Planting The Seed: A Guide to Establishing Prairie and Meadow

A Guide to Establishing Prairie and Meadow

Communities in Southern Ontario

PLANTING THE SEED

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the following people

who provided valuable assistance in the development of

this guide:

Substantial contributors:

John Fischer, Environment Canada; Mary Gartshore,

Pterophylla; Dr. John Ambrose, University of Guelph;

and Dr. David Galbraith, Canadian Botanical

Conservation Network/Royal Botanical Gardens

Advisors and reviewers:

Aboud & Associates: Steven Aboud; C. Brad Peterson

Environmental Management and Landscape

Architecture: Brad Peterson; Centre for Land and Water

Stewardship: Peter Mitchell; City of Toronto: Debby

Morton; Dougan and Associates: Jim Dougan; Ducks

Unlimited Canada: Owen Steele, Brent Wark; Ecological

Outlook: Jean-Marc Daigle, Donna Havinga;

Environment Canada: Sheila Allan, Alain Baril, Lesley

Dunn, Doug Forder, Andy Hagen, Nancy Patterson,

John Shaw, Mike Shiomi, Lee Suddick, Ken Tuininga,

Jennifer Vincent; Environmental consultants: Lyn

Hanna-Folkes, Brian McHattie, John Morgan, Cathy

Quinlan, David White; Grand River Conservation

Authority: Wayne MacMillan, Trish Nash; Hamilton

Naturalists’ Club: Pam Watts; Health Canada: Charles

Smith; Lambton-Kent District School Board: Tom Burns;

Natural Heritage Information Centre: Wasyl Bakowsky,

Mike Oldham, Don Sutherland; Ojibway Nature Centre:

Karen Cedar, Paul Pratt; Ontario Ministry of the

Environment: Mark Chappel, Paul McCubbin; Ontario

Ministry of Natural Resources: Jack Chapman, Bill

Droog, Al Tithecott; Pterophylla: Peter Carson; Royal

Botanical Gardens: Jeremy Lundholm,Tyler Smith;

Rural Lambton Stewardship Network: Ron Gould, Ron

Ludolph; Todmorden Mills Wildflower Preserve: Paula

Davis; University of Waterloo: Larry Lamb, John

Semple; Urban Forest Associates: Gavin Miller, Stephen

Smith; Waterfront Regeneration Trust: Tija Luste;

Willow Park Ecology Centre: Maria Parish; Writer:

Lorraine Johnson

Editor: Robyn Packard

Cover design: Tania Rihar

Authors

Kim Delaney, Rural Lambton Stewardship Network

Lindsay Rodger, Tallgrass Ontario

P. Allen Woodliffe, Ontario Ministry of Natural

Resources

Gail Rhynard, Otter Valley Native Plants

Paul Morris, Acorus Restoration

Contents

Authors and

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . Inside front cover

About This Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Prairie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

What Is a Prairie? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Prairie Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Historical and Current Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Meadow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

What Is a Meadow? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Meadow Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

How to Get Started . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Identifying Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Understanding Plant Communities . . . . . . . . . . 6

Choosing an Appropriate Plant Community . . . 7

Native Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Meadow or Prairie? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Planning the Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

A Sample Project Timeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Selecting the Project Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Project Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Involving Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Analyzing the Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Making a Site Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Scheduling the Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Obtaining Seed or Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Ensuring Availability of Equipment

and Assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Taking Time to Prepare the Site . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Planning for Ongoing Management . . . . . . . . . . 12

Developing a Species List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Preparing the Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Controlling Weeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Choosing Appropriate Site-Preparation

Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Soil Amendment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Acquiring Seed and Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Use Local Seed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Avoid Planting Cultivars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Ethical Seed Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Ethical Plant Salvage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Ensure Genetic Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Seed-Collecting Tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Seed Drying and Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Seed Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Seed Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Growing Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Basic Growing Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Planting the Project Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Planting Seed or Plants: Timing

and Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Seeding and Planting Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Successional Planting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Cover Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Mulch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Maintenance and Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Many Hands Make Light Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Maintaining the New Planting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Long-Term Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Monitoring and Reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

