The Japan Foundation Traveling Exhibition
I Love Sushi
2
Established in 1972, the Japan Foundation creates global opportunities to cultivate friendship and ties between Japan
and the world through culture, language, and dialogue. The Foundation operates programs in the fields of arts and
cultural exchange, Japanese-language education overseas, and Japanese studies and intellectual exchange. As a new
cultural exchange program, we are delighted to present a touring exhibition “I Love Sushi” that focuses on sushi, the
most popular Japanese cuisine around the world.
In 2013, UNESCO inscribed washoku—Japanese cuisine—on its Intangible Cultural Heritage list, and sushi is the
archetypal example. Sushi is a refined and healthy food that looks good and tastes good, and it has already become a
familiar item on menus worldwide. From its roots in Southeast Asia or Southern China, sushi reached Japan over a
thousand years ago. Since then, sushi has radically changed, taking advantage of the abundance of natural resources
found in and around the islands of Japan, of the application of knowledge and ideas to sushi, and of the never-ending
Japanese drive to try good-tasting foods at the earliest opportunity. The type of sushi that first comes to mind for most
people today is nigiri-zushi, which emerged about two hundred years ago in Edo, the city that we now know as Tokyo.
Sushi has now spread outside Japan’s borders, and is enjoyed around the world. But although it has become a
familiar food, many people have only discovered a few of its attractions. This exhibition aims to provide an in-depth
visual guide to the appeal of sushi. It includes the chance to learn about how Japan took in sushi in its original form,
how it modified sushi to suit the natural environment, culture, and lifestyles of individual areas. It also introduces
today’s vibrant sushi culture, and it encourages us to think about the potential of sushi as a food for the future in the
light of contemporary food issues. The exhibition includes a simulation of a visit to a sushi shop in Japan. People who
know little about sushi will greatly enjoy the exhibition, and keen fans of sushi will find it fascinating too. And we very
much hope that through sushi, the exhibition will also communicate something about the history and customs of Japan.
Finally, we would like to express our gratitude to Hibino Terutoshi for his supervision of the preparations for this
exhibition, and to all the other individuals and entities whose unstinting efforts have made the exhibition a success.
The Japan Foundation
Foreword
3
4
Thanks to the confluence of cold and warm currents, the coastal waters of the
Japanese archipelago teem with fish and other marine life that have long sustained and
enriched the diet of the Japanese people. There was little or no custom of eating meat,
and until Western cuisine took root, fish were the main source of dietary protein.
Sushi, particularly nigiri-zushi, is a marriage of this key food resource with rice, the
mainstay of the Japanese diet. A third element, vinegar, served as the matchmaker.
Given the minimal preparation it entails, nigiri-zushi is arguably the ultimate fast
food, and it now has legions of fans throughout the world.
Over the past fifty years, the Japan Foundation has staged a great many exhibitions
introducing the arts and culture of Japan to overseas audiences. In addition to fine arts
and handicrafts, these exhibitions have covered such fields as architecture, design,
archaeological artifacts, photography, manga, illustration, and Japanese dolls, but
the Foundation has rarely if ever put on an exhibition focused squarely on food.
Such neglect despite the keen interest in Japanese cuisine (washoku) worldwide
was no doubt due to a feeling that no amount of visual improvisation could properly
communicate the taste. We tended to think that trying some genuine Japanese dishes
would convey the culinary experience far more effectively. However, the fact is that
in Japan, people go out of their way to make food visually attractive, so much so that
they are often said to “eat with their eyes,” and we came to realize that the care and
sensibilities shown in arranging and presenting Japanese cuisine made it more than an
ideal subject for an exhibition.
The world of washoku is, however, so vast that doing justice to its extraordinary
diversity in a compact traveling exhibition would be almost impossible. It was for this
reason that we decided to focus on sushi as an exemplary genre of Japanese cuisine,
Introduction
Ito Masanobu
Executive Program Director, The Japan Foundation
5
and we have done our best to present at least some of the allure of sushi in this exhibition. One thing I would like
to say up front is that while I too love sushi, we are not in the least interested in putting sushi on a pedestal as the
world’s most exquisite food. In my view, it is both pointless and impossible to rank foods in order of their appeal.
After all, for most of us, nothing can match the meals we shared with our family and friends while growing up in our
hometowns—surely the best food in the world.
Mention of the word ‘sushi’ no doubt conjures up images of nigiri-zushi in the minds of most people, but nigiri-
zushi is actually a newcomer to the genre, invented only 200 years ago. In contrast, the overall history of sushi in
Japan stretches back well over 1,000 years. As such, the sushi envisaged by so many people throughout the world is
but one variation on an original theme that was very unlike present-day nigiri-zushi. Moreover, even though sushi is
the best-known example of Japanese cuisine, Japan is not its birthplace. It is thought to have originated in Southeast
Asia or Southern China, and to have been introduced to Japan in the eighth century at the latest. At that time, sushi
was a food preserved through fermentation. At first, people only ate the fish, discarding the rice, but in time, they
came to eat the rice as well. The fermentation period gradually shortened, and once vinegar came to be added, various
types of sushi emerged. Nigiri-zushi appeared in the nineteenth century, starting out as an inexpensive fast food
prepared in advance for selling at street stalls.
After arriving in Japan, sushi underwent various changes during the centuries of exposure to the country’s culture,
nature, and way of life before it finally assumed the novel form of nigiri-zushi. This evolution is reminiscent of
the way Japan has since ancient times subsumed so many foreign elements—rice cultivation, Chinese characters,
Buddhism, various arts—into its traditional culture. Interestingly, sushi owes its evolution not to the nobility or
samurai class, but rather to the common people, who were always looking for ways of creating tasty dishes that could
Sushi menu board
6
Nigiri-zushi (lean tuna)
be prepared as quickly and easily as possible; the knowledge and ingenuity they developed as a result was what drove
the evolution of sushi.
