWABLE ENERGY PROSPECTS IN ASEAN

03

BOX 5: A VIEW TO 2030 FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY

REmap assesses renewable energy developments to 2030� This timeframe is consistent with

the one set forth for the UN Secretary General’s SEforALL initiative, and the achievement of

the Sustainable Development Goals� IRENA is the hub for the SEforALL renewable energy

objective� Its REmap programme aims to operationalise that objective, through country

engagement, the REmap Global Reports released every two years (IRENA, 2014c, 2016a),

and REmap’s contribution to the biannual Global Tracking Framework (SEforALL, 2013,

2016)� In addition to a 2025 analysis for ASEAN, IRENA also conducted an analysis to 2030�

While this report focuses on 2025, to address ASEAN’s own target for that year, it is valuable

to look ahead to 2030 as well�

Renewable energy potential and growth is expected to continue accelerating after 2025,

due to increasing local technical capabilities and expertise on renewable energy technologies�

The improving economics of many of these technologies will also boost renewables�

Across the ASEAN region energy demand will increase 80% by 2030 over 2014 levels� CO

2

emissions from energy will grow by 83% in REmap, but by significantly less than the 110% in

the Reference Case by 2030� That slowdown is due to rapidly increasing renewable energy

shares over the 2025-2030 period� The share of renewable energy in TPES will increase to

29%, and the share of renewable power generation will also increase by a similar amount

to almost 40%� The end-use sectors will also see strong growth, with the buildings sector

seeing the largest, as all remaining forms of traditional uses of bioenergy are phased out�

On a country level, the renewable energy share in TPES also increases significantly (Table

9)� Countries that completely phase out traditional uses of bioenergy, such as Cambodia,

Indonesia and Myanmar, see their shares rise the most� In six countries, renewable energy

will provide more than one-third of primary energy demand� Overall, the ASEAN region will

reach a nearly 30% renewable energy share in TPES, essentially a tripling of the modern

renewable energy share over 2014 levels�

Table 8: Key indicators and shares in ASEAN, 2025 and 2030

ASEAN

Growth over 2014 REmap 2025 REmap 2030

TPES +45% +80%

CO

2

+47% +83%

Renewable energy shares

TPES 23% 29%

Power generation 35% 39%

Buildings 26% 39%

Transport 9% 12%

Industry 23% 26%

Table 9: Renewable energy shares in TPES in ASEAN Member States,

2025 and 2030

REmap 2025 REmap 2030

Renewable energy share in TPES

ASEAN 23% 29%

Brunei Darussalam 4% 7%

Cambodia 35% 44%

Indonesia 36% 31%

Lao PDR 59% 61%

Malaysia 14% 22%

Myanmar 29% 46%

Philippines 41% 47%

Singapore 3% 4%

Thailand 24% 33%

Vietnam 15% 17%

COSTS, BENEFITS AND INVESTMENT NEEDS

04

69

COSTS, BENEFITS AND INVESTMENT NEEDS OF RENEWABLES

04

The previous sections provided an overview of the potential of

accelerated renewable energy uptake and discussed the technologies

needed across all energy sectors� This section outlines the associated

costs and benefits of higher renewables deployment, and discusses

the level of investment that would be required�

REmap assesses costs and benefits using an internally developed

tool, and provides a perspective based on a variety of indicators

6

�

These include:

● A substitution approach, detailing if there is an incremental

cost or saving from a renewable energy technology compared

to a substituted conventional technology� This view looks only

at the associated cost of energy service, i.e. the relative cost

of providing the same amount of energy from a renewable

technology versus a conventional one� It does not assess

savings from reduced external costs�

● An external cost assessment approach that values reductions in

air pollution and CO

2

�

● An assessment of the level of investment needed to deploy all

the renewable energy capacity outlined in the Reference Case

and the REmap options�

6 For an overview of the key indicators and methodology, please see Annex E,

for more information about the costing methodology used by REmap please

see (IRENA, 2014a)

SUBSTITUTION COSTS

● The portfolio of renewable options needed to increase the renewable energy share from the

Reference Case level of just under 17% to ASEAN’s 23% target would result in an incremental

cost of only USD 1.9 per MWh of ﬁnal renewable energy. This is the annualised cost of

all REmap Options relative to the costs of the non-renewable energy technologies they

substitute.

●

This marginal additional cost comes with multiple beneﬁts. One of them is the reduction of

ASEAN’s fossil fuel energy bill that could lower expenditure on fuels by USD 40 billion by

2025.

The substitution cost compares the relative attractiveness of renewable

energy technologies to conventional variants� These conventional

variants are technologies that exist in the Reference Case and are

replaced by renewable technologies in the REmap assessment

(REmap Options)� Substitution cost therefore measures the relative

cost or savings of this substitution� It can be shown at the individual

technology level (through the use of technology cost supply curves),

or at the sector or country level� This section presents the costs of the

REmap Options by country, and overall in ASEAN by both technology

and sector�

A variety of factors can affect the substitution cost� These include

the capital cost of technologies, their performance characteristics,

the assumed discount rate (weighted average cost of capital) and fuel

costs� The cost is also driven by the type of conventional technology

substituted, i.e. if low-cost coal is substituted by oil, the substitution

cost of replacing coal will likely be higher� Also another important driver

is whether many cheaper renewables have already been deployed in

the Reference Case, leaving costlier choices for the REmap Options�

Finally, some sectors are generally more cost-competitive than others�

70

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

04

If one country has significant potential in a costlier sector, its overall

substitution cost will increase�

The technologies identified in the REmap Options to help ASEAN

achieve its 23% goal are generally very cost-competitive� The substitution

cost for all options across all countries is only USD 1�9 per MWh of final

renewable energy (Figure 28)� However, this cost differs by country for

various reasons�

On the low end are countries like the Philippines, which has abundant

geothermal and solar resources and limited domestic fossil fuel supply�

Thailand is similar, with its heavier emphasis on bioenergy (in particular

biogas)� Indonesia has high solar and geothermal resources, but also

ample coal supply, and therefore a lower substitution cost� In Brunei

Darussalam, oil is generally substituted (which has a higher fuel cost

than coal or natural gas), resulting in substitution savings�

Countries with positive substitution costs also have a variety of

drivers� Some, like Cambodia, Vietnam and Lao PDR, have large

amounts of traditional uses of bioenergy as a share of the REmap

Options� These are costlier to replace with modern bioenergy, but their

replacement offers significant external benefits as further detailed

below� These countries also tend to have very high shares of renewable

power already in their Reference Cases, which means greater emphasis

on technologies in the end-use sectors that are more expensive than

renewable power� The two countries with the highest substitution costs

are Malaysia, which has an ample supply of fossil fuels and significant

transport sector options (generally more expensive than renewables

for power or heat), and Singapore, which has very limited national

resources and a significant focus on transport and industry� It is

important to note that for all these countries there are technologies that

result in cost savings and have negative substitution costs� Importantly,

the substitution cost indicator does not include reduced externalities,

which are significant in most cases� More information on the individual

competitiveness of technologies at the country level can be found in

Annex A and the individual country cost-supply curves�

Table 10 also provides another important result of the REmap options�

It shows the changes in fuel expenditures when more renewable

energy is deployed� The REmap Options replace mostly fossil fuels,

which could reduce the annual fuel bill across the region by USD 40

-20

-10

0

10

20

30

40

Substitution cost (USD/MWh)

Savings

Costs

Myanmar

Lao PDR

Indonesia

Brunei Darussalam

Thailand

Malaysia

Philippines

Vietnam

Singapore

ASEAN

Cambodia

Figure 28: REmap Options substitution cost by country from the government perspective

71

COSTS, BENEFITS AND INVESTMENT NEEDS OF RENEWABLES

04

billion by 2025� Some expenditure is redirected to renewable fuels,

which can only be bioenergy-based fuels� Spending on these would

increase by USD 13 billion annually by 2025� The remainder is savings

from renewable sources that have no fuel, such as solar, geothermal,

and wind�

BENEFITS RELATING TO

AIR POLLUTION AND CO

2

The substitution costs presented in the previous section exclude

savings related to reduced externalities that result when fossil fuels

and traditional uses of bioenergy are substituted� Figure 29 shows

these savings across the region as a whole compared to substitution

costs� It shows how the technologies grouped by sector will affect the

annual system cost in 2025 (resulting in either incremental costs or

savings) and the amount of reduced externalities from those renewable

technologies�

A few general drivers can shed light on sector-level competitiveness�

The effect of the REmap Options on the entire energy system cost is

marginal, at an incremental cost of USD 0�7 billion per year by 2025

(or as shown in the previous section just USD 1�9 per MWh)� This varies

at the sector level� The power sector results in a marginal cost of USD

0�4 billion per year because many renewable power technologies are

highly competitive� The same is the case for industry, which generally

fares well on costs due to the availability of bioenergy residues and

biogas, and solar thermal for limited uses� The transport sector has

the highest costs, due to the significant amount of electric mobility

required, including electric vehicles and forms of modal shift, both of

which result in additional costs to the energy system� The additional

costs from the transport sector are offset by the building sector, which

deploys highly competitive technologies such as solar thermal and

biogas� Next to transport, the building sector is most likely to offset

costs from LPG or other oil products�

These system costs do not take into account reduced externalities,

as can also be seen in Figure 29� These reduced externalities are the

result of lower levels of outdoor air pollution and CO

2

, which improves

human health and the local environment� Air pollution is a cause of

ill health, particularly in cities, and also hurts crops� REmap assesses

both outdoor and indoor air pollution� CO

2

is assessed using a social

Table 10: Change in fuel cost expenditures by 2025 due to

REmap Options

(USD bln/yr)

Fossil fuels, all -40

Liquid biofuels, all 13

● Reduced externalities from lower levels of outdoor

air pollution and CO

2

emissions result in savings

at least 10 times higher than the incremental

cost of the REmap Options. If costs from indoor

air pollution are included, savings increase

signiﬁcantly.

●

The power sector plays the key role in realising

these reductions, as with the savings from air

pollution and CO

2

emission reductions. The

transport sector is also an important source of

savings from lower levels of air pollution in cities.