A Final Thought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Appendix A: Recommended Species for Prairie

and Meadow Plantings in Southern Ontario . . . 32

Appendix B: Seed-Treatment Techniques . . . . . . . 41

Appendix C: Site-Preparation Key . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Appendix D: Common and Botanical Names

of Plant Species Referred to in This Guide . . . . 43

Appendix E: Metric and Imperial Measures

Conversion Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Sources of Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Recommended Reading, Annotated . . . . . . . . . . 47

Helpful Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

Sources of Materials, Specialized

Equipment and Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Additional copies of this guide

may be obtained from

Tallgrass Ontario

(Ontario Tallgrass Prairie and Savanna Association)

659 Exeter Road

London, ON

N6E 1L3

Phone: 519-873-4631

E-mail: <[email protected]g>

Visit our Web site at <http://www.tallgrassontario.org>

Environment Canada

Environmental Conservation Branch

Conservation Strategies Division

4905 Dufferin Street

Downsview, ON

M3H 5T4

Phone: 416-739-5829

Visit our Web site at

<http://www.on.ec.gc.ca/wildlife_e.html>

Published by authority of the Minister of the

Environment

©Minister of Public Works and Government

Services Canada, 2000

ISBN 0-662-28836-X

Catalogue No. En21-156/1-2000E

Aussi disponible en français.

This guide was produced with the financial support of Environment

Canada’s EcoAction 2000 Community Funding Program and Great Lakes

2000 Cleanup Fund, the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and

Ontario Stewardship. It is an initiative of Environment Canada

and the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources to encourage the

conservation of biodiversity by rehabilitating wildlife habitat in the

Great Lakes basin. It also contributes to the goal of encouraging

community action and stewardship by informing the public of new

techniques. Many of these techniques have been demonstrated in

projects supported by Environment Canada through the Great Lakes

2000 Cleanup Fund and the EcoAction 2000 Community Funding

Program, and by the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and

Ontario Stewardship. Technology and information transfer is a

priority of the Canada-Ontario Agreement Respecting the Great

Lakes Basin Ecosystem.

This guide was produced using Domtar Sandpiper Paper, which includes

100% post-consumer waste, and was printed using vegetable-based inks.

Design and printing by Waplington Forty McGall Inc., Toronto.

About this Guide 1

There is a growing interest in restoring and recreating

natural areas. Together with this increasing enthusiasm

is the recognition that healthy communities include

people, plants and wildlife in balance. These trends are

reflected in the growing number of restoration and

naturalization projects underway in the highly disturbed

Southern Ontario landscape. Restoration projects range

from those in backyard gardens to agricultural field

buffer strips and large plantings for wildlife habitat.

Restoration and naturalization are still new and

developing fields, and there is much to learn. Sharing

information derived from practical experience is the best

way to develop better projects. This introductory guide

is designed to assist people interested in planting prairie

and meadow, two of Ontario’s non-forested plant

communities. The guide looks at the often confusing

array of options and offers recommendations drawn

from the experience of many practitioners working in

Southern Ontario.

Prairie and meadow are complex communities and even

the best attempts to recreate them will be simplified

versions that do not fully replace the ones that have

been lost. For this reason, protecting existing natural

habitat should always be a top priority. If habitat-

creation projects are well executed, however, they can

provide a significant contribution to the conservation of

wildlife diversity in the province and help improve the

health and connectivity of natural landscapes. Projects

that involve naturalization often also offer the benefit of

reduced landscape maintenance costs.

About This Guide

A well-developed Southern Ontario meadow. Larry Lamb

2 Planting the Seed

What Is a Prairie?

A prairie is an ecological community made up of native

grasses and wildflowers. Mature trees (predominantly

oaks) are a minor component on some sites, providing

less than 10 percent canopy cover. Grasses such as big

bluestem, Indian grass and prairie cord grass can grow

higher than 2 metres, their tops swaying overhead as

they move with the breeze. Tall sunflower, Virginia

Culver’s-root and dense blazing star are examples of the

more than 200 prairie wildflowers, or

forbs, found

interspersed among the grasses in Ontario’s prairies.