With sushi now almost as popular overseas as it is in Japan, we have designed this exhibition both to explore
various fascinating aspects of the genre itself, and to provide some glimpses of the history and culture of Japan that
have contributed to the evolution of sushi.
We have included an exhibit to provide visitors with a simulated experience of a sushi restaurant that both
passionate sushi fans and the merely curious will hopefully enjoy. When you take a seat, a sushi chef appears, makes
nigiri-zushi, and places it in front of you. Tuna comes first, followed by kohada, squid, and other delights, serving a
total of eight different types of sushi altogether. Each piece of sushi looks delicious, but is soon replaced by the next.
As the video continues, you may find it stimulating your appetite. I can only offer my sincere apologies to anyone
who finds this too tantalizing, but we hope it will give you some idea of the atmosphere of a typical Japanese sushi
restaurant. If it leaves your taste buds thirsting for the real thing, I recommend going on to a local sushi restaurant. I
suspect you will find the sushi even more delicious for having taken in the exhibition. And if there
are no sushi restaurants in your neighborhood, I hope you will be able to visit Japan in the near
future to give sushi a try.
7
8
I: Introducing Sushi
Worldwide, sushi is probably the best known example of washoku (traditional Japanese cuisine). But how many
people know that sushi did not originate in Japan? Two thousand years ago, China already had a character for writing
sushi, and some scholars suggest that sushi came from even further away, in Southeast Asia. Nobody knows for
certain when or how sushi came to Japan, but the Chinese writing system was transmitted to Japan, and even the
oldest documents, written in the eighth century, include the word for sushi. At the very least, we can say that sushi
was already in Japan by the eighth century.
The sushi in those days was very different to the sushi we know today. It was made by placing salted fish in a
wooden tub or bucket with cooked rice and leaving it to mature for several months. Today’s sushi uses vinegared rice,
but not a drop of vinegar was added when making this early sushi. Nevertheless, it developed a sour flavor as a result
of the rice fermenting. In Japan, fermented sushi is now called nare-zushi (the “zushi” in compound words like nare-
zushi means the same as “sushi”), and this sort of fully-fermented sushi is referred to as hon-nare—the form of sushi
that crossed the seas to Japan well over a millennium ago. Interestingly, although sushi probably reached Japan via
China, and there are records of it being produced in China in substantial quantities, it is no longer to be found there.
For examples of sushi like the food that first came to Japan, we have to look to continental Southeast Asian, where it
is still produced in areas such as the Mekong and Irrawaddy
river basins.
Compared with the sushi produced in those areas, Japan’s
sushi uses a lot more rice. But surprisingly, the steamed rice
used in large amounts in Japan’s early sushi was not eaten.
In those days, sushi was seen as a way of preparing fish, and
the fish was what counted. The rice was a tool, used only to
enhance the flavor of the fish. About seven centuries ago,
however, Japan’s mottainai philosophy—the cultural abhorrence
of waste—came into play.
Introducing Sushi
Hibino Terutoshi
Authority on local sushi traditions
I: Introducing Sushi
Ayu-zushi
(nama-nare)
9
M
o
d
i
f
i
e
d
n
a
m
a
-
n
a
r
e
I
z
u
s
h
i
H
a
k
o
-
z
u
s
h
i
O
s
h
i
n
u
k
i
-
z
u
s
h
i
S
u
g
a
t
a
-
z
u
s
h
i
B
o
-
z
u
s
h
i
N
i
g
i
r
i
-
z
u
s
h
i
Traditional
nama-nare
Kirimi-
zuke
haya-zushi
Sugata-
zuke haya-
zushi
Mixed
with
Koji
Mixed
with
Vinegar
Mixed
with
Sake
Mixed
with
Sake Lees
H
o
n
-
n
a
r
e
C
h
i
r
a
s
h
i
-
z
u
s
h
i
I
n
a
r
i
-
z
u
s
h
i
M
a
k
i
-
z
u
s
h
i
Sushi Family Tree in Japan
10
I: Introducing Sushi
Until that point, sushi had been a cuisine for the upper classes. In preparing it, the use of rice had been permitted
as a tool for imparting sourness to the fish. But, when sushi reached the general public, people felt that it didn’t
make sense to throw away so much rice. To enable the rice to be eaten along with the fish, a new nama-nare (lightly
fermented) sushi developed, contrasting with the fully-matured hon-nare.
Making nama-nare substantially reduced the time for preparing sushi, but it didn’t overcome the universal
human desire for food to be ready faster. Nevertheless, the desirable sourness would not develop without a
fermentation period. Nama-nare used only fish, rice, and salt, but people experimented by adding other ingredients.
One such ingredient was koji, a malt-like starter used to accelerate the fermentation, so that the sourness developed
more quickly. This resulted in izushi fermented sushi, which is still available today. Other people experimented with
adding sake (rice wine). But people soon noticed that when left alone, the sake soured, turning into vinegar. Before
long, people were mixing vinegar directly into the sushi. That was 500–600
years ago.
At first, the vinegar was added to shorten the fermentation period, but over
time, the proportion of vinegar was increased. Only the traditional types of
sushi that had been fermented—hon-nare and nama-nare—were considered
to be the real thing, and recipe books at the time described sushi made with
vinegar or other ingredients as sushi-modoki (mock sushi). Eventually, though,
sushi made by seasoning the rice with vinegar became the mainstream, and a
prominent doctor publishing a book in about 1800 wrote “the fermented types
of sushi may be the real thing, but I’ve never seen them.”
