Crisis and Emergency Risk Communication: Be First. Be Right.
Be Credible.
CERC: Spokesperson
Last Updated: 2014
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CERC: Spokesperson
CERC: Spokesperson
This chapter will promote understanding in the following areas:
The role of the spokesperson in crisis communication
What makes a good spokesperson?
Working with the media
Spokespersons in public meetings
Assessing spokesperson skills
Giving Your Organization a Human Form
The most important role in responding to a crisis is the formal, designated spokesperson. The
spokesperson brings the organization to life. He or she embodies the organization and personifies
the response. A spokesperson takes the organization from an “it” to a “we” and is a critical human
connection to the various audiences.
In an ideal world, every organization would have a caring and articulate spokesperson who exhibits
charisma and confidence. In many cases, there is little choice about who ultimately speaks for the
organization during a crisis. One thing communication staff can control is to insist spokespersons are
trained. Few people are born crisis spokespersons. In a crisis, even the most skilled communicator can
make mistakes. No person should represent the entire organization in these situations unless he or she
has invested time and energy in developing the appropriate skills.
What’s important is not how a person looks on television but the ability to effectively connect with the
audience, either through the use of the media or in person.
Spokespersons allow the public to put a face to the act of responding to, investigating, and resolving a
crisis. How a spokesperson handles public and media inquiries, in addition to what he or she says, helps
establish credibility for an organization. It also contributes to the public’s transition from the crisis stage
to resolution and recovery stages. An organization should carefully choose spokespersons. The selection
should be based on the individual’s familiarity with the subject matter and his or her ability to talk about
it in a way that is understandable and conveys confidence.
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CERC: Spokesperson
Choosing the Right Spokesperson is Important
Spokespersons allow the public to put a face to the act of responding to, investigating,
and resolving a crisis. How a spokesperson handles public and media inquiries, in
addition to what he or she says, helps establish credibility for an organization. It also
contributes to the public’s transition from the crisis stage to resolution and recovery
stages. An organization should carefully choose the personnel who will represent it. The
selection should be based on two factors:
The individual’s familiarity with the subject matter
His or her ability to talk about it clearly and with confidence
Consider two similar cases with different outcomes:
Case 1: In this situation, the CEO of a corporation accused of polluting
groundwater called a news conference where he expressed anger at being
unfairly accused. In this news conference he acted condescending toward his
critics. A member of the audience presented him with a glass of water from
her well and asked him to drink it. He did and in the process choked. Had this
incident happened recently, it would likely have been recorded and loaded on
YouTube.
Case 2: This is a situation in which children are among the victims diagnosed
with cancer in a town where the people believe the activities of a major
corporation are linked to the town’s prevalence of cancer. At one point during
the meeting, in front of national media, a 9-year-old child with a jar of dirty
water demands assurance that the water she is drinking is safe. The CDC
spokesperson who was present for the meeting was both knowledgeable about
the issue and trained to talk about it in an effective and consistent manner.
As a result, the spokesperson responded to this line of questioning effectively,
without anger, and was able to defuse a potentially difficult situation.
The right selection and training of a spokesperson can lead to better outcomes. If
possible, have the crisis spokesperson appear in public often to help establish familiarity
and credibility for your organization. He or she should not be a new face. For example,
throughout the duration of the Brentwood postal facility anthrax case, an Epidemic
Intelligence Service (EIS) officer met with the Brentwood workers several times to
discuss antibiotic prophylaxis. When the CDC recommended 30 days of therapy in
addition to the anthrax vaccine, an activist in the crowd started shouting inflammatory
comments. But because the EIS officer had established himself as a credible and trusted
source of information, instead of rallying around the activist, the crowd told the heckler
to be quiet so they could hear what the EIS officer had to say.
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CERC: Spokesperson
The Role of the Spokesperson in Crisis Communication
The spokesperson during an emergency should communicate information the public wants or needs.
This information should empower people, build trust, and reduce the level of harm. This includes short-
term and long-term psychological and physical harm. The spokesperson should seek to accomplish
several goals and be prepared to respond to a variety of questions, such as the following:
What is the incident and how severe is its magnitude
(e.g., who, what, where, when, why, and how)?
What are the health and safety risks for individuals and communities?
Who is managing the event and what are they doing to respond to the incident?
The spokesperson can orient the larger audience at the beginning of a response by
following these suggestions:
Establish an appropriate level of concern and empathy,
which can help create rapport with the audience.
Remain calm while acknowledging uncertainty and
avoiding the tendency to over-reassure.
Show competence and consistency in responding to help
build confidence and trust.
Demonstrate openness and transparency. Panic is less
common than most people imagine and doesn’t come
from bad news, but from mixed messages or a feeling
that people aren’t being told the truth.