Stepping into the lush landscape of an Ontario prairie

will make you feel as though you are stepping back in

time. In some places, grasses and wildflowers stretch as

far as the eye can see, with barely a tree in sight. From

season to season, there is a

continuous and ever-changing

show of blooms, from the

brilliant orange of butterfly

milkweed and bright yellow

of gray-headed coneflower to

the showy purple and white

of fall-blooming asters.

Prairie and meadow are two distinct ecological

communities; however, many of the techniques for

planning and undertaking a planting project apply to

both. This guide describes prairie and meadow

separately and then provides information common to

both. While shrubs and trees may be found in prairie

and meadow, the focus here is on herbaceous plants,

which make up the bulk of the vegetation in these

communities.

With few exceptions, common names mentioned in

this guide are consistent with the Ontario Plant List

(Newmaster et al. 1998). The corresponding botanical

names are listed in Appendix D. The term “prairie,” as

used throughout the guide, refers to the eastern tallgrass

prairie. Words defined in the glossary are italicized on

first use.

Meadow and Prairie: Which Is Which?

Similarities

• They are open communities of grasses and

wildflowers, with few trees.

• Some plant and animal species, such as black-eyed

Susans and goldfinches, are common to both.

• They support a rich variety of animal life.

Differences

• A prairie is maintained primarily by fire, whereas a

meadow is often maintained by processes other than

fire, such as flooding and drought, or arises from

abandoned agricultural lands.

• Some plant and animal species are found or are more

likely to be found only in one or the other – for

example, Indian grass and wild indigo duskywing

butterfly in prairies, and common evening-primrose

and common sootywing butterfly in meadows.

Prairie scene at Ojibway Nature Reserve near Windsor.

P. Allen Woodliffe

Garden spider (Argiope aurantia),

one of the many small wildlife species

found in Ontario’s grassland

communities. P. Allen Woodliffe

Prairie

Prairie 3

Prairie is, however, not simply a mix of flowers and

grasses. Stand in a prairie, close your eyes, listen, and

you’ll know why some people call it “symphony grass.”

A healthy prairie is full of the humming, buzzing and

singing of the many animals who call it home. Most

mammals are of the smaller variety, and include meadow

vole, common shrew, long-tailed weasel, American

badger, red fox, coyote and eastern cottontail rabbit.

Birds such as bobolink, eastern meadowlark and

savannah sparrow depend on these open grasslands for

food and shelter. By far the most numerous prairie

animal species are invertebrates, including butterflies,

grasshoppers, dragonflies, ants, beetles and spiders.

Closely related to prairie is savanna, which is also fire-

dependent but with more tree cover – in between open

prairie and closed forests. Savanna usually has less grass

cover, with a correspondingly greater density of

wildflowers and ferns. Many of the remnant prairie-type

communities of Ontario are more like savanna.

Ontario Prairie: Endangered Spaces,

Endangered Species

Tallgrass prairie and related savanna communities

are some of the most endangered ecosystems on the

continent. Today, less than 1 percent of Canada’s original

tallgrass prairie remains. With the loss of prairie comes

the loss of wildlife

that depends on

it. Many animal

species require large

expanses of prairie,

and loss of habitat

has contributed to

their decline. Both

Henslow’s sparrow

and northern

bobwhite are

currently considered

endangered, and the

greater prairie

chicken has not been

seen in Ontario for decades. More than 150 plant species

occurring in Ontario prairie are considered provincially

or nationally rare – for example, the prairie white-

fringed orchid. The beautiful Karner blue butterfly,

whose larvae depend on wild lupine for food, has not

been seen in Ontario for almost a decade.

Prairie Ecology

Prairie is largely the result of a climate that favoured

grasslands, not forest. Different types of prairie developed

across North America. The west receives less precipitation

and has shortgrass prairie; the

wetter east, including Southern

Ontario, has tallgrass prairie.

Between these two regions occurs

mixed grass prairie, which is of

intermediate height. Each type of

prairie has a distinct mix of grasses

and wildflowers that change

gradually from one to the other.

The root systems of prairie plants

are extensive, sometimes growing

3 to 4 metres deep. This deep root

system helps the plants survive

drought and prevents shallowly

rooted non-prairie species from

gaining a foothold. As these root

systems break down, they add large

quantities of organic matter to the

soil. Many prairie plants are long-

living perennials and are able to

withstand poor growing conditions

and periodic grazing.