That was a time when the number of types of sushi was growing. Sushi
had only referred to fish stuffed with sushi rice, or slices of larger fish with
sushi rice placed underneath them, but variations emerged, including bo-zushi,
where fish with its head and tail trimmed off is pressed onto rice to make
Bara-zushi
11
sticks of sushi that can be sliced, maki-zushi, where the fish and rice are rolled up together, inari-zushi, where sushi
rice is served in a deep-fried tofu pouch, and chirashi-zushi, where the fish is scattered on top of the rice instead of
being pressed into a specific shape. Eventually, nigiri-zushi emerged in about 1830. It was invented by a merchant
in a downtown neighborhood of Edo, present-day Tokyo, who produced a form of sushi that was visually similar to
what most people today envisage when they think of sushi. This early nigiri-zushi differed from today’s equivalent in
that each individual piece was very cheap. The pieces were perhaps about three times the size, too, and the fish was
robustly-flavored, typically using boiled, grilled, or vinegared fish.
This nigiri-zushi was a dish that anyone could afford. It rapidly gained popularity in Edo, and eventually became
popular nationwide. But in about 1850, soon after the appearance of nigiri-zushi, the price of sushi began to rise.
Expensive sushi restaurants appeared, selling sushi at prices that were well out of the range of ordinary people.
Surprisingly, instead of reacting against those high-end establishments, the masses held them in great esteem.
The size of pieces of sushi settled on the current standard in the years following World War II. That was also when
electric refrigerators became readily available, making it easier for sushi restaurants to use fresh fish for their sushi. In
the 1960s, Japan’s economy grew rapidly, and business flourished. Nigiri-zushi went increasingly up-market, reborn
as a luxury item. Today, however, nigiri-zushi is available to suit all budgets, ranging from superb gourmet nigiri-
zushi down to very inexpensive options. In contrast to nigiri-zushi, however, the various types of sushi that people
used to make at home are at risk of dying out.
12
Sushi and Tuna
Many Japanese would say that tuna is the
king of nigiri-zushi. Surprisingly, tuna—
known in Japan as maguro—arrived late
on the scene, and did not come into
significant use for sushi until the nineteenth
century. Tuna had been shunned because
of its greasiness, and it was a cheap ingredient. However,
when it was used for nigiri-zushi, the situation changed
and it became more popular. Edo people enjoyed its lean
red meat, and often pickled it in soy sauce to preserve its
freshness, calling the pickled tuna zuke. The fatty part of the
tuna—called toro—was avoided because it spoiled easily, so
it was often boiled or discarded. Today’s generation would
find that incredibly wasteful. People only began eating toro
raw after refrigeration technology improved in the 1960s.
After that, demand for toro and fresh tuna soon soared, and
it became an indispensable part of sushi. Pacific bluefin
tuna (kuromaguro or
honmaguro) gained
a reputation for high
quality, and it is seen
as the top fish for
nigiri-zushi. Nakahara
Ippo, writing about a
sushi shop that serves Edo-mae nigiri-zushi, said that “of all
the different types of nigiri-zushi, tuna is the only one that
really hits the spot.” That is a sentiment that a large number
of people would agree with.
Japan is the world’s largest consumer, but people
of other countries also enjoy tuna. The current boom in
demand for sushi and other types of Japanese cuisine
is raising global consumption of this fish, so we face the
challenge of how to establish appropriate measures and
management systems that will enable us to restore and
preserve resources, and will ensure that they can be used
sustainably. Today, about 70 percent of Japan’s pacific
bluefin tuna production consists of farmed fish, and the
trend for full life cycle aquaculture is growing.
Pacic bluen tuna
KAIYODO Co., Ltd
13
14
II: Sushi in the Edo Period
Sushi in the Edo Period
Hibino Terutoshi
Authority on local sushi traditions
II: Sushi in the Edo Period
Japan’s society became much more egalitarian after World War II, with a relatively equitable distribution of incomes
and wealth, but historically, it had strict class divisions. The Edo Period—beginning when the capital moved to
present-day Tokyo—was no exception, but it was also the period when sushi underwent major transformations. The
biggest change was that the fermentation process disappeared, along with the long period required for the sushi to
mature, as people adopted vinegar to provide the sour flavor once produced by fermentation.
At the beginning of the Edo Period at the start of the 1600s, sushi was still a fermented dish, produced by
traditional methods. The fermentation process required at least a month, and often several months. In a period when
goods were transported slowly on foot, or sometimes on pack-horses, sushi became an ideal product for feudal lords
to present to the shogunate in Edo as part of their annual tributes (effectively tax payments). The long transportation
period could be used for the fermentation process. In about 1620, the tributes required from each feudal clan were
systematized, including the presentation of many different sorts of sushi to the shogun’s household.
A colored picture scroll depicting the production of ayu-zushi for use as tributes by the Owari clan (based in
present-day Aichi Prefecture) depicts each of the processes involved, from catching the ayu (sweetfish) to loading
the sushi onto a horse for shipment to Edo (See the illustrations in the opposite page). The workplace where the
steamed rice is stuffed into the fish is demarcated by a shimenawa, a twisted rope used to mark the location as sacred.
The scroll shows an official watching over the various processes, and it is clear
that a great deal of effort was put into ensuring the quality of the ayu-zushi.
During the trip to Edo, designated officials took charge of the sushi at
each station on the way, ensuring that it passed through without
incident.