72

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

04

internal combustion engine vehicles operating in cities, where pollution

damages are high�

In all sectors lower externalities significantly outweigh system costs�

For outdoor air pollution alone, savings from reduced externalities are

higher than costs� This is also the case if only looking at CO

2

-related

externalities� Combining both outdoor air pollution and CO

2

results

in savings for all renewable technologies that at least 10 times higher

than the incremental cost of the REmap Options� But this isn’t the full

picture� Very large additional savings come from reduced externalities

from indoor air pollution (caused by the combustion of fuels, mostly

traditional bioenergy, for cooking or water heating)� If these were

included, then the REmap Options would result in average savings as

high as 50 times costs� Therefore, savings are equal to between 0�2%

and 1�0% of ASEAN’s GDP in 2025� These assessments are also only

based on the low-end calculations for external cost reductions� If the

high end is assumed, savings as a share of GDP could be over 2�0%�

The effect on individual countries is similarly striking (Figure 30)�

The figure shows the substitution cost by country, annualised and then

compared to share of GDP� Whereas Figure 28 shows the costs per

unit, and Figure 29 shows total costs, this figure shows how these totals

compare to country GDP in 2025� The cost effect of the REmap Options

to the energy system ranges from a savings of 0�05%-0�22% of GDP,

to incremental costs of 0�01%-1�3% of GDP� But savings from reduced

externalities relating to air pollution and CO

2

far outweigh these

costs in all countries� This is the case for outdoor air pollution alone,

and also if only CO

2

is considered� Considering indoor air pollution

reveals even more significant savings, such as for Indonesia, Lao PDR,

the Philippines, Vietnam, Myanmar and Cambodia – countries with

traditional uses of bioenergy� However you measure it, the reduced

externalities outweigh costs�

-10

-8

-6

-4

-2

0

2

4

Transport Power Industry Buildings Total

CO

2

Air pollution

(outdoor)

Energy

system cost

Change in costs

resulting from

REmap Options

Costs

Savings

USD billion/yr

Figure 29: Energy system costs and reduced externalities relating to REmap Options, by sector

Note: Assumes low-end estimates for externalities for outdoor air pollution and CO

2

, indoor air pollution excluded from ﬁgure

cost of carbon ranging from USD 17 to USD 80 per tonne of CO

2

� The

figure provides important conclusions about the how much the various

sectors reduce external costs� The power sector contributes equally

to the reduction in costs associated with air pollution and CO

2

� This

is because the fossil fuel technologies (coal) being substituted have

a high CO

2

intensity� The same can be stated in the case of industry�

The transport sector has a larger share of external cost reductions,

mainly from air pollution, because most substituted technologies are

73

COSTS, BENEFITS AND INVESTMENT NEEDS OF RENEWABLES

04

Figure 30: Cost and savings of REmap Options, share of GDP in 2025

Note: Assumes average estimates for externalities

-15%

-13%

-11%

-9%

-7%

-5%

-3%

-1%

1%

Share of GDP (%)

Energy system cost Health savings indoor (avg.) Heath savings outdoor (avg.) CO

2

cost savings (avg.)

Costs

Savings

Myanmar

Lao PDR

Indonesia

Brunei Darussalam

Thailand

Malaysia

Philippines

Vietnam

Singapore

Cambodia

CHANGES IN CO

2

EMISSIONS

● CO

2

emissions from energy will rise by 61% in the Reference Case. The REmap Options and closing the gap to ASEAN’s

renewable energy target will limit this rise to 47%.

●

The energy intensity of the region’s economy will decline by around 30% by 2025 over 2005 levels, broadly in line

with the region’s targets for energy intensity improvement.

74

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

04

Figure 31: CO

2

emissions from energy, increases in Reference Case and REmap in 2025

Note: The ﬁgure has been scaled for presentation purposes. Lao PDR emission growth is 450% in the Reference Case, and 350% in

REmap.

118%

143%

71%

117%

49%

47%

38%

37%

35%

20%

6%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

120%

140%

Lao PDR Vietnam Cambodia Myanmar ASEAN Indonesia Brunei

Darussalam

Philippines Thailand Malaysia Singapore

Energy-related CO

2

emissions (% increase over 2014)

Increase in REmap Increase in Reference Case

350%

450%

33%

85%

61%

53%

45%

44%

21%

15%

Due to the significant growth in energy demand across the region, all

ASEAN Member States see CO

2

emissions growing, especially as energy

growth is driven by both the power generation sector and industry� CO

2

emissions will increase by 61% by 2025 in the Reference Case, but the

REmap Options would restrain this rise at 47% (Figure31)� Countries

that are also expected to see the largest per capita growth in energy

demand, such as Lao PDR, Vietnam, Cambodia and Myanmar, all see

BOX 6: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND ENERGY

INTENSITY IMPROVEMENT

The ASEAN region is expected to reduce the overall energy

intensity of their economies� Energy intensity measures of the

amount of energy required to produce a given unit of economic

activity, for instance the tonnes of oil equivalent (toe) per

million USD (in purchasing power parity)� The ASEAN Plan of

Action for Energy Cooperation (APAEC) targets a reduction

of energy intensity in ASEAN of 20% in 2020 and 30% in 2025,

based on the 2005 level�

The 2005 level of energy intensity was 133 toe per million

constant 2005 USD� The Reference Case already makes

advances toward this, and by 2025 it will be reduced to 92 toe

per million USD – a reduction of 30% over 2005 and broadly

consistent with the APAEC goal� The REmap Options focus on

increasing the renewable energy share, and are not explicitly

energy efficiency options, but there are some synergies

between renewable deployment and increased energy

efficiency (see (IRENA and C2E2, 2015)� The result is that in

REmap in 2025, energy intensity would fall further to 91 toe per

million USD� By 2030 in the Reference Case, the intensity would

fall even further, to 86 toe per million USD, a 35% reduction over

2005 levels, and in REmap to 83 toe per million USD, a 38%

reduction over 2005 levels�

Therefore, some improvement in energy efficiency can

be achieved through higher deployment of renewables, but

the major advances will need to be made through traditional

approaches to reducing energy demand�

75

COSTS, BENEFITS AND INVESTMENT NEEDS OF RENEWABLES

04

emissions double or more in the Reference Case, but from a low starting

point� The more developed countries, such as Malaysia, Singapore,

Thailand, and Brunei Darussalam, see lower emissions growth of 15%-

45% but start from higher levels� The REmap Options would cut CO

2

over the Reference Case by as much as 40% for Cambodia, Myanmar,

Singapore and Thailand, and on the lower end, by 17-20% in some

countries� Across the ASEAN region the average reduction is 23%�

INVESTMENT NEEDS TO CLOSE THE GAP

● The ASEAN region will need to invest an average

of 1% of its GDP annually (USD 27 billion), a total

of USD 290 billion by 2025, in renewable energy

capacity in order to meet the 23% renewable

energy goal. Just under half of this will be

investment that takes place in the Reference Case,

and the remainder will come from the REmap

Options.

● The power sector will consume 75% of the

investment volume needed to boost capacity. USD

7.5 billion per year must be invested in solar PV,

and USD 6.3 billion in hydropower. The building

and industry sectors will require around USD 7

billion annually in investment, focused largely on

bioenergy and solar thermal.

generation, transmission, capacity for heating, cooling and cooking,

and the transport sector�

To reach ASEAN’s 23% renewables goal by 2025 will require

an estimated total investment over the period of USD 290 billion

in renewable energy capacity� This would be an estimated annual

investment in of approximately USD 27 billion per year between now

and 2025� To put this in perspective, this is around 10% of the total

investment in renewable energy that took place globally in 2015�

The USD 27 billion would be broken down into investments in

renewable energy capacity of USD 13 billion per year on average in the

Reference Case, with the REmap Options requiring an additional USD

14 billion annually� However, not all of the investment resulting from the

REmap Options is additional� The REmap Options redirect investments

of around USD 5 billion annually from fossil fuel technologies into

renewables� Therefore, the additional investment required on top of

the Reference Case would be around USD 9 billion annually� This higher

investment need relates to the higher capital cost of many renewable

technologies� However, all except bioenergy-based technologies

require no fuel costs�

Indonesia, Vietnam and Thailand would account for two-thirds of the

total ASEAN investment needs in renewable energy capacity between

2014 and 2025� Comparing investment to GDP shows how big they

are relative to a country or region’s economy� The average annual total

investment needs for renewable energy capacity between 2014 and

2025 will be around 1% of ASEAN’s total GDP� Around 45% of this is

investment that would be made in the Reference Case� The additions

from the REmap Options make up the remaining share, but 35% is

new investment and 20% is investment that would be required for

fossil fuels but instead is redirected to renewable energy� The share of

investment relative to GDP differs per country, from as high as 2�5% for

Significant investments are required in the energy system across

the ASEAN region due to the rapidly increasing demand for energy�

Investments are required across the entire energy system, in electricity

76

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

04

Lao PDR (with low GDP per capita today) to as low as 0�3% for Brunei

Darussalam, which benefits from its existing hydrocarbon industry�

It should be noted that the investment figures listed above focus

on the supply side and do not include investment in complementary

infrastructure�

Table 11 shows the investment needs by technology and sector for

the ASEAN region as a whole� About 25% of investment in renewable

capacity (USD 7 billion per year) is in the heating sector (industry and

buildings)� Around USD 1�7 billion is investment redirected from fossil

fuel heating capacity� In the industry sector, bioenergy-based heating

technologies dominate, with almost USD 5 billion per year� But around

USD 1 billion per year will still need to be invested in solar thermal

technologies� In the building sector the majority of investment goes to

solar thermal hot water, and only a small amount to modern bioenergy�

The power sector sees 75% of investment flows into capacity�

Investments are split into those for solar PV (USD 7�5 billion per year),

hydropower (USD 6�3 billion per year, but most occurring already in

the Reference Case) and biofuel power (USD 5�3 billion per year)� Wind

is also important, but much less than other technologies, with total

investment needs of USD 2�5 billion per year� Investment in natural gas

and nuclear-based generation capacity remains almost the same in

REmap, but investment in coal-based generation declines significantly,

from USD 2�5 billion per year to zero�

Assessing capital investment in capacity for the power, industry and

buildings sectors is straightforward, but for the transport sector this is

more complex� The investment figures discussed so far do not include

transport sector-related investment� Rather than capacity investments,

the sector requires investment in roads or other related infrastructure,

for example for EVs or regional mass transit (the assessment of which

is outside the bounds of this analysis)� REmap does assess investments

Figure 32: Annual renewable energy investment needs to 2025

Note: Lao PDR’s includes signiﬁcant investment in large hydropower in the Reference Case with the intent for much of the electricity for

export. The share of annual GDP is based on the period average from 2014-2025.