As the event unfolds, the spokesperson may also need to address
more controversial issues, including the following:
The potential allocation of scarce public health and
safety resources that are seen as unfair or wasteful
People or communities choosing to ignore or circumvent public health and safety
recommendations
Questions and criticism about blame, responsibility, and whether the response is adequate
Remember your spokespersons are not solely responsible
for messages. However, they must be involved in the development
of those messages to ensure some ownership. The words and the
person must match. Spokespersons don’t just read a statement;
they are the statement. If spokespersons don’t fully understand the
purpose behind the messages or recommendations, they will have
“We, in a free democracy, owe
the public open and factual
communications whether it’s a good
story or a bad story. We are a great,
resilient nation, and we’ve proved
that. So we can take bad news as well
as good news. What we can’t take is a
block-out of no news.”
Col. Terry Ebbert, USMC Retired,
Former Director,
Homeland Security,
City of New Orleans
Spokespersons don’t just read a
statement; they are the statement.
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CERC: Spokesperson
difficulty assuming a stance of confidence and conveying
believability and trust.
Others can and should help with the spokesperson role. While the primary spokesperson is the
central figure in offering the message, he or she may be joined by other experts or agency heads.
The spokesperson may turn to these supporters for answers to specific questions or to provide
additional background.
Message development is covered extensively in Chapter 3; however, it’s worth briefly repeating some
of the CERC principles during a crisis. The following rules help to build confidence and trust. During
an emergency, communication to the public is not business as usual. Before you can communicate the
facts and recommendations for action, you must lessen the audience’s psychological barriers by openly
acknowledging their concerns.
Basic CERC rules include the following:
Don’t over-reassure: The objective is not to placate but to elicit accurate, calm concern.
Consider statements such as: “This is a very dangerous winter storm, but people can take
actions to limit their risk. If at all possible, stay at home and off the streets until the storm
passes and roads are clear.”
Acknowledge uncertainty: Offer only what you know: “The situation is developing and we
don’t yet have all the facts. Based on what we do know, we expect….”
Emphasize that a process is in place to learn more: Describe that process in simple
terms: “Samples are taken from each person reporting flu-like symptoms. These samples are
being tested now to identify the exact strain.”
Give anticipatory guidance: If you are aware of future negative outcomes, let people know
what to expect. For example, to foreshadow side effects of antibiotics, you could say, “This
broad spectrum antibiotic is an effective medication, but it can cause stomach upset, including
nausea and diarrhea in some people.”
Be regretful, not defensive: Say, “We wish that more doses of vaccine were
currently available” or “We feel terrible that…” when acknowledging mistakes or failures
from the organization.
Acknowledge people’s fears: Don’t tell people they shouldn’t be afraid. They are afraid, and
they have a right to their fears. Use statements like, “We understand people are concerned and
afraid, and it is normal to be frightened when facing a wildfire.”
Acknowledge the shared misery: Some people will be less frightened than they are
miserable, feeling hopeless and defeated. Acknowledge the misery of a catastrophic event, and
then help move people toward the future through positive actions. Use statements like: “Right
now, with so many people in shelters, it’s hard to see how things can return to normal. We are
working hard to start the process of returning people to their homes.”
Express wishes: Say, “I wish we knew more” or “I wish our answers were more definitive.”
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CERC: Spokesperson
Be willing to address the “what if” questions: These are the questions that everyone is
thinking about, and to which they want expert answers. Although it’s often impractical to fuel
“what ifs” when the crisis is contained and not likely to affect large numbers of people, it is
reasonable to answer “what ifs” if the “what ifs” could happen and people need to be emotionally
prepared for them. Use statements like, “We have considered the possibility that the situation
will get worse and we have identified additional locations for shelters.”
Give people things to do: In an emergency, some actions are directed at victims, those
exposed, or those who have the potential to be exposed. Simple actions in an emergency will
give people a sense of control and will help motivate them to stay tuned to what is happening.
It may also be helpful to give people a choice of actions matched to their level of concern. Give
a range of responses: a minimum response, a maximum response, and a recommended middle
response. Use statements like, “You may wish to cook spinach thoroughly before eating it. You
may wish to avoid eating spinach. Or, you may wish to eat only prepackaged frozen spinach.”
Ask more of people: Perhaps the most important role of the spokesperson is to ask people
to manage the risk and work toward solutions with you. People can tolerate considerable risk,
especially voluntary risk. If you acknowledge the risk’s severity and complexity, and recognize
people’s fears, you can then ask the best of them. A spokesperson, especially one who is on
the ground and at personal risk, can model the appropriate behavior—not false happiness, but
true willingness to go on with life as much as possible and to make reasonable choices. Your
determination to face risk will help others looking for role models.
In general, research demonstrates that people respond to crises in cooperative and problem-
solving ways.
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Most often, they help their neighbors and take reasonable actions. Sparking those
inherent attributes will help people cope with uncertainty, fear, and misery. Use statements like,
“We are all shocked and concerned about this tragedy. We need to stay strong, with hope for the
future, as we do our best to help each other. By staying informed and following instructions from
health officials, you can protect yourself, your family, and the community against this public
health threat.”
What Makes a Good Spokesperson?
It’s difficult to capture all qualities of a good spokesperson and pass them on to others. But it’s not
difficult to identify the qualities of a poor spokesperson.