Utagawa Hiroshige
Nihonbashi Bridge, from
Famous Places in Edo (detail)
15
Artist unknown, Handscroll of Nagara River Ayu Sushi
Once the system for tributes had been established, it became difficult to make changes. With ayu-zushi, the
specific date by which the tribute had to be presented was fixed. That date had to be adhered to, and issues such as
being unable to catch the fish were not allowed to disrupt the schedule. The shogun had to have ayu-zushi on his table
on a particular day, so the officials charged with managing the items for the menu made their preparations months in
advance. Excuses were out of the question. Official records of exactly what the shogun had for his lunch on which
day of which year still exist today.
1. Fishing with cormorants to catch the ayu (sweetfish)
5. Arranging the sushi in wooden tubs and
covering with bamboo grass
2. Salting the fish
6. Closing the tubs and securing
with bamboo
3. Cooling the steamed rice with a fan,
then watering it
7. Loading onto a horse ready to go to Edo 4. Stuffing the fish with the rice.
Workers wear masks.
16
II: Sushi in the Edo Period
As you can imagine, the rigor and stress of that system mean that
for most food items requested, the officials would be likely to ask for
the same as the previous year. Sushi was no exception, and even if the
local producers were to ask how the shogun would like his sushi this
year, the official would be sure to reply “the same as last year.” That
went on year after year. All the way to the end of the Edo Period in
the 1860s, the sushi presented was produced in exactly the same as
that produced at the start, over two centuries earlier. And of course,
the old-fashioned sushi was the only sushi that the shogun and the
daimyos knew.
That didn’t apply to the common people. They had no restrictions
about what they could eat or when they could eat it. And there was no
one to get angry if they simplified things or took shortcuts. From the
1600s to the 1800s, the sushi that they ate underwent a bewildering
transformation, changing from nama-nare fermented sushi to nigiri-
zushi. That transformation is an excellent example of how people kept
simplifying things and taking short cuts. The changes are described in
more detail in the Introducing Sushi section.
The exquisite nigiri-zushi culture resplendent with color, beauty,
and characteristics of the seasons did not develop to meet the taste
of the shoguns, or the taste of the daimyos, the court nobles, or the
aristocracy. It was produced by the common people.
The paintings and other art that were part of the culture of the
common people also flourished at the beginning of the 1800s. The
Utagawa Kuniyoshi
Takeout Sushi, from Women in a Benkei-checked Fabrics
1844
17
popularity of ukiyo-e came not from the themes addressed by each of the ukiyo-e artists, but from the way that their
works provided snapshots one after another of daily life. Those paintings are now valuable historical documents
because they recorded things that people didn’t usually give much thought to. The paintings of food and cuisine
fall into that category. Virtually all the sushi that appears in ukiyo-e paintings is nigiri-zushi. There are only a
few examples, but they show that like their taste in paintings, the commoners had a taste for food with colorful
combinations and bold compositions.
At about the same time, joruri puppet shows and kabuki theater became popular with mass audiences. With kabuki
in particular, in addition to enjoying the content of the plays, the audiences became fans of the actors, and both the
plays and the actors became favorite themes for ukiyo-e paintings. Yoshitsune and the Thousand Cherry Trees, written
in the mid-1700s, was one of the most popular kabuki plays, and the audience excitement is at its highest when the
popular character Gonta appears in the sushi shop scene. The owners of the shop are hiding Yasuke, who is actually
a general of the defeated Heike clan running from the Minamoto clan authorities, when their son, Gonta, appears.
He takes the severed head of Yasuke’s retainer, along with stand-ins for Yasuke’s wife and son, with the intention of
handing them over to the Minamoto clan, but things do not go to plan. To find out what happened, you need to watch
the play.
What concerns us here is that Gonta’s container for the severed head is a wooden bucket designed for fermenting
sushi. Consequently, Gonta holding a sushi bucket appears in pictures of this play (see p. 20). Notably, the bucket is
not related to nigiri-zushi, but a deep bucket of the type used for fermenting the old-fashioned nama-nare sushi. Even
though the common people of Edo no longer ate nare-zushi, they knew it well enough for the bucket to have a place
as a prop in this popular play.
18
Ryūryūkyo Shinsai
Sushi and New Year’s Sake
c. 1810
Ukiyo-e art was produced for the general populace from
the latter half of the seventeenth century to the end of
the nineteenth century. Most ukiyo-e works were mass-
produced using woodblock printing techniques and sold at
the inexpensive price of between about 500 and 1,000 yen
(approx. between $4 and $8) per print. Ukiyo-e became a
Sushi Depicted in Ukiyo-e Art
Hinohara Kenji
Chief Curator of Ōta Memorial Museum of Art
popular diversion, mainly depicting topics with general appeal,
such as lively tourist spots, beautiful women, and popular
kabuki actors.
How then was sushi depicted in ukiyo-e art? Firstly, ukiyo-e
scenes portraying lively locations and events sometimes
include stalls that sold sushi. The most famous work of this
kind is probably Takanawa 26th Night Revelers, from Famous
Places in the Eastern Capital (No.21) by Utagawa Hiroshige.
This depicts the annual event of Nijuroku Ya Machi in which
people celebrated the rising moon on the night of July 26.
It shows many sightseers gathering on the coast to view
the rising moon, as well as various stalls lined up offering
the crowd items such as fruit, grilled squid, tempura, soba
noodles, dango dumplings, and sweet shiruko porridge.