0.0%

0.5%

1.0%

1.5%

2.0%

2.5%

Share of annual GDP (%)

REmap Options - Redirected fossil investment into RE

REmap Options - incremental RE investment

Reference Case RE investment

bln/yr

Average annual investment in RE

in bln. USD2010/yr

0.4

4.5

9.8

27.0

2

0.7

3.2

1.1

1.3

0.1

(24%)

2.7

Lao PDR

Cambodia

Vietnam

ASIAN

Indonesia

Malaysia

Myanmar

Thailand

Singapore

Philippines

Brunei Darussalam

77

COSTS, BENEFITS AND INVESTMENT NEEDS OF RENEWABLES

04

Table 11: Technology investment in ASEAN, average between 2014 and 2025

Annual investment in capacity (USD bln/yr)

Industry Reference Case REmap

Coal boilers

1�2 0�9

NG boiler 0�3 0�3

Biofuel boilers 2�0 4�8

Solar thermal

0�02

0�8

Buildings

Oil products

0�5 0�5

Modern biofuels – 0�1

Solar thermal

0�0

3

1�3

Power

Coal power plant

2�5 –

NG power plant

3�3 3�2

Nuclear 0�4 0�4

Hydropower 5�8 6�3

Geothermal power 0�1 0�4

Solar PV 1�0 7�5

CSP – –

Wind

1�3 2�5

Biofuel power 0�5 5�3

Annual investment in transport fuel production capacity (USD bln/yr)

Conventional biofuels

16�5 17�5

Advanced biofuels – 0�1

in liquid fuel production capacity, however� The region sees strong

growth in transport fuel production investment in the Reference Case,

both for petrol and diesel (USD 31 billion per year), and for liquid biofuels

(USD 17 billion per year)� The REmap Options reduce investments in

petrol and diesel by around USD 5 billion per year, and see a slight

uptick in investment in liquid biofuels of around USD 1 billion� But

the major driver for reducing investment in petrol and diesel is the

significant uptake in electric vehicles� Investment is required in related

charging infrastructure, although these have not been quantified (for a

discussion on infrastructure investment needs for EVs please see the

IRENA working paper “A Renewable Route to Sustainable Transport”

(IRENA, 2016e)�

FOR ENABLING ASEAN’S

RENEWABLES POTENTIAL

05

79

ACTION AREAS FOR ENABLING ASEAN’S RENEWABLES POTENTIAL

05

The ASEAN region will experience some of the world’s largest growth

in energy demand over the next ten years� ASEAN Member States

have identified the expansion of renewables as essential to meeting

this growing energy demand, in addition to overcoming the related

challenges of rising fossil fuel use� Increasing renewable energy will not

only improve energy security and help the region meet this demand,

but it will be far cheaper than not doing so, as it will significantly reduce

air pollution and CO2

emissions� However, countries need to act to

make this happen, and it is vital that they cooperate on many levels�

ASEAN has been a successful model for regional cooperation, driving

social and economic development over the past half a century� With

the establishment of the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) in 2015,

regional ties will be strengthened on all levels of activity in all sectors,

particularly the energy sector� Undoubtedly, energy connectivity,

sustainability and market integration will be given top priority, with

the aim of yielding multiple positive effects from the ASEAN-wide

integrated energy system�

Accelerating the deployment of renewable energy technologies is

complex, as circumstances in each country differ� There is therefore no

single set of solutions suited to the needs of the entire ASEAN region�

In view of this regional diversity, four action areas that stem from the

REmap analysis are presented below� While they are relevant to the

regional energy landscape of ASEAN, they also have implications for

specific countries�

Action area 1: increase power system

flexibility in the ASEAN region while

using renewables to provide modern

energy access for all

Transmission and distribution grids

across the region must be expanded and

strengthened� Fast-growing demand for

electricity and higher shares of renewable power,

some of it variable, underline the need to ensure grid development and

enhancement in order to make power system infrastructure robust and

flexible� Also, increasing interconnection capacity between countries

and power systems is one of the key measures to improve grid access

and system reliability and to accommodate higher shares of variable

renewable energy�

It will also be important for ASEAN to develop flexibility measures

within individual countries, including flexible thermal capacity, energy

storage, demand response and the coupling of power and end-use

sectors, such as enabling high use of electricity for transport, heating

and cooking�

In places where electrification through conventional methods is

difficult, there is a lack of knowledge, awareness, technical expertise

and business models for alternatives, particularly renewable-based,

decentralised or mini-grid energy systems that are capable of delivering

the most cost-effective energy solutions in remote or island areas�

ASEAN Member States can also consider renewable-based off-grid

electrification to supply electricity more affordably and more quickly

than the traditional means of diesel generation or grid-connection�

80

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

05

Action area 2: expand efforts for renewable

energy uptake in power but also

importantly in the heating, cooking and

transport sectors

As shown in the REmap analysis,

technologies in the end-use sectors

(needed for heating, cooking and transport)

make up two-thirds of the capacity needed

to meet ASEAN’s renewable energy goal� Developing renewables in

these sectors will provide a win-win solution by providing modern,

clean and affordable energy services� To unlock potential, ASEAN

renewable energy technology deployment in the end-uses will need

to be complemented with efforts to create awareness among users in

these sectors�

Action area 3: create a sustainable, affordable

and reliable regional bioenergy market

Bioenergy will continue to play a key

role in the region, and ASEAN needs

to expand and improve its existing

bioenergy market� Demand will need to

be facilitated through the development of

gradually increasing targets across sectors,

subject to country specifics, in order to maximise the sustainable

use of bioenergy resources� On the supply side, agricultural resource

potential is abundant, but current practices in various parts of the

region have shown that sustainability is at stake� Yield improvements

and the use of degraded lands alone might not be enough, but deserve

more attention� The use of sustainable residues and waste feedstocks

should be maximised, but challenges related to the seasonality of

supply should be considered in planning� Innovative approaches and

technologies on both the supply side and demand side should be

included, while the environmental, social, and economic sustainability

should be ensured�

Action area 4: address the information

challenge by increasing the availability

of up-to-date renewable energy data

and the sharing of best practice for

renewable energy technologies

The knowledge and expertise on renewable

energy development differ greatly from

country to country� Accurate and up-to-date

statistical data and information is important to understand the rapid

changes and growth in energy in the ASEAN region� The sharing of this

information regionally and monitoring the process is also necessary to

understand progress towards the region’s renewable energy target�

Additionally, the sharing of best practices for renewable energy

deployment and technology will be crucial for the region to maximise

its potential in the most cost-efficient manner� Today each ASEAN

Member State has an expertise in the deployment of a number of

renewable energy technologies� Other countries can benefit from this

knowledge to accelerate their own deployment� Member States should

share more of this information among its countries, but also with those

from outside ASEAN borders�

81

REFERENCES

R

REFERENCES

ACE (2015)� The 4th ASEAN Energy Outlook 2013-2035� ASEAN Centre

for Energy� Retrieved from http://www.aseanenergy.org/resources/

publications/the-4th-asean-energy-outlook/

Andrews-Speed, P� (2016)� Connecting ASEAN through the Power Grid:

Next Steps

(Policy Brief No� 11)� Singapore: Energy Studies Institute�

Retrieved from http://www.asean-aemi.org/wp-content/uploads/

2016/06/AEMI-ACEF2016-ConnectingASEANPolicyBrief-Philip

AndrewsSpeed.pdf

ASEAN ACE (n�d�)� ASEC website, key indicators� ASEAN Centre of

Energy� Retrieved from http://asean.org/?static_post=selected-key-

indicators-2

Castalia (2014)� Myanmar National Electriﬁcation Program (NEP)

Roadmap and Investment Prospectus Final Road Map and Investment

Prospectus�

FAO (2011)� Global food losses and food waste – Extent, causes and

prevention�

IEA (2015)� World Energy Balances 2015 edition (Database)� Paris:

OECD/IEA� Retrieved from http://www.iea.org/statistics/related

databases/worldenergystatisticsandbalances/

IEA (2016)� Energy Access Database� International Energy Agency�

Retrieved from http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org/resources/

energydevelopment/energyaccessdatabase/

IRENA (Forthcoming)� Resource Potentail for Advanced Biofuels in

Southeast Asia: Sustainable Intensiﬁcation of Agriculture, Reduced

Waste in the Food Chain� International Renewable Energy Agency�

IRENA (2014a)� A Renewable Energy Roadmap (REmap 2030): Cost

Methodology� IRENA, Abu Dhabi� Retrieved from http://www.irena.org/

remap

IRENA (2014b)� Global Bioenergy: Supply and Demand Projections

(Working Paper)� Abu Dhabi: IRENA� Retrieved from http://www.irena.

org/remap/IRENA_REmap_2030_Biomass_paper_2014.pdf

IRENA (2014c)� REmap 2030: A Renewable Energy Roadmap� Abu

Dhabi: IRENA� Retrieved from http://www.irena.org/remap/IRENA_

REmap_Report_June_2014.pdf

IRENA (2015a)� Africa 2030: Roadmap for a Renewable Energy Future�

Abu Dhabi: IRENA� Retrieved from http://www.irena.org/remap

IRENA (2015b)� Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2014� Abu Dhabi:

IRENA� Retrieved from http://www.irena.org/documentdownloads/

publications/irena_re_power_costs_2014_report.pdf

IRENA (2016a)� REmap 2030 – A Renewable Energy Roadmap� Retrieved

from http://www.irena.org/remap/

IRENA (2016b)� REmap: Roadmap for A Renewable Energy Future: 2016

Edition� Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates: International Renewable

Energy Agency� Retrieved from http://www.irena.org/menu/index.

aspx?mnu=Subcat&PriMenuID=36&CatID=141&SubcatID=1691

82

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

R

IRENA (2016c)� Renewable Energy Beneﬁts: Measuring the Economics�

Abu Dhabi: IRENA� Retrieved from http://www.irena.org/

DocumentDownloads/Publications/IRENA_Measuring-the-

Economics_2016.pdf

IRENA (2016d)� The power to Change: Solar and wind cost reduction

potential to 2025

� Abu Dhabi: International Renewable Energy Agency�

IRENA (2016e)� The Renewable Route to Sustainable Transport: a

working paper based on REmap� International Renewable Energy

Agency� Retrieved from http://www.irena.org/DocumentDownloads/

Publications/IRENA_REmap_Transport_working_paper_2016.pdf

IRENA (2016f)� The true cost of fossil fuels: Externality cost assessment

methodology

� Abu Dhabi: International Renewable Energy Agency�

IRENA and C2E2 (2015)� Synergies between renewable energy and

energy eciency (Working Paper)� IRENA, Abu Dhabi and C2E2,

Copenhagen� Retrieved from http://www.irena.org/remap

OECD� (2014)� Towards Green Growth in Southeast Asia� Paris: OECD

Publishing�

SEforALL (2013)� SEforALL Global Tracking Framework [Text/HTML]�

Retrieved February 11, 2016, from http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/

energy/publication/Global-Tracking-Framework-Report

SEforALL (2016)� 2015 SEforALL Global Tracking Framework [Text/

HTML]� Retrieved February 11, 2016, from http://trackingenergy4all.