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Nearly all speaker training starts or ends with: “Be yourself. Be natural.” The audience can tell when
the person appears stilted or fake. Being “natural” doesn’t mean forgetting the seriousness of your role.
Better advice is: “Be your organization. Act like your organization.” Every organization has an identity.
A spokesperson should try to embody that identity. For example, CDC exists to make people safer and
healthier. Conveying that message is important.
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CERC: Spokesperson
While there are differing opinions on what makes a good crisis spokesperson, most experts agree on
these basic principles:
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Have a crisis communication spokesperson(s) identified and a plan in place before the crisis.
Make sure the spokesperson is visible, via the media, as soon as the crisis occurs. Have that
spokesperson explain who is in charge, and that the person in charge is concerned about the
victims. It is important to demonstrate compassion and empathy from the beginning.
Be transparent. Provide candid, accurate information, including being open to what is known
and what is unknown about the crisis.
Don’t speculate, assume, or make premature promises that may have to be reversed later.
Meet the needs of the media, including being accessible and providing regular updates about the
crisis.
Present a unified message, whether it is among spokespersons of one organization or across
several organizations that are coordinating a crisis response.
The spokesperson should communicate facts and information about the crisis, including what is being
done. It is also important to communicate caring, compassion, and empathy to create public goodwill
and maintain a positive reputation for your organization.
A spokesperson must be perceived as trustworthy and credible.
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Research shows that there are five
basic elements to establishing trust and credibility through communication.
7,8
All messages, written
or spoken, can incorporate these elements, especially when attempting to communicate during an
emergency:
Empathy and caring: Share your care and concern for what others are going through in a
crisis. This will increase the likelihood that the audience
will listen to and act upon your message.
Competence and expertise: Education, position,
and title help establish competence and expertise;
additionally, previous experience in dealing with similar
situations will enhance the perception of competence.
Honesty and openness: Give people enough
information and choices to make appropriate decisions
so they feel empowered in the emergency. If you do
not know the information, then tell the audience why
and explain that you are notifying partners, verifying
information, and taking similar actions that will help you
acquire more information.
Commitment and dedication: State the organization’s
goal for the crisis response. Show dedication by
“The minute I put my foot on the
ground in New Orleans was to
make it known to everybody in the
community down there that I was
there, there was a federal leader that
had moved forward, there was a face
of the response on scene, and that I
was accountable. “
RADM Thad Allen, Retired,
Former Commandant,
United States Coast Guard
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CERC: Spokesperson
communicating regular follow-ups that report on the progress, including successes and
challenges of the recovery process. However, don’t promise what can’t be delivered. Explain the
limitations of the situation and express that everything is being done to keep the response on
track.
Accountability: Keeping promises and being accountable for the decisions made are vital
for maintaining public trust and credibility in the organization throughout the response and
recovery process.
A spokesperson should work very closely with the public information officer (PIO) to develop messages,
gather facts, and determine what information can be released at any given time. Identify a time when
your spokesperson will be available to meet with the media or the public. Determine what mechanism,
such as a press briefing, media interview, or interactive webcast, he or she will use. The media and
the public will feel reassured when they know when they will receive more information. This includes
following up on issues.
Spokespersons must know the organization’s policies about the clearance process and release of
information. They must do the following:
Understand the scope of responsibilities.
Limit comments to only the emergency response event.
Avoid answering questions that are outside the organization’s responsibility for the response.
Spokespersons are often involved in give and take with members of the public or the media. They may
be challenged and asked for specific information. The question may be about controversial issues or
they may be asked for information that cannot yet be released. Even in these situations, it is important
to avoid spin. Tell the truth and be open. Explain why the question cannot be answered.
The effectiveness of a spokesperson’s communication is enhanced with the use of visual aids,
illustrations, examples, stories, and analogies. Ensure that they help make the point and do not
minimize or exaggerate the message. Visual aids, such as charts, maps, and models, can be helpful
in communicating some kinds of information. They are particularly useful in describing a process or
showing the relationship between factors.
A spokesperson’s presentation should be reviewed and rehearsed. Review visual aids before using them
publicly. Practice telling stories and examples on others within the organization before telling them
publicly. It is particularly important to carefully rehearse and review responses to anticipated questions
along with possible follow-up questions.
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CERC: Spokesperson
Spokesperson Pitfalls (and How to Avoid Them) During an Emergency
Limit jargon and acronyms: Jargon impedes communication and may imply arrogance.
Acronyms are particularly common with government agencies, but their use may alienate lay
audiences. Jargon and acronyms are often used to signal that people have inside knowledge or
are members of a technical group. As such, they can interfere with efforts to build audience
rapport. If using a technical term or acronym is necessary, define it.
Tailor messages to an easy level of comprehension: Use simple short sentences and
avoid technical vocabulary.
Use humor with caution: Humor is a minefield during a crisis. Soft, self-deprecating humor
may be disarming for a hostile audience, but, in general, efforts to be funny during a crisis are
likely to be misinterpreted.
Refute negative allegations without repeating them: Repeating any message enhances
its impact. If your speaker repeats a negative accusation, it is then part of the formal message.