Among them is a sushi stall. Lots of nigiri-zushi is lined up on
display on the stands, and sightseers likely snacked on sushi
in place of their evening meal on this occasion. This clearly
shows that sushi was a popular fast food of the day that was
convenient for ordinary people to buy and enjoy, much like the
other street foods on offer.
Sushi also appears frequently in ukiyo-e depicting beautiful
women in everyday situations. Good examples that clearly
19
Utagawa Kuniyoshi
Sushi, from The Universe of Women
c. 1843
convey the characteristics of sushi are three works
by Utagawa Kuniyoshi—Sushi, from The Universe of
Women (Shinramanzō) (No. 23), Takeout Sushi, from
Women in Benkei-checked Fabrics (No. 24), and
Fukagawa Susaki Benten, from Seven Gods of Good
Fortune, Benten of the Eastern Capital (No. 25).
These prints reveal details from the period when they
were created, such as the sushi toppings (neta), the
way the pieces of sushi are shaped (nigirikata), and
how they are arranged on the plate (morikata).
Depictions of sushi and sushi stalls in ukiyo-e
works like these are surprisingly rare compared to the
huge number of ukiyo-e prints that were produced
overall. Furthermore, there are almost no ukiyo-e
prints that focus on the sushi itself. Sushi and New Year’s
Sake (No. 22) is an exception. This is also the case for other
popular foods besides sushi, such as soba noodles, tempura,
or eel (unagi). Ukiyo-e art depicted things that were the
object of the general populace’s yearning and fascination, so
common, everyday things like food did not attract as much
attention. Nevertheless, ukiyo-e prints are a valuable resource
for learning about sushi at a time before the invention of
photography. While it might not be much to go on, ukiyo-e
provides hints to help us imagine how sushi became a familiar
part of people’s lives.
20
Yoshitsune and the Thousand Cherry Trees
father save the
Koremori family by
using the severed
head he found in
the bucket and by
disguising his own
wife and child to
take the place of Koremori’s!
That is broadly how the story goes. What is most relevant
here is the wooden bucket used for hiding the severed
head—a deep bucket of the type used for fermenting sushi.
The ukiyo-e paintings in this exhibition featuring Yoshitsune
and the Thousand Cherry Trees all include the bucket (Nos.
34-36). Kabuki and sushi were both popular with the people
of Edo. Linking them both with ukiyo-e, the art that was also
popular with the Edo public, demonstrates the maturity of
Edo culture.
The sushi shop that was the model for Tsurube Sushi
still operates in Nara Prefecture, and is now called Yasuke.
Established 800 years ago, it is probably the oldest sushi
shop in Japan. It no longer produces the tsurube-zushi that
used to be sent as a tribute to Kyoto Sento Imperial Palace,
but its menu includes a contemporary interpretation of ayu-
zushi.
Yoshitsune and the Thousand Cherry Trees is a kabuki play
popular with audiences since the Edo Period. The third
act of the play, “The Sushi Shop,” is set at Tsurube Sushi
in Yoshino, Nara Prefecture. Koremori, a general of the
defeated Heike clan, was hiding from the Minamoto
clan at the sushi shop, disguised as a servant,
Yasuke. The sushi chef hides a recently-acquired
severed head in a wooden bucket, planning
to convince the authorities that the head
belonged to Koremori, but it disappears
from the bucket. Gonta, the chef’s
wayward son, emerges to announce
that he has beheaded Koremori,
and wants a reward for
handing over Koremori’s head,
along with Koremori’s wife
and son. His father is livid with
Gonta for his treachery, and
after the officials leave, stabs
him. The dying Gonta explains
that he had not actually
beheaded Koremori/
Yasuke. He had been
trying to help his
Toyohara Kunichica, Igami no Gonta (detail)
Utagawa Toyokuni, Osato and Gonta
21
Hanaya Yohei and Yohe Sushi
Kawabata Gyokusho, Yohei Sushi
The originator of nigiri-zushi is often said to be Hanaya Yohei
(1799–1858, also known as Koizumi Yohei), but he was
probably not the first to use the format. He may not have
been the inventor, but he was definitely the first to make it a
commercial success. It is realistic to say that it was Hanaya
Yohei who perfected nigiri-zushi.
Edo-born Yohei tried his hand at many different types of
business before starting with nigiri-zushi, which could use
fresh materials, be rapidly produced, and be sold at low
prices. He initially walked around selling his wares at times
and places where numbers of people gathered. He then set
up a sushi stall, which was a big hit. At the time, there were
many laborers in Edo, typically men whose families had
remained in their rural hometowns. Nigiri-zushi was simple
and inexpensive, providing the laborers with a satisfying
meal. Riding the wave, in 1824 Yohei opened a permanent
sushi shop, calling it Yohei Sushi. In contrast to the sushi
stalls, which provided unpretentious meals to ordinary
people, Yohei Sushi went upmarket, spurred by rivals such
as Matsugazushi. The sushi being served was sumptuous
enough to infringe Edo laws banning luxury, and Yohei was
jailed for a while. After his release, his sushi shop went from
strength to strength.
This co-existence of high-end restaurants and street
stalls can still be seen today, albeit in a slightly different
form. Today, sushi can be enjoyed not only at exclusive
restaurants, but also at the inexpensive kaiten sushi
restaurants that have inherited the vitality of Edo street
stalls.
Utagawa Hiroshige, Takanawa 26th Night Revelers, from Famous Places in the Eastern Capital (detail) 1841- 42
24
III: Sushi Today
Sushi Today
Hibino Terutoshi
Authority on local sushi traditions
III: Su shi To d ay
Today, the sushi that is most familiar in
Japan is probably nigiri-zushi served at a
kaiten sushi (conveyor belt sushi) restaurant.