worldbank.org/~/media/GIAWB/GTF/Documents/GTF-2015-Summary-

Report.pdf

WHO (2016)� National burden of disease due to indoor air pollution�

World Health Organization� Retrieved from http://www.who.int/

indoorair/health_impacts/burden_national/en/

83

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

L

ACE ASEAN Centre for Energy

AEC ASEAN Economic Community

AEO4 4th ASEAN Energy Outlook

AMEM ASEAN Ministers on Energy Meeting

AMS ASEAN Member States

APAEC Plan of Action for Energy Cooperation

APS Advancing Policies Scenario

ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations

ASEAN-RESP Renewable Energy Support Programme for ASEAN

EVs electric four-wheel vehicles

GDP gross domestic product

GHG greenhouse gas

Gt gigatonnes

GW gigawatts

IRENA International Renewable Energy Agency

kWh kilowatt-hour

LCOE levelised cost of electricity

LCOH levelised cost of heat

LPG liqueﬁed petroleum gas

Mtoe million tonnes of oil equivalent

MWh megawatt-hour

PV photovoltaics

RE renewable energy

SEforALL Sustainable Energy for All initiative

TFEC Total Final Energy Consumption

toe tonnes of oil equivalent

TPES Total Primary Energy Supply

TWh terawatt-hours

UN United Nations

yr year

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

84

COUNTRY OVERVIEW TABLES

ANNEX A: COUNTRY OVERVIEW TABLES

A

85

Unit

2014 Reference Case 2025 REmap 2025

Energy production and capacity

Power sector

Total installed power generation capacity GW 195 387 422

Renewable capacity GW

50�9 123�9 180�2

Hydropower (excl� pumped hydro) GW 39�0 79�3 82�3

Wind GW 0�5 6�3 12�0

Biofuels (solid, liquid, gaseous) GW 6�4 13�4 18�0

Solar PV GW 1�6 12�8 54�7

CSP GW 0�0 0�0 0�0

Geothermal GW 3�4 9�6 10�6

Marine, other GW 0�0 2�5 2�6

Non-renewable capacity GW 144�0 263�1 242�2

Total electricity generation TWh 856 1 656 1 674

Renewable generation TWh

173�3 453�8 580�3

Hydropower TWh 128�8 288�9 302�7

Wind TWh 0�6 24�3 39�8

Biofuels (solid, liquid, gaseous) TWh 22�0 53�8 80�8

Solar PV TWh 1�6 18�6 80�7

CSP TWh 0�0 0�0 0�0

Geothermal TWh 20�3 59�4 66�8

Marine, other TWh 0�0 8�9 9�4

Non-renewable generation TWh 682�5 1201�9 1093�7

Final energy use – direct uses

Buildings and Industry

Total direct uses of energy Mtoe 217 284 267

Direct uses of renewable energy Mtoe

93�6 88�6 85�3

Solar thermal – Buildings Mtoe 0�0 0�2 4�0

Solar thermal – Industry Mtoe 0�0 0�1 3�2

Geothermal (Buildings and Industry) Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�0

Bioenergy (traditional) – Buildings Mtoe 76�3 56�8 33�4

Bioenergy (modern) – Buildings Mtoe 1�0 2�2 10�7

Bioenergy – Industry Mtoe 16�4 29�2 33�9

Non-renewable – Buildings Mtoe 21�5 37�5 31�2

Non-renewable – Industry Mtoe 101�6 158�3 150�7

Non-renewable – BF/CO Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�0

Trans-

port

Total fuel consumption Mtoe 133 190 184

Liquid biofuels Mtoe

3�5 14�9 15�9

Biomethane Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�0

Non-renewable fuels Mtoe 129�1 175�5 168�3

Total final energy consumption (electricity, DH, direct uses) Mtoe 416 595 573

Total primary energy supply Mtoe 634 952 929

RE shares

RE share in electricity generation 20% 27% 35%

RE share in Buildings – final energy use, direct uses (modern) 1% 3% 19%

RE share in Industry – final energy use, direct uses 14% 16% 20%

RE share in Transport fuels 3% 8% 9%

Share of modern RE in TFEC 8% 13% 19%



Share of modern RE in TPES 9.4% 16.9% 23.2%

Financial

indicators

System costs (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A

0�7

RE investment needs (USD bln/yr annually (2015-2025))

N/A 13 27

Investment support for renewables (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A

5�3

Reduced externalities – outdoor air pollution (avg�) (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A 13�0

Reduced externalities – CO

2

(USD 50/tonne CO2) (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A

11�3

CO

2

emissions from energy (Mt/yr)

1 359 2 194 1 996

ASEAN

86

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

BRUNEI DARUSSALAM

Unit

2014 Reference Case 2025 REmap 2025

Energy production and capacity

Power sector

Total installed power generation capacity GW 0.9 1.1 1.3

Renewable capacity GW

0�0 0�0 0�3

Hydropower (excl� pumped hydro) GW 0�0 0�0 0�0

Wind GW 0�0 0�0 0�0

Biofuels (solid, liquid, gaseous) GW 0�0 0�0 0�0

Solar PV GW 0�0 0�0 0�2

CSP GW 0�0 0�0 0�0

Geothermal GW 0�0 0�0 0�0

Marine, other GW 0�0 0�0 0�0

Non-renewable capacity GW 0�9 1�1 1�0

Total electricity generation TWh 4.1 5.9 6.0

Renewable generation TWh

0�0 0�0 0�7

Hydropower TWh 0�0 0�0 0�0

Wind TWh 0�0 0�0 0�0

Biofuels (solid, liquid, gaseous) TWh 0�0 0�0 0�2

Solar PV TWh 0�0 0�0 0�4

CSP TWh 0�0 0�0 0�0

Geothermal TWh 0�0 0�0 0�0

Marine, other TWh 0�0 0�0 0�0

Non-renewable generation TWh 4�1 5�9 5�3

Final energy use – direct uses

Buildings and Industry

Total direct uses of energy Mtoe 0.1 0.4 0.4

Direct uses of renewable energy Mtoe

0�0 0�0 0�0

Solar thermal – Buildings Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�0

Solar thermal – Industry Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�0

Geothermal (Buildings and Industry) Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�0

Bioenergy (traditional) – Buildings Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�0

Bioenergy (modern) – Buildings Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�0

Bioenergy – Industry Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�0

Non-renewable – Buildings Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�0

Non-renewable – Industry Mtoe 0�1 0�3 0�3

Non-renewable – BF/CO Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�0

Trans-

port

Total fuel consumption Mtoe 0.5 0.5 0.5

Liquid biofuels Mtoe

0�0 0�0 0�0

Biomethane Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�0

Non-renewable fuels Mtoe 0�5 0�5 0�5

Total final energy consumption (electricity, DH, direct uses) Mtoe 0.9 1.4 1.4

Total primary energy supply Mtoe 3.2 4.0 4.1

RE

shares

RE share in electricity generation 0�0% 0�4% 10�9%

RE share in Buildings – final energy use, direct uses (modern) 0�0% 0�0% 5�9%

RE share in Industry – final energy use, direct uses 0�0% 0�0% 11�6%

RE share in Transport fuels 0�0% 0�0% 0�1%

Share of modern RE in TFEC 0.0% 0.2% 6.9%



Share of modern RE in TPES 0.0% 0.2% 4.5%

Financial

indicators

System costs (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A

-0�01

RE investment needs (USD bln/yr annually (2015-2025))

N/A 0

0�06

Investment support for renewables (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A

0�02

Reduced externalities – outdoor air pollution (avg�) (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A 0�01

Reduced externalities – CO

2

(USD 50/tonne CO2) (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A

0�02

CO

2

emissions from energy (Mt/yr)

5 7

6�5

ANNEX A: COUNTRY OVERVIEW TABLES

A

87

CAMBODIA

Unit

2014 Reference Case 025 REmap 2025

Energy production and capacity

Power sector

Total installed power generation capacity GW 1.7 3.5 4.2

Renewable capacity GW

1�1 2�6 3�5

Hydropower (excl� pumped hydro) GW 1�1 2�6 2�6

Wind GW 0�0 0�0 0�2

Biofuels (solid, liquid, gaseous) GW 0�0 0�0 0�1

Solar PV GW 0�0 0�0 0�7

CSP GW 0�0 0�0 0�0

Geothermal GW 0�0 0�0 0�0

Marine, other GW 0�0 0�0 0�0

Non-renewable capacity GW 0�5 0�9 0�7

Total electricity generation TWh 3.8 11.5 12.0

Renewable generation TWh

1�9 7�1 9�1

Hydropower TWh 1�9 7�1 7�1

Wind TWh 0�0 0�0 0�5

Biofuels (solid, liquid, gaseous) TWh 0�0 0�0 0�2

Solar PV TWh 0�0 0�0 1�2

CSP TWh 0�0 0�0 0�0

Geothermal TWh 0�0 0�0 0�0

Marine, other TWh 0�0 0�0 0�0

Non-renewable generation TWh 1�9 4�3 2�9

Final energy use – direct uses

Buildings and Industry

Total direct uses of energy Mtoe 3.8 3.9 2.9

Direct uses of renewable energy Mtoe

3�6 3�5 2�6

Solar thermal – Buildings Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�0

Solar thermal – Industry Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�0

Geothermal (Buildings and Industry) Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�0

Bioenergy (traditional) – Buildings Mtoe 2�7 2�6 1�2

Bioenergy (modern) – Buildings Mtoe 0�2 0�2 0�7

Bioenergy – Industry Mtoe 0�7 0�7 0�7

Non-renewable – Buildings Mtoe 0�1 0�2 0�2

Non-renewable – Industry Mtoe 0�1 0�2 0�1

Non-renewable – BF/CO Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�0

Trans-

port

Total fuel consumption Mtoe 1.2 2.4 2.3

Liquid biofuels Mtoe

0�0 0�0 0�1

Biomethane Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�0

Non-renewable fuels Mtoe 1�2 2�4 2�2

Total final energy consumption (electricity, DH, direct uses) Mtoe 5.4 7.6 6.2

Total primary energy supply Mtoe 6.0 8.8 7.5

RE shares

RE share in electricity generation 50% 62% 76%

RE share in Buildings – final energy use, direct uses (modern) 8% 8% 34%

RE share in Industry – final energy use, direct uses 91% 81% 87%

RE share in Transport fuels 0% 0% 5%

Share of modern RE in TFEC 21% 20% 37%



Share of modern RE in TPES 19% 18% 35%

Financial

indicators

System costs (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A

0�1

RE investment needs (USD bln/yr annually (2015-2025))

N/A

0�3 0�4

Investment support for renewables (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A

0�2

Reduced externalities – outdoor air pollution (avg�) (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A 0�3

Reduced externalities – CO

2

(USD 50/tonne CO2) (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A

0�2

CO

2

emissions from energy (Mt/yr)