From the time Europeans arrived in North America until

fairly recently, they thought of fire only as a destructive

force. Historically, fires were set both by lightning strikes

and by Aboriginal peoples who recognized their benefits.

The First Peoples intentionally started grassland fires as

a technique to drive game while hunting or to clear land

for various reasons – for example, to attract additional

game to the tender grass shoots that appeared after a

fire. It is now widely known that fire is a natural process

necessary for maintaining tallgrass prairie. Fire

maintains prairie by suppressing non-prairie plants,

clearing dead plant material and adjusting the nutrient

balance in the soil in favour of prairie vegetation. After a

burn, the blackened soil absorbs sunlight, which warms

the soil and favours the

regrowth of heat-loving

prairie plants. When fire

is suppressed, non-

prairie species gain a

competitive edge. The

lack of fire is one of the

main reasons why many

of Ontario’s remaining

prairies are overrun with

non-prairie plants such

as woody shrubs and

trees, which will

eventually shade and kill

the prairie grassland

beneath them.

It is recognized that in

western prairie regions,

grazing bison had an

Henslow’s sparrow (Ammodramus

henslowii) is just one of the many

endangered species found in

Southern Ontario prairies.

Parks Canada

Sixty-five percent of

prairie plant biomass

is actually found

underground in the form

of massive root systems.

Judie Shore

Visit a lush Ontario prairie and you

can imagine early explorers

getting lost on horseback in the

tall grass. Lindsay Rodger

4 Planting the Seed

important role in maintaining prairies. While bison

herds did not occur in Southern Ontario, elk were

historically found here. Today, a variety of browsers

and grazers, from white-tailed deer to grasshoppers,

are still found in Ontario prairies, but their importance

in keeping prairies healthy is not well understood.

Unlike many non-native pasture grasses, the sturdy

stems of prairie grasses remain standing throughout

winter, despite heavy snowfall accumulation. These

stems provide cover in early spring, when waterfowl

and ground nesting birds need it most.

Historical and Current Range

When Europeans first arrived, there were an estimated

1 million square kilometres of tallgrass prairie in North

America. The prairie reached such heights that early

explorers reportedly got lost on horseback in the tall

grass. The rich soils under the prairie grasses were

quickly converted to agriculture and became some of the

most productive agricultural areas on the continent. It is

estimated that Ontario may have had more than a

thousand square kilometres of tallgrass prairie and related

communities; today, however, only a few scattered but

important remnants remain (see Figure 1 below).

Why Plant a Prairie?

Tallgrass prairie is one of the most endangered ecological

communities in North America and is an important part

of Ontario’s natural heritage. A vast number of wildlife

species depend on prairies for food and shelter, and when

the prairies disappear, so does the wildlife. Many prairie-

related plants and animals are at risk. You can be part of

the solution. Help protect and expand remnant prairies in

your community. Plant a demonstration prairie at a local

school, community centre or park. Spread the word and

lead by example. Replacing petunias in your garden with

showy prairie wildflowers can spark interest among

friends and neighbours.

• Existing remnants

Historically, tallgrass prairie and savanna

occurred in patches throughout this

shaded region. Prairie creation projects

may be considered within this region.

Figure 1: Range of Tallgrass Prairie

and Savanna in Southern Ontario

Source: Modified from Bakowsky 1993

Environment Canada

Do you know how this Southern Ontario town got its name? Paul Pratt

Meadow 5

What Is a Meadow?

A meadow is a warm,

sunny spot, brimming

with a variety of life.

Wildflowers such as

spotted Joe-pye-weed,

boneset, blue vervain and

swamp milkweed, as well

as a number of wetland

sedges and grasses, can be

found in wetter areas.

Black-eyed Susan, wild

strawberry and gray

goldenrod may occupy

drier spots. As most meadow wildflowers are nectar

sources, they attract a variety of butterflies such as

swallowtails, admirals, checkerspots and skippers.

Meadows provide feeding and nesting areas for songbirds

such as bobolinks and meadowlarks. They may also

provide shelter for frogs

and small mammals, which

in turn attract hawks, owls

and snakes.