Use positive or neutral terms.
Gather feedback: Don’t assume that the point is understood; rather, ask whether the message
has been clear and is understood. Getting feedback, and listening to it, is important in helping to
ensure effective communication.
Avoid one-liners, clichés, and off-the-cuff comments: Any statement that trivializes the
experience by saying something like, “There are no guarantees in life,” reduces your credibility
and rapport.
In general, comments should be limited to what is known. Keep personal opinions to a minimum.
Spokesperson messages can be tailored to the situation and the stage of the crisis. For example, money
will become an issue at some point, but during the early stage of an emergency, messages about money
should be avoided.
Working with the Media
During a crisis the media can consume your time, but they are necessary. They are the best mechanism
for reaching your audience. The media are especially important during the first hours or days of an
emergency. Social media,
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such as Twitter and Facebook, are increasingly important, and a very fast
form of communication. However, the mainstream media, particularly television and radio, still have the
widest distribution.
7
In some cases, traditional media will be the best way to reach many parts of the
public during an emergency. Media professionals generally accept their community and professional
responsibilities, particularly during a crisis. However, the job of a journalist is not the same as a PIO.
The differences must be respected.
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CERC: Spokesperson
General Media Interview Goals
Have a clear purpose for your interview. Identify core messages to deliver during the interview.
Seek opportunities to repeat or restate the core message. If key messages have not been
developed, then it may not be the right time for an interview.
Make sure the reporter gets the correct name of the person being interviewed. Titles should be
kept as short as possible. Use titles that describe the job rather than titles that reflect the title
of an official position. For example, saying “medical epidemiologist” is better than saying “acting
chief of the ‘so and so’ section of the ‘such and such’ branch.”
Come to the interview with supporting papers that can be given to a reporter after the interview.
This is a resource that can be used as a way of confirming information and helps the reporter
with your facts.
General Media Interview Pitfalls
Don’t let reporters put words in your mouth. The reporter may use inflammatory or emotional
words. Avoid repeating them with the journalist; use your own words.
If the question contains leading or loaded language, reframe the question to eliminate the
language and then answer. Sometimes it’s helpful to restate the question in neutral terms.
If the reporter claims someone has lodged an allegation, don’t assume he or she is correct. Don’t
react to new information a reporter presents. Instead, you can say, “I have not heard that” or “I
would have to verify that before I can respond.”
If a reporter holds a microphone in front of you after
you’ve answered the question, resist the temptation to
add information. Do not answer the question again or
add to your answer. Instead say, “That was my answer.
Do you have another question for me to address?” Say it
matter-of-factly, without sarcasm or annoyance.
Understand there is no such thing as “off the record.”
Background and deep background do not mean you or
your spokesperson won’t be quoted or identified. Do
not say anything before, during, or at the conclusion of
an interview that you are not prepared to see in print
the next day or uploaded to social media in the next
hour. The interview is not over until the reporter and all
equipment have left.
Anticipate questions. Work with PIOs to come up with expected questions and draft answers.
Nuances count. A word change here or there may make the difference in how well an answer is
received. Put the answer on paper because it will usually be too long to give in public, and then
find the bottom line. What is the key point? What rings true and doesn’t sound evasive? Make
that core message the 30-second answer.
“First of all, only do what you are
comfortable doing, talk about what
your subject matter expertise is.
Don’t stretch. Don’t think or provide
an opinion on things you don’t know
about.”
RADM Thad Allen, Retired,
Former Commandant,
United States Coast Guard
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CERC: Spokesperson
Make the key point first and have prepared supporting message points. Try to say the key point
in 30 seconds and in fewer than 90 words.
Don’t pretend to have answers. If the specific piece of information is not yet available, say so.
“I don’t know” or “That’s not my area of expertise” is an appropriate answer, if followed by a
commitment to find the answer.
Don’t fight your battles through the media. When talking with the media don’t assign blame.
Never speak disparagingly of anyone, not even in jest. Avoid critiques of other agencies or
other responses. Reporters can be reminded that professionals differ in their opinions, but
then get back on topic. Comments should be focused on what you know and what your
organization is doing.
Avoid being caught in hypothetical questions. Reframe the question in a way that addresses
legitimate concerns of the public without being sensational or offering speculation
for entertainment.
Record sensitive interviews on audio or video. Be sure the reporter knows the interview is
being recorded and make a copy available. Consider posting interviews or press statements
on your website.
Do not ask reporters to agree to let you review their articles or interviews. Instead, offer
to clarify information for them as they prepare their story. If a reporter shows you the piece,
understand that he or she expects you to correct errors in fact, not viewpoints that may
differ from yours.
Break down multiple-part questions and answer each part separately.
Don’t raise issues you do not want to see on the Web, in print, or on the news.
Don’t respond with “no comment” to a reporter’s question. Instead, state why you can’t answer
that question. Say that the matter is under investigation, the organization has not yet made a
decision, or simply that you may not be the appropriate person to answer that question.