6 13 11

88

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

INDONESIA

Unit

2014 Reference Case 2025 REmap 2025

Energy production and capacity

Power sector

Total installed power generation capacity GW 57.6 130.5 149.5

Renewable capacity GW

8�4 45�2 74�6

Hydropower (excl� pumped hydro) GW 5�3 21�0 21�8

Wind GW 0�0 1�8 2�9

Biofuels (solid, liquid, gaseous) GW 1�7 8�6 9�5

Solar PV GW 0�0 6�5 31�7

CSP GW 0�0 0�0 0�0

Geothermal GW 1�4 7�2 8�6

Marine, other GW 0�0 0�1 0�1

Non-renewable capacity GW 49�2 85�3 74�9

Total electricity generation TWh 240.3 772.3 781.4

Renewable generation TWh

29�9 221�0 292�4

Hydropower TWh 15�2 111�0 117�5

Wind TWh 0�0 5�1 8�2

Biofuels (solid, liquid, gaseous) TWh 4�6 41�5 45�8

Solar PV TWh 0�0 12�4 60�4

CSP TWh 0�0 0�0 0�0

Geothermal TWh 10�0 50�7 60�3

Marine, other TWh 0�0 0�3 0�3

Non-renewable generation TWh 210�4 551�3 489�0

Final energy use – direct uses

Buildings and Industry

Total direct uses of energy Mtoe 105.2 91.4 90.7

Direct uses of renewable energy Mtoe

45�3 12�4 15�8

Solar thermal – Buildings Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�0

Solar thermal – Industry Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�0

Geothermal (Buildings and Industry) Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�0

Bioenergy (traditional) – Buildings Mtoe 38�7 0�0 0�0

Bioenergy (modern) – Buildings Mtoe 0�0 0�9 2�4

Bioenergy – Industry Mtoe 6�6 11�5 13�4

Non-renewable – Buildings Mtoe 9�0 13�7 11�9

Non-renewable – Industry Mtoe 50�9 65�3 63�0

Non-renewable – BF/CO Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�0

Trans-

port

Total fuel consumption Mtoe 48.8 75.9 72.7

Liquid biofuels Mtoe

1�4 9�6 9�6

Biomethane Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�0

Non-renewable fuels Mtoe 47�5 66�3 63�1

Total final energy consumption (electricity, DH, direct uses) Mtoe 174.8 227.1 224.2

Total primary energy supply Mtoe 233.6 387.6 352.4

RE shares

RE share in electricity generation 12% 33% 37%

RE share in Buildings – final energy use, direct uses (modern) 0% 3% 17%

RE share in Industry – final energy use, direct uses 12% 14% 17%

RE share in Transport fuels 3% 13% 13%

Share of modern RE in TFEC 6% 17% 21%



Share of modern RE in TPES 9% 23% 26%

Financial

indicators

System costs (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A

-1�0

RE investment needs (USD bln/yr annually (2015-2025))

N/A 4 10

Investment support for renewables (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A

0�9

Reduced externalities – outdoor air pollution (avg�) (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A 3�1

Reduced externalities – CO

2

(USD 50/tonne CO2) (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A

5�0

CO

2

emissions from energy (Mt/yr)

584 893 806

ANNEX A: COUNTRY OVERVIEW TABLES

A

89

LAO PDR

Unit

2014 Reference Case 2025 REmap 2025

Energy production and capacity

Power sector

Total installed power generation capacity GW 3.1 18.1 19.2

Renewable capacity GW

3�1 14�7 16�3

Hydropower (excl� pumped hydro) GW 3�1 14�5 14�7

Wind GW 0�0 0�0 0�0

Biofuels (solid, liquid, gaseous) GW 0�0 0�1 0�3

Solar PV GW 0�0 0�0 1�3

CSP GW 0�0 0�0 0�0

Geothermal GW 0�0 0�0 0�0

Marine, other GW 0�0 0�0 0�0

Non-renewable capacity GW 0�0 3�4 2�9

Total electricity generation TWh 15.2 84.2 84.7

Renewable generation TWh

15�2 72�5 76�4

Hydropower TWh 15�1 72�1 72�6

Wind TWh 0�0 0�1 0�1

Biofuels (solid, liquid, gaseous) TWh 0�1 0�3 1�6

Solar PV TWh 0�0 0�0 2�1

CSP TWh 0�0 0�0 0�0

Geothermal TWh 0�0 0�0 0�0

Marine, other TWh 0�0 0�0 0�0

Non-renewable generation TWh 0�0 11�6 8�3

Final energy use – direct uses

Buildings and Industry

Total direct uses of energy Mtoe 0.5 2.0 2.0

Direct uses of renewable energy Mtoe

0�1 0�3 0�5

Solar thermal – Buildings Mtoe 0�0 0�1 0�1

Solar thermal – Industry Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�1

Geothermal (Buildings and Industry) Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�0

Bioenergy (traditional) – Buildings Mtoe 0�1 0�1 0�0

Bioenergy (modern) – Buildings Mtoe 0�0 0�1 0�1

Bioenergy – Industry Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�3

Non-renewable – Buildings Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�0

Non-renewable – Industry Mtoe 0�4 1�7 1�4

Non-renewable – BF/CO Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�0

Trans-

port

Total fuel consumption Mtoe 0.9 2.4 2.2

Liquid biofuels Mtoe

0�0 0�2 0�3

Biomethane Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�0

Non-renewable fuels Mtoe 0�9 2�1 1�9

Total final energy consumption (electricity, DH, direct uses) Mtoe 1.8 5.3 4.9

Total primary energy supply Mtoe 3.1 14.1 14.1

RE shares

RE share in electricity generation 100% 86% 90%

RE share in Buildings – final energy use, direct uses (modern) 37% 70% 86%

RE share in Industry – final energy use, direct uses 0% 0% 18%

RE share in Transport fuels 2% 10% 12%

Share of modern RE in TFEC 17% 18% 28%



Share of modern RE in TPES 46% 49% 59%

Financial

indicators

System costs (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A

0�1

RE investment needs (USD bln/yr annually (2015-2025))

N/A 2 3

Investment support for renewables (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A

0�3

Reduced externalities – outdoor air pollution (avg�) (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A 0�2

Reduced externalities – CO

2

(USD 50/tonne CO2) (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A

0�3

CO

2

emissions from energy (Mt/yr)

5 25 21

90

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

MALAYSIA

Unit

2014 Reference Case 2025 REmap 2025

Energy production and capacity

Power sector

Total installed power generation capacity GW 30.8 47.3 52.1

Renewable capacity GW

6�3 10�6 18�3

Hydropower (excl� pumped hydro) GW 4�8 8�5 8�5

Wind GW 0�0 0�0 0�1

Biofuels (solid, liquid, gaseous) GW 1�3 1�7 3�8

Solar PV GW 0�2 0�3 5�8

CSP GW 0�0 0�0 0�0

Geothermal GW 0�0 0�0 0�1

Marine, other GW 0�0 0�0 0�0

Non-renewable capacity GW 24�5 36�7 33�8

Total electricity generation TWh 143.8 164.7 168.1

Renewable generation TWh

14�5 31�9 53�6

Hydropower TWh 13�5 25�1 25�1

Wind TWh 0�0 0�0 0�2

Biofuels (solid, liquid, gaseous) TWh 0�9 6�4 19�0

Solar PV TWh 0�1 0�4 8�5

CSP TWh 0�0 0�0 0�0

Geothermal TWh 0�0 0�0 0�8

Marine, other TWh 0�0 0�0 0�0

Non-renewable generation TWh 129�3 132�7 114�5

Final energy use – direct uses

Buildings and Industry

Total direct uses of energy Mtoe 11.3 14.6 14.6

Direct uses of renewable energy Mtoe

1�7 0�8 2�3

Solar thermal – Buildings Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�2

Solar thermal – Industry Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�3

Geothermal (Buildings and Industry) Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�0

Bioenergy (traditional) – Buildings Mtoe 1�4 0�6 0�6

Bioenergy (modern) – Buildings Mtoe 0�3 0�2 0�2

Bioenergy – Industry Mtoe 0�0 0�0 1�0

Non-renewable – Buildings Mtoe 1�5 1�9 1�6

Non-renewable – Industry Mtoe 8�1 11�9 10�7

Non-renewable – BF/CO Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�0

Trans-

port

Total fuel consumption Mtoe 24.3 31.7 31.1

Liquid biofuels Mtoe

0�0 0�6 1�1

Biomethane Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�0

Non-renewable fuels Mtoe 24�3 31�1 30�0

Total final energy consumption (electricity, DH, direct uses) Mtoe 47.7 60.2 59.9

Total primary energy supply Mtoe 86.4 96.8 97.8

RE shares

RE share in electricity generation 10% 19% 32%

RE share in Buildings – final energy use, direct uses (modern) 10% 6% 15%

RE share in Industry – final energy use, direct uses 0% 0% 11%

RE share in Transport fuels 0% 2% 4%

Share of modern RE in TFEC 3% 5% 12%



Share of modern RE in TPES 2% 5% 14%

Financial

indicators

System costs (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A

1�8

RE investment needs (USD bln/yr annually (2015-2025))

N/A

0�6 2�9

Investment support for renewables (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A

2�2

Reduced externalities – outdoor air pollution (avg�) (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A 3�4

Reduced externalities – CO

2

(USD 50/tonne CO2) (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A

1�6

CO

2

emissions from energy (Mt/yr)

196 236 208

ANNEX A: COUNTRY OVERVIEW TABLES

A

91

MYANMAR

Unit

2014 Reference Case 2025 REmap 2025

Energy production and capacity

Power sector

Total installed power generation capacity GW 4.8 16.8 17.8

Renewable capacity GW

3�2 7�1 8�7

Hydropower (excl� pumped hydro) GW 3�2 6�2 6�2

Wind GW 0�0 0�0 0�5

Biofuels (solid, liquid, gaseous) GW 0�0 0�0 0�3

Solar PV GW 0�0 0�9 1�7

CSP GW 0�0 0�0 0�0

Geothermal GW 0�0 0�0 0�0

Marine, other GW 0�0 0�0 0�0

Non-renewable capacity GW 1�6 9�7 9�1

Total electricity generation TWh 14.2 30.9 31.3

Renewable generation TWh

8�8 18�2 22�2

Hydropower TWh 8�8 17�2 17�2

Wind TWh 0�0 0�0 1�1

Biofuels (solid, liquid, gaseous) TWh 0�0 0�0 1�7

Solar PV TWh 0�0 0�9 2�2

CSP TWh 0�0 0�0 0�0

Geothermal TWh 0�0 0�0 0�0

Marine, other TWh 0�0 0�0 0�0

Non-renewable generation TWh 5�3 12�7 9�1

Final energy use – direct uses

Buildings and Industry

Total direct uses of energy Mtoe 12.6 13.3 9.6

Direct uses of renewable energy Mtoe

10�1 9�1 5�8

Solar thermal – Buildings Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�1

Solar thermal – Industry Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�0

Geothermal (Buildings and Industry) Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�0