Meadow Ecology

A variety of meadow types can be found in Southern

Ontario. Wet meadow occurs in floodplain areas along

rivers and streams, and in areas of medium moisture

between wetlands and higher, drier land. This meadow

is maintained by fluctuating water levels as well as by

intermittent floods and ice scours, which make it

difficult for trees and shrubs to become established. Dry

meadow grows in parched areas such as on ridges and

slopes. Here, the dry conditions prevent many trees from

becoming established, which would shade out the

meadow species. Each meadow type has characteristic

species, which are adapted to the varying moisture

conditions and soils.

The most familiar type of meadow is the old field

meadow, which is common on abandoned agricultural

land, in overgrown pastures and in roadside ditches in

rural areas. This type of meadow is considered a more or

less temporary ecological community – a transition stage

between bare ground and forest. If adjacent to a wooded

area, old field meadow eventually reverts to woodland as

shrubs become established and are then followed by

trees. This process of open land becoming forest is

called succession. Succession from meadow to a forest

is often slowed when rodents girdle and deer browse

on young woody plants. In addition, dominant meadow

species such as goldenrod can suppress the growth of

other species by releasing growth-inhibiting chemical

compounds from their roots.

Nowadays, much of the forest cover in Southern Ontario

has been cleared, removing seed-producing trees and

slowing the transition from old field meadow to forest. It

is usually this kind of meadow that people try to

establish when they plant a “wildflower meadow.” Most

old field meadows in Southern Ontario, however, contain

many non-native plants that have been introduced to

Ontario’s landscape. Only native plant species should be

used in the planting of a meadow. See Native Plants in

the next section, How to Get Started, for an explanation

of native and non-native plants.

Why Plant a Meadow?

A meadow can provide wildlife habitat, is aesthetically

appealing and is a welcome alternative to some of the

intensely maintained, closely mowed spaces so

frequently found around us. It can be used as an interim

measure to repair damaged or disturbed sites where

restoration to forest is the eventual goal. Meadow is also

a good choice in areas where forest was probably the

original land cover, but is not desired in the current land

use. It would therefore be appropriate in areas such as

roadsides and portions of parks or schoolyards where

open areas are preferred. Meadows are being planted

more frequently because of their beauty, utility and

lower maintenance costs.

Meadow

Butterflies such as this great

spangled fritillary (Speyeria cybele)

are attracted to the nectar-producing

plants in meadows. Ross Brown

A typical meadow, dominated by aster and goldenrod species, which has

been left intact after the construction of a new subdivision in Dundas.

Sheila O’Neal and Joanne Rzadki

Wild bergamot (Monarda fistulosa) and black-eyed Susan

(Rudbeckia hirta) are easy to grow under a variety of site conditions

and complement meadow and prairie plantings. Mary Gartshore

6 Planting the Seed

This section provides some important background

information needed for a planting project.

Identifying Goals

Set goals before beginning the project, and refer to them

to help guide decisions while planning and planting.

Answering the following questions will help to set goals:

Does the project involve restoring the former natural

plant community to the area? Are there remnant natural

areas that can be reconnected or buffered? Is the main

goal to create a beautiful wildflower display? Does the

project involve providing a quality habitat for local

wildlife?

My Goals Are …

Spend some time thinking about the goals of the project.

Here are some suggestions:

• Restore a natural plant community that once existed

on the planting site

• Connect a site to adjacent natural remnants

• Create a showy wildflower display

• Provide a quality habitat for local wildlife

• Create a low-maintenance landscape

• Use plants to stabilize a site (e.g., in an erosion-

prone area)

• Provide an educational opportunity for schools

or the surrounding community

• Conduct ecological research

Understanding Plant Communities

Plants exist in groupings, or communities, not in isolation

from one another. Each community is made up of plants

that share similar adaptations to particular soil type,

climate, and moisture and light levels. For example, big

bluestem and dense blazing star are plants that thrive in

a fire-prone, full-sun environment; so they are found in

prairies. They would

never be found in a

mature forest, where

plants adapted to shady

conditions thrive.