Media Briefing or Press Conference Tips
Determine in advance who will answer questions about specific topics. Consider having various
experts available during the briefing as part of the team.
Keep answers short, focused, and organized. They should be no longer than 2 minutes.
Realize that some press briefings may be conducted via a podcast or interactive webcast.
Practice one briefing using these technologies so you are comfortable with how they function.
Assume every microphone is live—all the time—including wireless clip-on microphones. Assume
that cell phone cameras and recorders are continuously capturing what you are saying and doing
for sites such as YouTube.
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CERC: Spokesperson
In-Person Interview Tips
Know who will be conducting the interview. Learn which reporters will be there and the news
outlets they represent.
Know the subjects the reporter wants to cover and limit the interview to those subjects. If the
reporter goes off in another direction, indicate that you are not the right person to answer that
question at this time.
Know the format and duration of the interview. Be willing to set limits so there is a clear end
time. Keep the interview short in duration and focus on what is important. Consider scheduling
a follow-up interview, if required.
Ask who else will be interviewed or has been interviewed about the subject.
Ask when the interview will be available and where. If that is not yet known, ask to be notified
when the decision has been made.
Do not do the following:
Try to embarrass or argue with a reporter.
Tell the news organization which reporter is preferred.
Demand that remarks not be edited.
Insist that an adversary or critic not be interviewed.
Distort, color, or spin the truth.
Demand that an answer or quote not be used.
State that what you are about to say is off the record or not attributable to you.
Telephone Interview Tips
Ask the name and affiliation of the person with whom you are talking.
Ask if the interview is being recorded.
Ask when and where the information will be used.
Obtain the reporter’s phone number and e-mail before the interview begins. You may wish to ask
to call the reporter back to verify that they are indeed who they claim. You may also need to call
back if the call is interrupted or if you need to provide updated information.
Spell out difficult names, technical terms, and phrases.
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By participating in a telephone interview, while limiting its length, you have met your obligation to
answer important questions. Bear the following in mind:
Don’t do the reporter’s homework. You do not have an obligation to explore every
facet of the incident.
Recommend reporters review Web-based or print materials to save time.
Schedule the interview in a quiet room.
Don’t allow distractions such as cell phones. Ask that they be turned off.
Consider standing up; it strengthens your voice and makes you sound more alert.
Keep written versions of key messages at hand. Repeat those often so reporters know they are
the most relevant points.
Ask reporters for feedback to ensure they understand your key points.
Special Considerations for Television and Radio Interviews
Radio, television, and Web-based media are much more immediate and thus are more prominent in the
early stages of a crisis. Television reporters may be more likely to try to elicit dramatic or sensational
responses. Because these interviews are usually recorded, they may end up being aired repeatedly. Most
television news outlets post entire unedited interviews on their websites.
Radio interviews, either recorded onsite or over telephone, are immediate and may be aired quickly.
They, too, may appear later on a website. Interview styles should be adjusted accordingly. Review the
following list for tips:
Take the time to prepare for a television interview:
y
Rather than memorizing answers, which tends to come off as rote, the spokesperson should
thoroughly learn the ideas, facts, and anecdotes that apply to the interview topic. These can
be discussed easily and naturally during the interview.
y
As with all interviews, the PIO should help the spokesperson practice answering questions,
especially aggressive, rapid-fire questions. Practice reduces anxiety and will result in a more
relaxed and natural delivery.
y
Practice answering questions in 10- to 20-second phrases. If a question calls for a longer
answer, pause every 20 seconds. This will make it easier for the host to break in for a
commercial interruption or to edit materials.
y
Rehearse stopping after you are directed to stop; hard breaks in midsentence for a commercial
look unprofessional and desperate.
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CERC: Spokesperson
Slow down. Microphones and nerves tend to make people talk faster. Slow down and deliberately
pause between sentences to force a more relaxed and conversational pace.
Avoid monotone. Practice raising and lowering the pitch of your voice. Change the inflection and
add emphasis through vocal variety. The vocal volume should be kept conversational. Natural
animation, gestures, and facial expressions help increase credibility.
Handling Techniques Sometimes used by Television and Radio Interviewers
Most journalists are professional and respectful of the interview process. Sometimes a novice reporter
or someone seeking more controversy will use techniques designed to throw the interviewee off
message.
10,11
It’s important to be prepared for these techniques. Sensational or unrelated questions may
be inserted into interviews. In these cases, do the following:
Answer the question in as few words as possible. Don’t repeat the sensational elements.
Return to the key messages. Recommended verbal bridges back to the key message
may include the following:
y
“What I think you are really asking is …”
y
“The overall issue is …”
y
“What’s important to remember is…”
y
“It’s our policy not to discuss this issue, but what I can tell you is …”
y
“What I’m really here to discuss …”
y
“Your readers/viewers really need to know …”
Character attacks may be part of interviews. Don’t argue or confront an adversary during an
interview. Question the science, facts, or issues, but not someone’s character. For example, use
a phrase like, “I can’t speak for Dr. X. You’ll have to ask her, but what I can address is...”