In the 1920s, long after the end of the Edo
Period, high-end gourmet nigiri-zushi and
inexpensive nigiri-zushi were both still
available. Some of the least expensive sushi
shops at that time were street food vendors
and pop-up food stalls, but their numbers
steadily decreased as concerns for hygiene
and road safety led to restrictions and bans. By the time World War II came to an end, there was virtually nowhere
selling cheap sushi. This state of affairs continued until the second half of the 1960s when a new approach emerged
in Osaka. Individual nigiri-zushi servings were placed on separate plates, so that restaurant customers could chose
whichever dishes they wanted. Prices were standardized so that each plate cost the same, making it was easy to see how
much you were going to be charged. Better still, a conveyor belt carried the plates around the shop so that everyone got
to see what was on offer and had fun choosing. A branch at the Expo 70 put kaiten sushi in front of people from all over
Japan and all around the world. The idea spread, and the purchasing power of large chains pushed prices further down.
Kaiten sushi greatly changed nigiri-zushi’s image of being a high-end dish. Children were enthralled by the
procession of plates, and kaiten sushi became a popular choice when families ate out. Kaiten sushi restaurants also
added new items to their nigiri-zushi menus, and some restaurants now serve sweets and even ramen noodles as well.
But the high-end luxury sushi shops still do good business. In short, today we have returned to a situation where both
luxury sushi and inexpensive sushi are available.
The story is different for sushi made at home. Unlike sushi as a commercial product, home-made sushi is at risk
of disappearing altogether from ordinary homes. Examples that are still found in specific localities include izushi in
25
Hokkaido, hatahata-zushi in Akita Prefecture, funa-zushi in Shiga Prefecture, sanma-zushi and mehari-zushi in Mie
and Nara prefectures, and saba no sugata-zushi in Kochi Prefecture. There are still people making these dishes at
home, although their numbers are decreasing. Some of the dishes are available as commercial products, too. Their
rarity occasionally attracts media attention, helping to make them commercially viable. That’s fine as far as it goes.
A much bigger issue is faced by the local variations on sushi made independently by individuals out of the sight
of the media. Sushi dishes like that are a highly valuable part of Japan’s heritage, but the people who make them are
often completely unaware of their value. Unless someone tells them that “you’re probably the only person in Japan
who can make sushi like this,” the world will never know about that particular form of sushi. Moreover, when the
individual’s life comes to an end, that unique sushi will also disappear forever, as a precious technique that was never
recorded. And once a particular taste disappears, any attempts to bring it back are fraught with difficulties.
Japan is blessed with a rich natural environment and distinct seasons. It also has a plentiful supply of fish of many
different types, and a large variety of edible wild plants. Each of them has at some time been used in Japanese cuisine,
and the bountiful supply of fish is behind Japan’s wealth of sushi. Nigiri-zushi is wonderful, but there are other types
of sushi, too, and each of the different types has its own attractions. Everyone should explore some of the other types
of sushi, enjoy the variety of sushi that is available, and discover which sorts of sushi they are fond of.
Sushi has been part of Japanese cuisine for at least
one thousand several hundred years. During that period,
the mainstream sushi has changed from fermented
sushi such as hon-nare and nama-nare to newer forms.
Nevertheless, the emergence of new sushi varieties has
never completely replaced the older forms. That’s why
sushi comes in so many different shapes. Even today,
we can still eat sushi prepared in the same way as it was
many centuries ago.
26
III: Sushi Today
People will sometimes tell you that a particular source is the best for tuna or for other specific fish. Others will say
that to eat nigiri-zushi “you should use your fingers, not chopsticks,” or “people in the know dip the neta (the fish or
other topping) in the soy sauce, not the rice.” But the truth is that when nigiri-zushi was first invented, the fish was
flavored, so there was no soy sauce to dip it in. Tuna was not very popular. And using technical terms like neta was
the province of the sushi chefs, not the customers, as “people in the know” should be well aware. In addition, whether
to use your fingers or chopsticks depends on where you are eating—it used to be said that you should pick up your
sushi with a bare hand when seated at a counter, but with chopsticks when sitting on a tatami mat. But that was only
at times when there was a sushi chef deliberately preparing the sushi differently according to where in the restaurant
you sit. At ordinary sushi shops it makes no difference. Nevertheless, people often try to make it sound as though little
intricacies are more significant than they actually are.
You may hear it said that in expensive-looking sushi shops, you can’t tell how much you will be charged until
afterwards, or that in any sushi shop, that you may annoy the chef with your lack of knowledge if you ask questions
or don’t know what sequence to place your orders in. And people may imply that you have to be go through all those
hoops before you can really appreciate sushi. But these are all myths. For some reason, nigiri-zushi seems to attract a
lot of odd myths.
The truth is that sushi is just a type of food. What to eat first, and how many pieces to eat are up to each individual.
The staff of a sushi shop are never going to get angry with a customer, whatever. Perhaps the only thing you need
to avoid is wearing strong perfume or other fragrances, but that sort of etiquette applies to other places, too, not just
sushi shops.
Above all, sushi is a cuisine that respects freedom of choice and is meant to be enjoyed. That’s why there are so
many different types of sushi. If you eat nigiri-zushi one day, then how about trying another type of sushi next time.
That’s what sushi’s all about. Sushi is not about restrictions or narrow conventions.