Bioenergy (traditional) – Buildings Mtoe 10�1 9�1 4�4

Bioenergy (modern) – Buildings Mtoe 0�0 0�0 1�2

Bioenergy – Industry Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�1

Non-renewable – Buildings Mtoe 1�2 1�8 1�6

Non-renewable – Industry Mtoe 1�3 2�4 2�3

Non-renewable – BF/CO Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�0

Trans-

port

Total fuel consumption Mtoe 1.7 2.8 2.7

Liquid biofuels Mtoe

0�0 0�0 0�0

Biomethane Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�0

Non-renewable fuels Mtoe 1�7 2�8 2�7

Total final energy consumption (electricity, DH, direct uses) Mtoe 17.6 20.2 16.2

Total primary energy supply Mtoe 17.0 20.9 18.1

RE shares

RE share in electricity generation 62% 59% 71%

RE share in Buildings – final energy use, direct uses (modern) 0% 0% 17%

RE share in Industry – final energy use, direct uses 0% 0% 5%

RE share in Transport fuels 0% 0% 1%

Share of modern RE in TFEC 11% 11% 25%



Share of modern RE in TPES 4% 7% 29%

Financial

indicators

System costs (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A

-0�1

RE investment needs (USD bln/yr annually (2015-2025))

N/A

0�4 0�7

Investment support for renewables (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A

0�1

Reduced externalities – outdoor air pollution (avg�) (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A 0�7

Reduced externalities – CO

2

(USD 50/tonne CO2) (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A

0�3

CO

2

emissions from energy (Mt/yr)

16 29 23

92

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

PHILIPPINES

Unit

2014 Reference Case 2025 REmap 2025

Energy production and capacity

Power sector

Total installed power generation capacity GW 17.9 30.7 32.8

Renewable capacity GW

5�9 10�0 12�9

Hydropower (excl� pumped hydro) GW 3�5 3�8 3�8

Wind GW 0�3 0�4 1�1

Biofuels (solid, liquid, gaseous) GW 0�1 0�9 1�1

Solar PV GW 0�0 1�0 3�0

CSP GW 0�0 0�0 0�0

Geothermal GW 1�9 3�9 3�9

Marine, other GW 0�0 0�0 0�0

Non-renewable capacity GW 12�0 20�7 19�9

Total electricity generation TWh 77.3 142.6 143.4

Renewable generation TWh

19�8 40�6 46�7

Hydropower TWh 9�1 14�8 14�8

Wind TWh 0�2 0�6 2�2

Biofuels (solid, liquid, gaseous) TWh 0�2 2�5 3�8

Solar PV TWh 0�0 2�6 5�7

CSP TWh 0�0 0�0 0�0

Geothermal TWh 10�3 20�1 20�1

Marine, other TWh 0�0 0�0 0�0

Non-renewable generation TWh 57�5 101�9 96�8

Final energy use – direct uses

Buildings and Industry

Total direct uses of energy Mtoe 13.4 17.0 14.7

Direct uses of renewable energy Mtoe

7�4 8�6 6�9

Solar thermal – Buildings Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�2

Solar thermal – Industry Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�2

Geothermal (Buildings and Industry) Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�0

Bioenergy (traditional) – Buildings Mtoe 5�9 5�8 2�6

Bioenergy (modern) – Buildings Mtoe 0�4 0�6 1�6

Bioenergy – Industry Mtoe 1�1 2�1 2�3

Non-renewable – Buildings Mtoe 2�5 3�2 2�9

Non-renewable – Industry Mtoe 3�5 5�3 4�8

Non-renewable – BF/CO Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�0

Trans-

port

Total fuel consumption Mtoe 9.1 12.7 12.4

Liquid biofuels Mtoe

0�3 1�3 1�4

Biomethane Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�0

Non-renewable fuels Mtoe 8�8 11�3 11�0

Total final energy consumption (electricity, DH, direct uses) Mtoe 28.0 39.3 36.7

Total primary energy supply Mtoe 47.7 73.3 71.1

RE shares

RE share in electricity generation 26% 28% 33%

RE share in Buildings – final energy use, direct uses (modern) 4% 6% 24%

RE share in Industry – final energy use, direct uses 24% 29% 35%

RE share in Transport fuels 4% 11% 11%

Share of modern RE in TFEC 12% 17% 24%



Share of modern RE in TPES 25% 35% 41%

Financial

indicators

System costs (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A

-0�5

RE investment needs (USD bln/yr annually (2015-2025))

N/A

0�7 1�3

Investment support for renewables (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A

0�2

Reduced externalities – outdoor air pollution (avg�) (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A 1�1

Reduced externalities – CO

2

(USD 50/tonne CO2) (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A

0�5

CO

2

emissions from energy (Mt/yr)

89 128 120

ANNEX A: COUNTRY OVERVIEW TABLES

A

93

SINGAPORE

Unit

2014 Reference Case 2025 REmap 2025

Energy production and capacity

Power sector

Total installed power generation capacity GW 12.90 16.47 18.07

Renewable capacity GW

0�29 0�56 2�95

Hydropower (excl� pumped hydro) GW 0�00 0�00 0�00

Wind (offshore) GW 0�00 0�00 0�27

Biofuels (solid, liquid, gaseous) GW 0�26 0�35 0�42

Solar PV GW 0�03 0�21 2�15

CSP GW 0�00 0�00 0�00

Geothermal GW 0�00 0�00 0�00

Marine, other GW 0�00 0�00 0�11

Non-renewable capacity GW 12�61 15�90 15�12

Total electricity generation TWh 48.27 64.81 64.81

Renewable generation TWh

0�92 1�47 6�18

Hydropower TWh 0�00 0�00 0�00

Wind TWh 0�00 0�00 0�83

Biofuels (solid, liquid, gaseous) TWh 0�88 1�18 1�51

Solar PV TWh 0�04 0�29 3�34

CSP TWh 0�00 0�00 0�00

Geothermal TWh 0�00 0�00 0�00

Marine, other TWh 0�00 0�00 0�50

Non-renewable generation TWh 47�35 63�34 58�63

Final energy use – direct uses

Buildings and Industry

Total direct uses of energy Mtoe 8.33 9.04 9.10

Direct uses of renewable energy Mtoe

0�00 0�00 0�12

Solar thermal – Buildings Mtoe 0�00 0�00 0�01

Solar thermal – Industry Mtoe 0�00 0�00 0�05

Geothermal (Buildings and Industry) Mtoe 0�00 0�00 0�00

Bioenergy (traditional) – Buildings Mtoe 0�00 0�00 0�00

Bioenergy (modern) – Buildings Mtoe 0�00 0�00 0�00

Bioenergy – Industry Mtoe 0�00 0�00 0�06

Non-renewable – Buildings Mtoe 0�25 0�32 0�31

Non-renewable – Industry Mtoe 8�08 8�72 8�67

Non-renewable – BF/CO Mtoe 0�00 0�00 0�00

Trans-

port

Total fuel consumption Mtoe 2.22 2.23 1.78

Liquid biofuels Mtoe

0�00 0�00 0�00

Biomethane Mtoe 0�00 0�00 0�00

Non-renewable fuels Mtoe 2�22 2�23 1�78

Total final energy consumption (electricity, DH, direct uses) Mtoe 14.53 17.04 16.79

Total primary energy supply (excluding bunkers) Mtoe 28.05 35.21 34.48

RE shares

RE share in electricity generation 2% 2% 10%

RE share in Buildings – final energy use, direct uses (modern) 0% 0% 4%

RE share in Industry – final energy use, direct uses 0% 0% 1%

RE share in Transport fuels 0% 0% 0%

Share of modern RE in TFEC 1% 1% 4%



Share of modern RE in TPES 1% 1% 3%

Financial

indicators

System costs (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A

0�1

RE investment needs (USD bln/yr annually (2015-2025))

N/A

0�01 1�1

Investment support for renewables (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A

0�1

Reduced externalities – outdoor air pollution (avg�) (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A 0�4

Reduced externalities – CO

2

(USD 50/tonne CO2) (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A

0�3

CO

2

emissions from energy (Mt/yr)

51 59 55

94

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

THAILAND

Unit

2014 Reference Case 2025 REmap 2025

Energy production and capacity

Power sector

Total installed power generation capacity GW 35.6 45.9 48.8

Renewable capacity GW

7�3 12�6 17�5

Hydropower (excl� pumped hydro) GW 3�0 3�1 3�8

Wind GW 0�2 0�9 1�8

Biofuels (solid, liquid, gaseous) GW 2�8 5�1 5�7

Solar PV GW 1�3 3�4 6�2

CSP GW 0�0 0�0 0�0

Geothermal GW 0�0 0�0 0�0

Marine, other GW 0�0 0�0 0�0

Non-renewable capacity GW 28�3 33�3 31�3

Total electricity generation TWh 174.5 240.0 240.9

Renewable generation TWh

22�1 42�7 55�8

Hydropower TWh 5�2 3�3 6�5

Wind TWh 0�3 13�0 15�1

Biofuels (solid, liquid, gaseous) TWh 15�2 21�8 25�1

Solar PV TWh 1�4 4�6 9�0

CSP TWh 0�0 0�0 0�0

Geothermal TWh 0�0 0�0 0�0

Marine, other TWh 0�0 0�0 0�0

Non-renewable generation TWh 152�4 197�3 185�1

Final energy use – direct uses

Buildings and Industry

Total direct uses of energy Mtoe 30.0 44.1 43.9

Direct uses of renewable energy Mtoe

14�1 16�1 20�1

Solar thermal – Buildings Mtoe 0�0 0�2 1�1

Solar thermal – Industry Mtoe 0�0 0�1 1�1

Geothermal (Buildings and Industry) Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�0

Bioenergy (traditional) – Buildings Mtoe 8�3 3�6 3�6

Bioenergy (modern) – Buildings Mtoe 0�0 0�1 1�8

Bioenergy – Industry Mtoe 5�8 12�1 12�4

Non-renewable – Buildings Mtoe 2�6 8�1 5�4

Non-renewable – Industry Mtoe 13�3 19�9 18�4

Non-renewable – BF/CO Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�0

Trans-

port

Total fuel consumption Mtoe 28.6 30.0 29.8

Liquid biofuels Mtoe

1�8 2�6 2�6

Biomethane Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�0

Non-renewable fuels Mtoe 26�8 27�4 27�1

Total final energy consumption (electricity, DH, direct uses) Mtoe 75.8 95.8 94.3