Machine-gun questioning is a technique where a reporter fires rapid questions. Pacing is
quick and the reporter interrupts your response. The most appropriate response is to use
a phrase like the following:
y
“Please let me answer this question”
y
“I would like to answer those questions one at a time.”
Control the pace. Take the time necessary to think before responding.
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CERC: Spokesperson
Watch for microphone feeding and pausing. This technique is used to generate a longer
response. Perhaps you’ve given a complete answer on a controversial issue; then the reporter
pauses and cameras continue to roll. Reporters are hoping to get a longer response.
If this happens, do the following:
y
Stay on your agenda.
y
Be aware of nonverbal cues like a deer-in-the-headlights look or fidgeting.
y
Relax and let the reporter fill dead air time. Dead air doesn’t make exciting viewing unless you
react with an action or expression. Dead air time will be edited out.
Remember that your microphone is always on—always—including during testing and sound
checks, and after the interview is officially over.
Be aware of sensational questions with an A or B dilemma. Use positive words to reject the
dilemma and correct the inaccuracies without repeating the negative. Reject both A and B if
neither is valid. Explain, “There’s actually another alternative you may not have considered” and
give your message point.
Surprise props may be introduced. The reporter may attempt to hand the interviewee a report
or supposedly contaminated item. Don’t take it. If you take it, you own it. React by saying, “I’m
familiar with that report, and what I can say is…” or “Obviously, I haven’t had time to review this
report, but what is important is…” and then go to your key message.
Radio Interviews
Radio is an important crisis communication medium because it is immediate and portable. Reporters
often use small handheld recorders and wireless technology to file their stories. In other cases, radio
interviews are done over the telephone.
Live is different from prerecorded. Find out if the interview is live, live to tape, or taped. If the interview
is live, determine whether callers will be permitted to ask questions. It is challenging to provide useful
answers to questions from individual citizens during a crisis interview. That is usually not an effective
means to provide information.
Radio interviews include unique features. The following list provides important radio tips:
Speak in normal tones with a conversational style of speaking.
Avoid using vocalized pauses such as “uh,” “um,” and “you know.” Do not feel a responsibility to
fill air time. Take the time necessary to form your thoughts before answering questions.
Use notes but be aware of the rustle of papers.
Know that radio interviews will probably not be as in-depth as print interviews.
Keep key messages succinct.
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CERC: Spokesperson
Avoid lengthy scientific explanations. As with television, the radio audience has limited scientific
background. Take on your audience’s point of view and speak to their level of understanding.
Be aware that reporters may ask the same question multiple times in an attempt to elicit a
different answer or to get an answer that is more concise. Avoid beginning an answer with a
phrase like “As I said before…” because the actual audience for this interview will not have
heard your previous answer of the same question.
Understand that radio is more informal and spontaneous than television. Radio is
more community-based and reporters are likely to ask more questions from the
community’s perspective.
Television Interviews
Television is a visual medium; consider your physical presentation.
12
This includes dress, gestures, and
facial expressions. While some people are more natural and comfortable on television, preparation can
help improve effectiveness.
7
Avoid broad unnatural gestures or moving around in the chair. Ask for a chair that
does not swivel.
Don’t look at yourself on the TV monitor. It is distracting to the viewer.
Look at the reporter, not the camera, unless directed otherwise.
When wearing an earphone, ensure that it fits securely and that you know what to do if it pops
out of your ear. Ask the producer or sound technician for help if needed.
Sit comfortably upright with a straight posture.
In taped interviews, ask to repeat your response if you believe the first attempt was not the best.
In live interviews, correct misstatements as quickly as possible.
What to Wear on Television
Clothing selection is an important consideration, particularly in televised situations, and should be
appropriate to the specific situation. For example, if you’re in a field situation, a suit may not be
appropriate. Do not wear medical clothes or a lab coat unless you would be logically wearing them for
your job. Jackets with the agency name or logo may be appropriate.
For men, consider the following appearance tips:
y
Avoid patterned suits and neckties, stripes, and checks. The camera will make them wavy and
distracting to the viewer. Neckties should be somber and professional. Avoid novelty ties.
y
Button suit coats. If possible, sit on your coattails to avoid bunching around your neck and
shoulders. Light blue or gray suits are most camera-friendly. In an emergency, it is most
appropriate to look conservative, not stylish or flashy.
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CERC: Spokesperson
y
Wear white shirts to be the most conservative.
y
Wear socks that are darker than the suit. They should be knee-length. Because your pant legs
may creep up, wear long socks to prevent your ankles from showing.
y
Make sure you hair is neatly trimmed and groomed to convey professionalism.
When possible, be clean-shaven.
For women, consider the following appearance tips:
y
Wear tailored, professional clothes to convey credibility.
y
Plan neutral colors and muted patterns for a camera-friendly look. Most set backdrops are
blue or purple. Take along a contrasting shawl or scarf to ensure that you do not blend into
the background if your suit matches the set color.
y
Wear dark shoes.
y
Do not wear distracting or shiny jewelry or accessories that jangle or need adjusting.
y
Wear daytime, conservative makeup. Avoid bright fingernail polish.