27
Nigiri-zushi
—
the healthy choice
synthesize them, but they can be consumed from the oil
in fish. EPA helps to keep blood healthy, and is known to
lower triglyceride levels, whereas DHA is said to play an
important role in building brain and nerve cells. Nigiri-zushi
basically provides such healthy fish in fresh form, combined
with steamed rice flavored with vinegar. Vinegar is said to
facilitate fatigue recovery and help keep blood pressure
down. Taken together, these properties justify nigiri-zushi’s
reputation as a healthy food. Moreover, it is notable for
having a very good balance between nutritional elements:
proteins, fats, and carbohydrates.
Some of the foods used in sushi have high levels of
calories and sugars, so choosing a well balanced selection
of neta/ ingredients is important. Vinegar stimulates the
appetite, so care is required to avoid overeating. Note also
that adding too much soy sauce can result in excessive salt
intake.
Nigiri-zushi is now available worldwide. Its image as a
healthy food with low calories has played a substantial part
in its popularity growth, particularly in Western nations,
China, and other countries that did not have a tradition of
eating raw fish.
In general, seafood is less fatty than meats, and it
is a rich source of vitamins. Fish often used for sushi
include blue-backed fish such as sardines, mackerel and
aji, and bluefin tuna (toro) and sea bream that are good
sources of the omega-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA
(eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic
acid). EPA and DHA are reported to be
essential fatty acids required for
a healthy life. The human
body is largely
unable to
28
The decline in the number of traditional sushi shops in
Japan does not seem to be due to fall in demand. Rather,
the main reasons for the decline seem to be growth in the
availability of sushi through different channels and in the
variety of services. Many people now eat sushi at home.
“Sushi to go” is no longer the preserve of sushi shops. It can
also be bought at convenience stores, supermarkets, and
the food sections of department stores, and there are home
delivery services, too. What was once a luxury cuisine eaten
only on special occasions is now much more common, and
sushi has become a regular feature in everyday diets.
Japan has more than 20,000 sushi restaurants, and the
size of the market was about 1.5 trillion yen (about $12.5
billion) in 2017 (according to Japan food service industry
sales trend statistics published by the Japan Foodservice
Association). Sushi restaurants can be broadly categorized
into traditional sushi shops where guests are seated at a
counter and a chef produces the sushi to order, and kaiten
sushi shops. The number of staff employed by traditional
shops is small, and continues to decrease, while the number
of kaiten sushi shops, particularly shops operated by the
major chains, is increasing.
An online survey of men and women aged 20 to 69 years
(Rakuten Insight, 2018. Sample size: 10,754) showed that
three-quarters of respondents had used a sushi restaurant
within the past three years. About 40 percent of them visited
a kaiten sushi restaurant monthly or more frequently, but
about 50 percent had not visited a traditional sushi shop in
the past three years. Figures for use of kaiten sushi shops
showed little difference between men and women, but for
traditional sushi shops, the figures for men were higher.
Users of traditional sushi shops prioritized the richness
of ingredients and the price as factors for their choice of
restaurant, and a high proportion paid 3,000 yen (about $25)
or more for an evening meal.
Sushi Consumption Trends in Japan
29
30
1 p.
12
Pacific bluefin tuna
2021
figure, FRP
Produced by: KAIYODO
Co., Ltd.
2
Areas with a nare-zushi
tradition
2021
panel
3 p.
9
Sushi family tree in Japan
2021
panel
4
Nare-zushi (hon-nare)
2021
food sample, resin
5
Nara Period tai-zushi
(tahizushi)
2021
food sample, resin
Courtesy of Okada Daisuke,
Sumeshiya
6
Nare-zushi (nama-nare)
2021
food sample, resin
7
Izushi of Hokkaido
2021
food sample, resin
8
Ayu sugata-zushi
2021
food sample, resin
9
Saba bo-zushi
2021
food sample, resin
10
Maki-zushi
2021
food sample, resin
11
Inari-zushi
2021
food sample, resin
12
Hako-zushi
2021
food sample, resin
13
Gomoku-zushi /
Chirashi-zushi
2021
food sample, resin
14
Oshinuki-zushi
2021
food sample, resin
15
Nigiri-zushi
2021
food sample, resin
16
150 examples of today’s
sushi
2021
150 food samples, resin
17 p.
15
Artist Unknown
Nagara River Ayu Sushi
(reproduction)
meiji era (1868-1912) / 2022
colored on paper, handscroll
Gifu City Museum of History
18 p.
14
Utagawa Hiroshige
Nihonbashi Bridge, from
Famous Places in Edo
(reproduction)
n. d. / 2022
ōban, nishiki-e
National Diet Library
19
Utagawa Kuniyasu
Prosperous Nihonbashi
Fish Market (reproduction)
n. d. / 2022
ōban triptych, nishiki-e
National Diet Library
20
Utagawa Hiroshige
True View of Nihonbashi
Bridge, together with a
Complete View of the
Fish Market, from Famous
Places in the Eastern
Capital (reproduction)
1830-44 / 2022
ōban triptych, nishiki-e
Tokyo Metropolitan Edo-
Tokyo Museum
21 pp.
22-23
Utagawa Hiroshige
Takanawa 26th Night
Revelers, from Famous
Places in the Eastern
Capital (reproduction)
1841-42 / 2022
ōban triptych, nishiki-e
Kanagawa Prefectural
Museum of Cultural History
22 p.
18
Ryūryūkyo Shinsai
Sushi and New Year’s
Sake (reproduction)
c. 1810 / 2022
shōban, surimono
H. O. Havemeyer Collection,
Bequest of Mrs. H. O.
Havemeyer, 1929
The Metropolitan Museum of
Art, New York
List of Works
31
23 p.