Total primary energy supply Mtoe 136.8 147.4 147.2

RE shares

RE share in electricity generation 13% 18% 23%

RE share in Buildings – final energy use, direct uses (modern) 0% 2% 24%

RE share in Industry – final energy use, direct uses 30% 38% 42%

RE share in Transport fuels 6% 9% 9%

Share of modern RE in TFEC 12% 19% 25%



Share of modern RE in TPES 11% 18% 24%

Financial

indicators

System costs (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A

-0�9

RE investment needs (USD bln/yr annually (2015-2025))

N/A

1�9 3�2

Investment support for renewables (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A

0�2

Reduced externalities – outdoor air pollution (avg�) (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A 1�1

Reduced externalities – CO

2

(USD 50/tonne CO2) (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A

1�7

CO

2

emissions from energy (Mt/yr)

230 306 276

ANNEX A: COUNTRY OVERVIEW TABLES

A

95

VIETNAM

Unit

2014 Reference Case 2025 REmap 2025

Energy production and capacity

Power sector

Total installed power generation capacity GW 29.5 69.8 77.2

Renewable capacity GW

15�2 27�6 38�5

Hydropower (excl� pumped hydro) GW 15�1 22�1 23�7

Wind GW 0�05 3�5 5�7

Biofuels (solid, liquid, gaseous) GW 0�1 0�4 1�0

Solar PV GW 0�0 1�6 8�1

CSP GW 0�0 0�0 0�0

Geothermal GW 0�0 0�0 0�0

Marine, other GW 0�0 0�0 0�0

Non-renewable capacity GW 14�3 42�2 38�7

Total electricity generation TWh 134.4 341.4 348.0

Renewable generation TWh

60�0 93�3 121�3

Hydropower TWh 59�9 82�4 89�0

Wind TWh 0�1 7�4 14�6

Biofuels (solid, liquid, gaseous) TWh 0�1 1�2 5�3

Solar PV TWh 0�0 2�3 12�4

CSP TWh 0�0 0�0 0�0

Geothermal TWh 0�0 0�0 0�0

Marine, other TWh 0�0 0�0 0�0

Non-renewable generation TWh 74�4 248�2 226�7

Final energy use – direct uses

Buildings and Industry

Total direct uses of energy Mtoe 31.4 49.9 44.9

Direct uses of renewable energy Mtoe

11�3 13�5 11�9

Solar thermal – Buildings Mtoe 0�0 0�0 1�0

Solar thermal – Industry Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�9

Geothermal (Buildings and Industry) Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�0

Bioenergy (traditional) – Buildings Mtoe 9�2 11�0 4�0

Bioenergy (modern) – Buildings Mtoe 0�0 0�0 2�5

Bioenergy – Industry Mtoe 2�1 2�5 3�5

Non-renewable – Buildings Mtoe 4�3 8�0 6�6

Non-renewable – Industry Mtoe 15�7 28�4 26�4

Non-renewable – BF/CO Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�0

Trans-

port

Total fuel consumption Mtoe 15.3 29.3 27.3

Liquid biofuels Mtoe

0�0 0�1 0�4

Biomethane Mtoe 0�0 0�0 0�0

Non-renewable fuels Mtoe 15�3 29�2 26�9

Total final energy consumption (electricity, DH, direct uses) Mtoe 56.8 106.6 100.1

Total primary energy supply Mtoe 72.1 154.4 147.1

RE shares

RE share in electricity generation 45% 27% 35%

RE share in Buildings – final energy use, direct uses (modern) 0% 0% 25%

RE share in Industry – final energy use, direct uses 12% 8% 14%

RE share in Transport fuels 0% 0% 1%

Share of modern RE in TFEC 12% 9% 18%



Share of modern RE in TPES 10% 7% 15%

Financial

indicators

System costs (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A

1�0

RE investment needs (USD bln/yr annually (2015-2025))

N/A

2�2 4�5

Investment support for renewables (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A

1�1

Reduced externalities – outdoor air pollution (avg�) (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A 2�6

Reduced externalities – CO2 (USD 50/tonne CO2) (USD bln/yr in 2025)

N/A N/A

2�6

CO2 emissions from energy (Mt/yr)

177 430 386

96

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

WORKSHOP PROCEEDINGS

IRENA and ACE, with financial support from GIZ, conducted two in-depth technical workshops with ASEAN Member States� The detailed workshop

proceedings are available for viewing at the following links:

1

st

workshop, 14 March 2016, Manila, Philippines: http://www.irena.org/remap/Renewable_Energy_Outlook_for_ASEAN.aspx

2

nd

workshop, 22-24 June 2016, Bangkok, Thailand: http://www.irena.org/remap/ASEAN.aspx

97

DATA SOURCES FOR COUNTRIES

2014 2030 Reference Case REmap

Baseyear Power sector End-use sectors REmap Options

Brunei

Darussalam

Country supplied via REmap

questionnaire

Country supplied via REmap questionnaire IRENA and country assessment;

workshops (see Annex B) and

webinars; assessments including ACE

(2015); IRENA (2014b, 2014d, 2016a,

2016d), OECD (2014)

Cambodia Country supplied via REmap

questionnaire, and (IEA,

2015)

APS from ACE (2015)

Indonesia Country statistics MEMR (2016) Dewan Energi

Nasional, (2014)

Lao PDR Country supplied via REmap

questionnaire

Country supplied via REmap questionnaire

Malaysia Country supplied via REmap

questionnaire

Country supplied via REmap questionnaire

Myanmar Country supplied via REmap

questionnaire

Country supplied via REmap questionnaire

Philippines Country supplied via REmap

questionnaire

Country supplied via REmap questionnaire

Singapore ACE (2015), with country

statistics; and (IEA, 2015)

APS from ACE (2015)

Thailand Country supplied via REmap

questionnaire

Country supplied via REmap questionnaire

Vietnam Country supplied via REmap

questionnaire, and ACE

(2015)

APS from ACE (2015)

ANNEX C: DATA SOURCES FOR COUNTRIES

C

98

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

ASEAN COMMODITY PRICE AND

TECHNOLOGY COST ASSUMPTIONS

Commodity prices Unit

Business Perspective Government Perspective

2014 2025 2014 2025

Low High Low High Low High Low High

Steam coal

USD/GJ

2�0 4�3

2�6 4�3

2�0 4�8

3�2 6�0

Electricity household

USD/kWh

0�05 0�23

0�05 0�24

0�05 0�23

0�05 0�24

Electricity industry

USD/kWh

0�06 0�17

0�07 0�18

0�06 0�18

0�07 0�18

Natural gas household

USD/GJ

7�0 13�2

10�9 21�1

7�0 11�0

10�9 17�6

Natural gas industry

USD/GJ

4�6 11�6

6�3 18�5

5�1 9�6

6�9 18�5

Petroleum products for heating / electricity

USD/GJ

15�0 37�3

17�5 39�1

12�8 33�6

15�0 37�3

Gasoline for transport

USD/GJ

12�2 49�4

15�6 51�8

16�1 27�1

18�9 34�2

Diesel for transport

USD/GJ

6�3 34�1

8�0 35�8

16�0 24�4

18�7 28�6

Conventional liquid biofuels for transport

USD/GJ

24�8 39�5

21�7 36�1

20�1 33�1

Advanced liquid biofuels for transport

USD/GJ

43�5 82�7

29�8 56�9

32�2 38�2

25�6 34�8

Biomethane

USD/GJ

22�8 44�4

20�0 25�0

20�0 30�5

Primary bioenergy

USD/GJ

10�8 18�7

10�0 22�4

10�8 18�7

10�0 22�4

Bioenergy residues

USD/GJ

2�5 4�7

2�1 4�9

2�5 4�7

2�1 4�9

Waste

USD/GJ

1�1 1�2

1�1 1�2 1�1 1�2

Discount rate

%/year

5�0 15�0

8�0 10�0 8�0 10�0

Business Perspective: commodity prices reflect business prices, so including taxes and subsidies.

Government Perspective: commodity prices reflect government prices, so excluding taxes and subsidies.

For more information see Annex E

99

Renewable Energy Technologies

Cost and Performance

Capacity Factor Lifetime Overnight capital cost O&M costs Conversion efficiency

INDUSTRY SECTOR (%) (years) (USD/kW) (USD/kW/yr) (%)

Solar thermal 12-20 25 300 5 100

Geothermal, direct-use ~55 42 1500 38 100

Biomass boilers 70-85 25 580 15 88

Biogas heat 70-80 25 200 5 85

BUILDINGS SECTOR (%) (years) (USD/kW) (USD/kW/yr) (%)

Water heating: Biomass 20-30 15 600 15 80

Water heating: Solar (thermosiphon) 10-20 20 150 4 100

Cooking biogas (from anaerobic digesters) 10-15 25 40 1 48

Cooking biomass (solid) 10-15 20 15

0�4 30

TRANSPORT SECTOR (%) (years) (USD / vehicle) (USD / vehicle / yr)

(MJ/passenger or

freight-km)

First generation bioethanol (passenger road vehicles) N/A 12 28000 2800

1�64

Second generation bioethanol (passenger road vehicles) N/A 12 28000 2800 1�64

Biodiesel (passenger road vehicles) N/A 12 30000 3000 1�54

Biodiesel (freight/public road vehicles) N/A 20

100000-

120000

6000-

8000

0�52-1�15

Biomethane (freight/public road vehicles) N/A 20 150000 15000 1�35

Plug-in hybrid (passenger road vehicles) N/A 12 30000 3000 0�98

Battery electric (passenger road vehicles) N/A 12 32000 2880 0�69

Battery electric (light freight/public road vehicles) N/A 15

100000-

135000

5000-

7000

0�16-1�1

Battery electric (two- and three wheeler) N/A 8 4000 400 0�07

POWER SECTOR (%) (years) (USD/kW) (USD/kW/yr) (%)

Hydro (small) 40-60 40 2500 50 100

Wind onshore 20-36 30 1500 60 100

Wind offshore 30-35 30 2870 158 100

Solar PV 15-21 30 1000-1400 10-20 100

Solar CSP (part-time storage) 30 35 4000 120 33

Biomass 70 25 2750 69 38

Landfill gas 70 25 1800 45 32

Geothermal 60-80 50 2500 100 10

Tide, wave, ocean 50 25 3500 35 100

ANNEX D: ASEAN COMMODITY PRICE AND TECHNOLOGY COST ASSUMPTIONS

D

100

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

Conventional Energy Technologies Capacity Factor Lifetime Overnight capital cost O&M costs Conversion efficiency

INDUSTRY SECTOR (%) (years) (USD/kW) (USD/kW/yr) (%)