For men and women, consider the following appearance tips:
y
Ask for powder if your skin is shiny under the lights. Bald men should powder the
tops of their heads.
y
Take off glasses if you can do so without squinting. If you must wear them, consider getting
antiglare glasses. Avoid tinted lenses or sunglasses during a television interview. If the light
hurts your eyes, ask that it be adjusted. Eye contact is important in establishing credibility.
Spokespersons in Public Meetings
You or your spokespersons may have to speak at public meetings. This may include a variety of
audiences, such as community members, people who are affected by the crisis, elected officials, first
responders, and members of the media. Public meetings may be accompanied by especially high levels
of emotion and create unique demands.
When Emotions and Accusations Run High During an Emergency Public Meeting
Crises often create heightened emotional responses. The following basic circumstances are more likely
to increase angry responses:
When people have been hurt
When they feel threatened by risks not of their own making
When they feel their fundamental beliefs are being challenged
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CERC: Spokesperson
When people feel weak in the face of others who are more powerful
When they feel like they haven’t been treated fairly or with respect
When people feel manipulated, ignored, or trivialized
If conducted in an insensitive manner, public meetings may increase dissention and outrage.
4
The following approaches may help you or your spokesperson soothe these emotions and help the
community work toward a mutually agreeable solution:
Don’t lose your temper: Public health and safety personnel see themselves as the good guys.
It hurts when intentions, abilities, and expertise are criticized. Consider the following points to
keep operations calm and focused:
y
Set aside your own anger or defensiveness.
y
Strive to understand. Often the anger being expressed by others is a result of an overwhelming
sense of helplessness.
y
Show empathy.
y
In cases where extreme emotion might be expected, ask for ground rules outlined by
a neutral third party.
y
Acknowledge the anger up front. Explain what might be accomplished in the public meeting. If
communication deteriorates, it may help to refer back to your meeting objectives.
Practice self-management to calm nerves in high-stress situations: It can help to
take deep breaths and give yourself mental reminders that criticism is not personal and that
there is a greater purpose to the meeting. Consider the following tips to keep the meeting calm:
y
Anticipate criticism and attacks, and practice responding calmly.
y
Let the other person vent, without interruption, for a reasonable amount of time. This may
help dissipate anger.
y
Pause before responding and acknowledge the emotion.
Let people talk: The more people talk, the better the chance that they’ll judge the
meeting as successful:
y
Don’t allow lectures by the spokesperson or the organizational experts.
y
Suggest ground rules to ensure order and allow those with opposing viewpoints an
opportunity to be heard.
y
Offer equal time to dissenting views among those attending. This will help avoid a
spiral of silence.
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CERC: Spokesperson
Engage in active listening: Concentrate on what the person is saying, and listen for
both feelings and content:
y
Resist forming an answer while listening to the response; it interferes with your understanding
of what the other person is saying.
y
Let your audience know all concerns are being taken seriously and take time to
frame your responses.
y
Avoid interrupting, but set limits. If a hostile speaker dominates, appeal to him or her. Explain
that it is important to address the concerns of others in the room.
Ask questions: Wait for their questions before you offer your solutions. You may be surprised
to find out that the issues that matter to your audience are not the issues you expected. The key
is not to offer solutions to problems, but to help the audience discover solutions.
Don’t say “but.” Instead, say “yes, and:” Typically, people express their differences by
prefacing their responses with “but.” Listeners will be more receptive if you first acknowledge
their views with a “yes” and then preface your view with an “and.” Example: “Yes, we want to
protect people’s rights and we want to keep them alive to enjoy those rights.”
Avoid saying “I know exactly how you feel:” Instead, acknowledge the feeling and its
legitimacy. Use statements like the following:
y
“I understand why you are angry”
y
“I understand your frustration and anyone in this circumstance would likely feel this way.”
Respond appropriately but professionally to personal, unfair, or abusive
comments: A certain amount of anger and negative emotion directed at you is understandable.
If it becomes personal you have a right to call such behavior inappropriate and ask the person to
join with you in getting back to the issues. Try to signal to the audience when the conversation
is no longer appropriate.
Look forward, not backward. Acknowledge past mistakes: Use statements such as “I
wish we had met with you sooner to hear these concerns.” Then talk about where you want to go
in resolving problems rather than where you have been. Avoid rehashing old issues. Encourage
people to look forward.
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CERC: Spokesperson
Assessing Spokesperson Skills
In Ongoing Crisis Communication, W. Timothy Coombs describes tasks, knowledge, skills, and traits
that are important for being an effective crisis spokesperson.