Species can often occur

in more than one plant

community. Some plants

can thrive over a broad

range of conditions,

whereas others seem to

survive in only a few

How to Get Started

Black-eyed Susan (Rudbeckia hirta), wild

bergamot (Monarda fistulosa) and butterfly

milkweed (Asclepias tuberosa) provide

colourful displays in these typical prairie scenes.

P. Allen Woodliffe

This prairie planting provides wildlife

habitat as well as a buffer between an

agricultural field and a watercourse on

the McLean farm in Kent County.

Kim Delaney

How to Get Started 7

Be aware, however, that the term “native plant” is

sometimes used very broadly. For example, the Douglas-

fir is a tree species native to Canada but not native to

the forests of Southern Ontario, and so is not an

appropriate choice for a forest naturalization project

here. Species that are native to the county or watershed

are the most appropriate candidates. For more details,

refer to Developing a Species List, page 13.

Meadow or Prairie?

Figure 1 illustrates the historical and existing range of

prairie in Ontario. If the project is outside this range and

the goal is to plant a herbaceous community, meadow

would be the appropriate choice. If it is within this area,

either prairie or meadow may be appropriate. Use

additional information to determine which community

would be the most suitable. Consider, for example, site

conditions, whether the site can be burned, and current

and historical information about natural habitat types in

the local area. Look for nearby remnants and use them

as a model for the project. If there are no remnants

nearby, as is often the case in agricultural regions and

large cities, consult experts (see Helpful Organizations

under Sources of Information) to determine which

community would be the best choice.

A Schoolyard Restoration at École Secondaire

de Pain Court

When École secondaire de Pain Court acquired

additional land for the schoolyard, students wanted

to restore part of the area to a native plant community.

At first they thought of planting trees, but when they

realized that their school was within the historical

prairie range, they decided to plant tallgrass prairie

instead. The students went seed collecting with local

prairie experts and

successfully obtained more

than 20 species for their

0.6-hectare demonstration

area. The initial seeding

was completed in 1994

and supplementary

seeding and plug planting

followed in 1995 and

1996. The planting is

beginning to mature and

is used by small birds,

including bobolinks and

savannah sparrows. This

project became a great

learning experience

and now provides an

outdoor classroom for

young naturalists.

Students from École secondaire

de Pain Court plant prairie plugs

at their schoolyard naturalization

project site near Chatham.

P. Allen Woodliffe

places with a very particular set of conditions. Planting a

prairie or meadow, then, means first selecting a set of

plants that are adapted to growing together and, second,

establishing them on a site that provides the appropriate

conditions for those plants to thrive.

“Native” versus “Naturalized”:

Similar Words, Dissimilar Plants

Plants such as Queen Anne’s lace, ox-eye daisy, chicory

and smooth brome grass are found growing wild along

roadsides and in old fields in Southern Ontario. These

plants are “naturalized,” but

are not native to Ontario.

They were introduced to

North America as European

settlement took place. Due

to their ability to colonize

disturbed soils and their

aggressive growing habits,

these plants have become

widespread and more

evident in some areas than

many native plants. Such

naturalized plants should

not be considered native,

nor should they be used in

restoration and

naturalization projects.

Choosing an Appropriate Plant Community

When you are undertaking a restoration or naturalization

project, it is important to choose a type of plant

community that will be suited to both the conditions of

the planting site and the natural habitat in the region.

Take note of the plant communities that occur naturally

in the area and observe the way they fit together. If there

are no natural areas nearby to provide models, try to

find some historical information. Consult historical

records or ask local ecologists, botanists or naturalists

for help.

Native Plants

A plant is considered to be native to North America if it

existed here prior to European settlement. Native plants

are an integral part of their community. They have

evolved over time with the insects, birds, mammals and

other animals that rely on them for food and shelter. In

turn, native plants depend on local wildlife to pollinate

flowers and disperse seed. They are well adapted to the

rigours of the regional climate, pests and diseases. Plants

to be used in restoration and naturalization projects

should be native to the project area (see Appendix A).

Queen Anne’s lace (Daucus carota)

is a common weed in Southern

Ontario meadows and prairies.