19
Utagawa Kuniyoshi
Sushi, from The Universe
of Women (Shinramanzō)
(reproduction)
c.1843 / 2022
round fan format, nishiki-e
Japan Ukiyo-e Museum
24 p.
16
Utagawa Kuniyoshi
Takeout Sushi, from
Women in a Benkei-
checked Fabrics
(reproduction)
1844 / 2022
ōban, nishiki-e
Ajinomoto Foundation For
Dietary Culture
25
Utagawa Kuniyoshi
Fukagawa Susaki Benten,
from Seven Gods of
Good Fortune, Benten
of the Eastern Capital
(reproduction)
c. 1846 / 2022
round fan format, nishiki-e
Private Collection
26
Utagawa Toyokuni III
(Utagawa Kunisada)
Ichikawa Ebizo Ⅴ (Kofuku
Choja) Holds a Painting
and Calligraphy Party
(reproduction)
1852 / 2022
ōban triptych, nishiki-e
Ajinomoto Foundation for
Dietary Culture
27
Toyohara Kunichika
Board Game Playbill:
Celebrating Top
Billing (Ōnadai Shusse
Sugoroku) (reproduction)
n. d. / 2022
large ōban, nishiki-e
The Tsubouchi Memorial
Theatre Museum, Waseda
University
28
Utagawa Toyokuni Ⅲ
(Utagawa Kunisada),
Utagawa Hiroshige
Enentei, from Famous
Restaurants in the Eastern
Capital (reproduction)
1853 / 2022
ōban, nishiki-e
Ajinomoto Foundation for
Dietary Culture
29
Utagawa Toyokuni Ⅲ
(Utagawa Kunisada)
Mitate-Genji Cherry
Blossom Banquet
(reproduction)
1855 / 2022
ōban triptych, nishiki-e
Ajinomoto Foundation for
Dietary Culture
30
Ochiai Yoshiiku
Nihonbashi, from “Tokai
dochu kurige yajiuma”
(Travels on Foot on the
Tokaido) (reproduction)
1860 / 2022
chūban, nishiki-e
Ōta Memorial Museum of Art
31
Utagawa Toyokuni Ⅲ
(Utagawa Kunisada),
Utagawa Hiroshige
Matsunozushi as Sushi
Shop, from Famous
Restaurants in the Eastern
Capital (reproduction)
1852 / 2022
ōban, nishiki-e
Ajinomoto Foundation for
Dietary Culture
32
Toyohara Kunichika
(design: Baiso Kaoru)
Yohei Sushi Shop
in Ryogoku, from A
Collection of Famous
Products, the Pride of
Tokyo (reproduction)
1896 / 2022
ōban, nishiki-e
Sumida Heritage Museum
33
Hasegawa Sadanobu
Fukumoto Sushi, from
Beauties of Naniwa
and Famous Products
(reproduction)
c.1866 / 2022
chūban, nishiki-e
Osaka Castle Museum
34 p.
20
Utagawa Toyokuni
Igami no Gonta (right,
played by Matsumoto
Koshiro) , and Osato (left,
played by Iwai Hanshiro)
in the kabuki “Yoshitsune
and the Thousand Cherry
Trees” (reproduced in
2022)
performed in 1815
ōban diptych, nishiki-e
The Tsubouchi Memorial
Theatre Museum, Waseda
University
35
Utagawa Toyokuni Ⅲ
(Utagawa Kunisada)
Igami (no Gonta) at
Gontazaka, between
Hodogaya and Totsuka,
from Actors at the 53
Stations on the Tokaido
(reproduction)
1852 / 2022
ōban, nishiki-e
Private Collection
36 p.
20
Toyohara Kunichika
Kabuki Actor Onoe
Kikugoro as Igami
no Gonta in the Play
“Yoshitsune and the
Thousand Cherry Trees”
(reproduced in 2022)
performed in 1896
ōban triptych, nishiki-e
The Tsubouchi Memorial
Theatre Museum, Waseda
University
37
Utagawa Toyokuni Ⅲ
(Utagawa Kunisada)
Lovers of Sushi, from
Twenty-four Tastes
of Modern Beauties
(reproduction)
1863 / 2022
ōban, nishiki-e
Private Collection
32
38
Utagawa Yoshitora
Sushi Delivery Man, from
Stories of One Hundred
People (reproduction)
n. d. / 2022
ōban, nishiki-e
Private Collection
39
Sushi stall (reproduction)
2021
with four-fold screens
40 p.
21
Kawabata Gyokusho
Yohei Sushi (copy),
frontispiece from“Home
Cooking with Vinegar”
(Okura, 1910)
published in 1910
blowup of frontispiece
Private Collection
41
Seafood figures
2021
13 figures, resin
42
Kaiten sushi
2021
sushi conveyor, plates, food
samples, fishing flag
43
Sushi installation
2021
930 food samples by 31
kinds of sushi ingredients,
resin
44
Sushi experience
2022
2 monitors, table and 2
chairs
video (7 min. 53 sec.)
Video Production: Nissha
Printing Communications,
Inc.
45
Global sushi, local sushi
2022~
panel
46
Tour of Sushi History
2021
video (8 min. 30 sec.)
Production: NHK
Educational Corporation
47
The Story of Sushi from
Edo
2021
video (6 min. 35 sec.)
Production: NHK
Educational Corporation
48
The World of Nigirizushi
2021
video (7 min. 46 sec.)
Production: NHK
Educational Corporation
49
Evolving Sushi
2021
video (7 min. 26 sec.)
Production: NHK
Educational Corporation
50
Local Sushi Bringing
People Together
2021
video (10 min. 20 sec.)
Production: NHK
Educational Corporation