13
Table 5–1. Spokesperson Media Task Analysis
Task
Statement
Knowledge Skills Traits
Appear pleasant on
camera
1. Understand the value
of proper delivery
1. Strong Delivery 1. Low communication
apprehension
Answer questions
effectively
1. Understand danger of
long pauses
2. Understand the steps
to effective listening
3. Appreciate the
danger of “no comment”
statements
4. Understand the
danger of arguing
with reporters
1. Able to think quickly
2. Able to use the steps to
effective listening
3. Able to use phrases
other than “no comment”
when an answer is not
currently known
4. Able to stay calm
under pressure
1. High stress tolerance
2. Communication
competence
3. Low verbal
aggressiveness
Present crisis
information clearly
1. Appreciate the
problems with jargon
2. Understand the need
to structure responses
1. Able to avoid the
use of jargon
2. Able to organize
responses
continued
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CERC: Spokesperson
Task
Statement
Knowledge Skills Traits
Handle difficult
questions
1. Understand the
characteristics of
tough questions
1. Able to identify
tough questions
2. Able to ask for questions
to be reworded
3. Able to preface
tough questions in a
tactful manner
4. Able to challenge
incorrect information
in a questions
5. Able to explain
why a question cannot
be answered
6. Able to evaluate the
appropriateness of
multiple-choice responses
in a question
7. Able to respond
to questions with
multiple parts
1. Low argumentativeness
Establishes
credibility
1. Answers questions
effectively
2. Demonstrates subject
matter expertise and/or
disaster management
expertise
3. Is honest and frank
1. Remains calm
2. Reflects the appropriate
level of concern
3. Projects an atmosphere
of stability
1. Communication
Assertiveness
Improves over time
1. Understands the
importance of feedback
1. Ability to
receive feedback
2. Seeks out advice and
constructive criticism
1. Self reflexive
2. Flexible and adaptive
*Adapted and reprinted with permission from W. Timothy Coombs.
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CERC: Spokesperson
Task statements are items that you or your spokesperson should accomplish when speaking as a
representative of the organization. While looking pleasant on camera is necessary, answering questions
effectively, presenting information clearly, and handling difficult questions is what brings success. He or
she must also establish rapport and credibility with the audience.
These tasks are enhanced by knowledge of the communication process and technical expertise, such
as experience handling disasters or specific subject matter knowledge. Often, credibility emerges from
the communication situation itself. As a spokesperson demonstrates knowledge and skill, he or she is
accepted as credible by the audience.
Specific communication skills, verbal and nonverbal, are critical in being a strong spokesperson:
Maintain eye contact and be aware of facial expressions. A frown or grimace at the wrong time
can create a very negative image.
Avoid leaning on the lectern and maintain good posture, even if exhausted.
Spokespersons should have strong voices, articulate clearly, and be able to speak in a relaxed
conversational tone, even in stressful situations.
Express emotions, but be careful about extremes.
Finally, there are specific communication traits that characterize effective crisis spokespersons:
They typically have low communication apprehension and do not exhibit stress or become
overly nervous when speaking to audiences.
They are able to tolerate and manage high levels of stress and uncertainty, and generally have
low verbal aggressiveness and argumentativeness.
Effective spokespersons generally remain calm even in complex and chaotic situations.
The spokesperson role is critical to effective crisis communication. The most effective spokespersons
are able to recognize where improvement is needed and work closely with communication staff to
improve their skills. This may involve watching tapes of press conferences and participating in media
training. They should be able to receive and act upon feedback and constructive criticism. Effective
crisis spokespersons also realize that they are part of the communication team and rely on the team to
communicate during the stress and uncertainty of a crisis.
Conclusion
Organizational spokespersons have pivotal roles in crisis and emergency risk communication. They are
the face of the organization and humanize the crisis message. The role of spokesperson is challenging
and stressful. It requires careful preparation and sensitivity to the communication process and
the needs of the audiences. Credible, empathetic, and composed spokespersons are very valuable
communication resources during a crisis. A skilled spokesperson can make communicating during a
crisis much more efficient and effective.
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CERC: Spokesperson
Pocketcard 5–1. You’re the Spokesperson—What You Need to Know
Build Trust and Credibility by Expressing:
• Empathy and caring.
• Competence and expertise.
• Honesty and openness.
• Commitment and dedication.
Top Tips:
• Don’t over-reassure.
• Acknowledge uncertainty.
• Express wishes (“I wish I had answers”).
• Explain the process in place to find
answers.
• Acknowledge people’s fear.
• Give people things to do.
• Ask more of people (share risk).
As a Spokesperson:
• Know your organization’s policies.
• Stay within the scope of responsibilities.
• Tell the truth. Be transparent.
• Embody your agency’s identify.
BE FIRST. BE RIGHT. BE CREDIBLE.
Prepare to Answer These Questions:
• Are my family and I safe?
• What can I do to protect myself
and my family?
• Who is in charge here?
• What can we expect?
• Why did this happen?
• Were you forewarned?
• Why wasn’t this prevented?
• What else can go wrong?
• When did you begin working on this?
• What does this information mean?
Stay on Message:
• “What’s important is to remember…”
• “I can’t answer that question,
but I can tell you…”
• “Before I forget, I want to tell
your viewers…”
• “Let me put that in perspective…”
CONSISTENT MESSAGES ARE VITAL
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CERC: Spokesperson
References
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2. Tierney, KJ. From the margins to the mainstream? Disaster research at the crossroads. Annu Rev Sociol
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