Judie Shore

8 Planting the Seed

Planning the Project

While many people think that planting is the first step

in a project, actually many activities must take place

before the first seed touches the soil. Careful planning is

crucial to the success of a project. It is important to

establish the timing of each activity and obtain the

necessary equipment, supplies, plant material and

labour. In most cases, completing the project over a

minimum of two years is highly recommended. The first

year is dedicated to planning and site preparation, and

the actual planting is done in the second year. The tasks

necessary for a well-planned project are outlined in the

timeline below. In addition, talk to others who have

completed similar projects, and learn from their

experience.

A Sample Project Timeline

(Modified from Morgan, Collicutt and Thompson 1995)

Year 1

• Set project goals

• Select and analyze the site

• Talk to the community

• Consult with experts

• Inspect local natural communities

• Decide on the appropriate plant community

• Prepare site plan and work plan

• Select the species

• Ensure availability of equipment

• Organize volunteers

• Prepare the site

• Acquire plant material

– if doing it yourself: harvest, process and store seed;

– if purchasing: order plant material from suppliers

Year 2

• Propagate plants (if growing your own plant plugs)

• Plant seed and plugs

• Conduct post-planting maintenance (e.g., watering)

• Control weeds

• Monitor to determine success

• Obtain seed or order plant material for year-3

supplementary planting

Years 3 to 6

• Engage in supplementary seeding or planting

• Control weeds

• Conduct prescribed burning (for prairie) or tree and

shrub control (for meadow)

• Monitor to determine success

Years 7+

• Engage in long-term management and monitoring

• Continue prescribed burning or tree- and shrub-

control regime

Selecting the Project Site

Sometimes you have a project in mind and go looking

for a site. There are many interesting opportunities to

restore historical natural communities. Some

landowners are willing to restore portions of their

property, and many other areas require revegetation – for

example, roadsides, landfills, pits and quarries that are

closing, utility corridors and parklands. Consider these

potential project sites when you are looking for

opportunities to plant prairie or meadow. Not all this

work can be considered true restoration, but it provides

opportunities to establish native vegetation where turf

grasses would normally be used.

Often you will already have a site to work with, and you

will have to decide what to do with it. Before deciding

whether a site is appropriate for establishing a prairie or

meadow, ask the following questions.

• Is the existing vegetation native and healthy? Should

it be left alone or managed appropriately?

• What are the owner’s long-term plans for the site? Do

not invest significant time, money or plant material

on a project that will be altered or destroyed within a

few years.

• Does the site receive a minimum of eight hours of

direct sunlight daily (preferably more)?

• Is the site wet? Meadows and prairies occur on

seasonally wet sites; however, permanently wet

locations are usually better suited for the

establishment of wetland plant communities (see

Planting the Seed: A Guide to Establishing Aquatic

Plants, Hagen 1996).

• Is the site accessible to the necessary equipment and

is it near a water supply?

• If the intention is to plant a prairie, is prescribed

burning possible?

• Is the site located in a priority area for restoration?

For example, is it adjacent to other natural areas?

Will it expand existing habitat? Will it provide a

buffer between sensitive land and adjacent land use?

Project Size

Deciding on the size of the planting project will depend

on many factors, including your resources for obtaining

plant material, available equipment (mechanized or non-

mechanized) and the number of people available to

help. While “small” and “large” projects are referred to

in this guide, they are relative terms. A 0.2-hectare

project will seem very large to an individual who is

hand-planting plants and weeding by hand. But that

same project may seem small and much more

manageable to a group using mechanized equipment to

Planning the Project 9

prepare, plant and maintain the site. Use your judgment

and make a decision based on your capacity to complete

the work involved.

A Roadside Prairie Planting

The members of the

Sydenham Field

Naturalists’ Club

decided that they

would like to see

native prairie

wildflowers – instead

of the traditional turf

grass mixtures –

growing on the

roadsides of their

community. They asked

the Ontario Ministry of Transportation and received

permission to plant 0.4 hectares of tallgrass prairie along

Highway 40, just north of Wallaceburg. Club members

raised funds to purchase plug plants, which they planted

in the spring of 1998 and 1999 (see photo). The planting

was slow to establish due to severe drought, but the club

members watered and weeded, and the plants eventually

became established. Today, flowers and grasses enhance

the roadside and treat passersby to a glimpse of Ontario’s

beautiful prairie heritage.