Coal (steam boiler) 70-85 25 300

7�5 90

Petroleum products (steam boiler) 85 25 200

5�0 85

Natural gas (steam boiler) 85 25 100

2�5 95

BUILDINGS SECTOR (%) (years) (USD/kW) (USD/kW/yr) (%)

Water heating: petroleum products (boiler) 10-20 15 175

6�1 85

Water heating: coal (boiler) 10-20 15 162

5�7 90

Water heating: natural gas (boiler) 10-20 15 150

5�3 95

Water heating: traditional biomass 20-30 15 100

2�5 50

Water heating: electricity 20-30 10 150

3�8 85

Cooking LPG/kerosene 10-15 20 10

0�3 50

Cooking traditional biomass 10-20 3 10

0�3 10

TRANSPORT SECTOR (%) (years) (USD / vehicle) (USD / vehicle / yr)

(MJ/passenger or

freight-km)

Petroleum products (passenger road vehicles) N/A 12 28000 2800

1�6

Petroleum products (freight road vehicles) N/A 15 120000 12000 1�16

Petroleum products (public road vehicles) N/A 20 1000000 10000 0�52

Petroleum products (two- and three-wheelers) N/A 8 4000 400 1�75

POWER SECTOR (%) (years) (USD/kW) (USD/kW/yr) (%)

Coal 70-80 60 1300 52 30

Natural gas 50-60 30 1000 40 55

Oil 20-30 50 1200 18 40

Nuclear (non-OECD) 80-85 60 5500 138 33

Diesel (Gen-set) 40 20 1500 38 42

The technology and performance assumptions presented in this table represent regional values for the year 2025. For individual ASEAN country analyses,

technology cost and performance was localised. Generally this involved updating the capacity factor, overnight capital and O&M costs, and conversion efficiency

based on country information and projections.

101

REMAP METHODOLOGY, METRICS AND

TERMINOLOGY DESCRIPTIONS

METRICS FOR ASSESSING OPTIONS

In order to assess the costs of REmap Options, substitution costs are calculated� This report also discusses the costs and savings from renewable

energy deployment and the consideration of related externalities from climate change and air pollution� Four main indicators have been developed,

namely substitution costs, system costs, total investment needs and needs for renewable energy investment support�

SUBSTITUTION COST

Each renewable and non-renewable technology has its own individual cost relative to the non-renewable energy it substitutes� This is explained in

detail in the methodology of REmap (IRENA, 2014a) and is represented in the equation:

For each REmap Option, the analysis considers the costs to substitute a non-renewable energy technology to deliver the same amount of heat,

electricity or energy service� The cost of each REmap Option is represented by its substitution cost

6

7

:

6 Substitution cost is the dierence between the annualised cost of the REmap Option and the annualised cost of the substituted non-renewable technology, used to

produce the same amount of energy� This is divided by the total renewable energy use substituted by the Remap Option�

7 1 GJ = 0�0238 tonnes of oil equivalent (toe) = 0�238 gigacalories = 278 kilowatt-hours (kWh)�

Cost of

Technology/

REmap

Options

USD/year

in 2030

Equivalent

annual

capital

expenditure

USD/year

in 2030

Operating

expenditure

USD/year

in 2030

Fuel

cost

USD/year

in 2030

= + +

ANNEX E: REMAP METHODOLOGY, METRICS AND TERMINOLOGY DESCRIPTIONS

E

102

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

This indicator provides a comparable metric for all renewable energy technologies identified in each sector� Substitution costs are the key

indicators for assessing the economic viability of REmap Options� They depend on the type of conventional technology substituted, energy prices

and the characteristics of the REmap Option� The cost can be positive (additional) or negative (savings)� This is because many renewable energy

technologies are, or by 2025 could be, cost-effective compared to conventional technologies�

SYSTEM COSTS

Based on the substitution cost inference can be made as to the effect on system costs� This indicator is the sum of the differences between the total

capital and operating expenditures of all energy technologies based on their deployment in REmap and the Reference Case in 2025�

Substitution

cost

USD/GJ

in 2030

=

Cost of REmap

Options

USD/year

in 2030

Cost of

substituted

conventional

technology

USD/year in 2030

Energy substituted by REmap Options

GJ/year in 2030

–

System

costs

USD/year

in 2030

=

Substitution

cost: government

perspective

All technologies

USD/GJ in 2030

REmap

Options

All

technologies

GJ/year

in 2030

x

103

INVESTMENT NEEDS

Investment needs for renewable energy capacity can also be assessed� The total investment needs of technologies in REmap are higher than in

the Reference Case due to the increased share of renewables which, on average, have higher investment needs than the non-renewable energy

technology equivalent� The capital investment cost (in USD/kW of installed capacity) in each year is multiplied with the deployment in that year

to arrive at total annual investment costs� The capital investment costs of each year are then summed over the period 2015-2025� Net incremental

investment needs are the sum of the differences between the total investment costs for all technologies, renewable and non-renewable energy, in

power generation and stationary applications in REmap and the Reference Case in the period 2015-2025 for each year� This total was then turned

into an annual average for the period�

Investment

support

for RE

USD/year

in 2030

=

Substitution

cost:

government

perspective

Technologies

with positive

substitution cost

USD/GJ in 2030

REmap

Options

Technologies

with positive

substitution cost

GJ/year in 2030

x

Average

investment

needs

USD/year

2016–2030

=

Renewable

capacity

installed

Total GW

2016–2030

Average

capital

expenditure

USD/GW

2016–2030

15

Number of years 2016–2030

x

RENEWABLE INVESTMENT SUPPORT

Renewable investment support needs can also be approximated based on the REmap tool� Total requirements for renewable investment support

in all sectors are estimated as the difference in the delivered energy service cost (e.g., in USD/kWh or USD/GJ based on a government perspective)

for the renewable option against the dominant incumbent in 2030� This difference is multiplied by the deployment for that option in that year to

arrive at an investment support total for that technology� The differences for all REmap Options are summed to provide an annual investment

ANNEX E: REMAP METHODOLOGY, METRICS AND TERMINOLOGY DESCRIPTIONS

E

104

RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

support requirement for renewables� It is important to note that where the renewable option has a lower delivered energy service cost than the

incumbent option, which begins to occur increasingly by 2025, it is not subtracted from the total�

GOVERNMENT AND BUSINESS PERSPECTIVES

Based on the substitution cost and the potential of each REmap Option, costs can be assessed from two perspectives: government and business:

● Government perspective: cost estimates exclude energy taxes and subsidies, and in the latest global REmap study (IRENA,

2016a), a standard 10% (for non-OECD) or 7�5% (for OECD) discount rate was used� This approach allows for a comparison across

countries and for a country cost-beneﬁt analysis; it shows the cost of the transition as governments would calculate it�

● Business perspective: it considers national prices (including, for example, energy taxes, subsidies and the cost of capital)

in order to generate a localised cost curve� This approach shows the cost of the transition as businesses or investors would

calculate it� In the case of ASEAN Member States the range is between 5% and 15% depending on the country�

In this report only the government perspective is presented� By estimating the costs from two perspectives, the analysis shows the effects of

accounting for energy taxes and subsidies whereas all other parameters are kept the same� The assessment of all additional costs related to

complementary infrastructure are excluded from this report (e.g�, grid reinforcements, fuel stations, etc�)�

EXTERNALITY ANALYSIS

The externality reductions that would be obtained with the implementation of REmap Options that are considered include health effects arising

from outdoor exposure, health effects arising from indoor exposure in the case of traditional use of bioenergy, and effects on agricultural yields�

Additionally, the external costs associated with social economic impacts of carbon dioxide (CO2) are estimated (IRENA, 2016f)�

Further documentation and a detailed description of the REmap methodology can be found at www�irena�org/remap� Further details on metrics

for assessing Options can be consulted in Appendix of the global report 2016 edition (IRENA, 2016b)�

CASE AND TERMINOLOGY OVERVIEW

This report uses terminology to describe the two main energy pathways that countries could pursue to 2025, and the gap between the two� In this

report these are referred to as:

105

The Reference Case – The case based on planned policies and expected market developments for the energy sector� In this study the Reference

Case is based on plans submitted by ASEAN Member States, or taken from the APS scenario of the ASEAN AEO4� The Reference Case does not

necessarily reflect business as usual, rather already some accelerated commitments of countries as of 2015�

The REmap Options – the technologies necessary to close the gap between the developments in the Reference Case renewable energy share and

the ASEAN regional target of achieving 23% renewable energy share in primary energy supply by 2025� The REmap Options are also often referred

to as “the gap” in this report�

REmap – The case in which the REmap Options are assumed to be fully deployed in addition to developments occuring in the Reference Case� The

REmap case is in line with the 23% renewable share goal set by ASEAN

UNITS

Finally, energy supply and demand numbers in this report are generally provided in kiloton oil equivalent (ktoe), megaton oil equivalent (Mtoe),

megawatt-hour (MWh), gigajoule (GJ), petajoule (PJ) or exajoule (EJ)� In ASEAN, commonly used units are tonnes of oil equivalent (toe)� Below

the relevant conversion factors to convert between units:

● 1 GJ = 0�0238 tonnes of oil equivalent (toe)

● 1 GJ = 277�78 kilowatt-hour (kWh)

● 1 PJ = 0�0238 million tonnes of oil equivalent (Mtoe)

● 1 PJ = 277�78 gigawatt-hour (GWh)

● 1 EJ = 23�88 million tonnes of oil equivalent (Mtoe)

● 1 EJ = 277�78 terawatt-hour (TWh)

ANNEX E: REMAP METHODOLOGY, METRICS AND TERMINOLOGY DESCRIPTIONS

E

PHOTO CREDITS

Chanwit Whanset

artjazz

Antlio

Tom Wang

ArtisticPhoto

Man of the Mountain

(Background) Franny Constantina

(Circle 2) View Apart

SUWIT NGAOKAEW

Sukpaiboonwat

r.nagy

Michael Wick

Volodymyr Goinyk

wattana

f11photo

Bule Sky Studio

ASEAN Centre for Energy

One Community for Sustainable Energy

OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN

IRENA HEADQUARTERS

IRENA Headquarters

Masdar City

PO Box 236, Abu Dhabi

United Arab Emirates

IRENA INNOVATION AND

TECHNOLOGY CENTRE

Robert-Schuman-Platz 3

53175 Bonn

Germany

www.irena.org

ASEAN CENTRE FOR ENERGY

ACE Building, 6th Floor

Directorate General for Electricity Complex

HR. Rasuna Said Blok X-2, Kav. 07-08

Kuningan, Jakarta-12950

Indonesia

www.aseanenergy.org

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One Community for Sustainable Energy

A Renewable Energy Roadmap

OUTLOOK FOR ASEAN 2016 EDITION

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One Community for Sustainable Energy