Involving Others

In some communities, naturalization and restoration are

well-understood and accepted activities; in other areas,

they may be quite strange and new ideas. Depending on

ownership of the project site, there may not be a legal

requirement to inform other members of the community

or get their approval, but it is in the project’s best

interest to do so. In fact, acceptance of and interest in

the project should be viewed as an important indicator

of success. For more detailed discussion of this

important issue, see Restoring Nature’s Place (Daigle and

Havinga 1996). If this is your first project, ask local

experts for their assistance when you are explaining the

project details and answering questions. Take time to

listen and respond to any community concerns.

Much help is needed throughout a restoration project,

from site inventory and design through to after-planting

maintenance. Restoration projects can be even more

enjoyable and fulfilling when everyone pitches in. While

some jobs (e.g., the use of heavy equipment, herbicide

application and prescribed burning) must be done by

specially trained persons, many jobs do not require such

specialized skills.

Issues to Consider

• A lot of time and effort is required to train, coordinate

and guide workers successfully.

• All safety issues must be faced and dealt with.

• Certain tasks should not be attempted without

specialized training (e.g., prescribed burns, herbicide

application, use of certain equipment).

• Volunteers can suffer from burnout.

• Volunteers should be shown appreciation (e.g.,

offered refreshments or a meal; sent a letter of thanks;

given a slide show).

Selling Points of the Project

• Conserves natural heritage

• Provides wildlife habitat

• Pleases aesthetically

• Offers educational opportunities

• Offers recreational opportunities

• Provides an enjoyable community project

• Reduces traditional landscape maintenance

(frequent mowing, long-term herbicide use)

Ways to Spread the Word

• Write short articles (providing background

information on the type of project and examples of

similar projects) in local newspapers and community

newsletters

• Inform local television

• Have personal contact with neighbours

• Hand out information flyers to nearby residents

• Advise at community meetings

• Arrange speakers and/or displays at local service club

meetings (horticulturists, naturalists, anglers,

hunters)

• Post explanatory signs

Analyzing the Site

Once the site has been chosen and the local community

is on board, you will need to learn more about the site’s

features. Gather the required information from as many

Thomas Chatterton

Gathering data prior to restoring 8 hectares of tallgrass prairie on

Stag Island. Kim Delaney

10 Planting the Seed

sources as possible. Consult historical survey records,

soil and topographic maps and aerial photos. Visit the

site, talk to current and past owners and users of the

land; seek assistance from local experts and others doing

planting projects in the area. All this research will

require time and effort, but will greatly increase the

chance of the project’s success – for example, by helping

you to make correct decisions, such as which plant mix

is most suitable and what kind of management activities

are likely to be necessary on a continual basis.

Consider the information in the following chart when

analyzing the project site. Not all of this information

will apply to every project but it would be wise to be

aware of each item.

Site Feature Importance and Considerations

Size Knowing the size of the project site will help determine the amount of plant material necessary,

type of equipment and labour required, and time and cost involved.

Past and current Uses include any activities that may pose a safety risk or interfere with the success of the planting

uses of the site project – for example, use of herbicides or salt whose residue may prevent growth of native plants,

waste disposal such as sewage sludge or construction waste and recreational use such as all

terrain vehicle (ATV) or bike trails that may not be compatible with the new project.

Existing Is the site bare soil or lawn or corn field? Is there any existing native vegetation that would fit into

vegetation the planned project? Answers to these questions will be important in planning site preparation.

Note the presence of any aggressive plant species that may cause management problems – for

example, quack grass and Canada thistle.

Topography, Locate areas of high and low, wet and dry land; drainage patterns; and watercourses. These

drainage patterns, features will have implications for equipment use and species selection. Is there steep terrain that

other natural might be erosion prone? Southern slopes tend to be hot and dry and to favour certain species.

features Watercourse areas may act as natural firebreaks for prescribed burns.

Soil type Is the soil heavy clay or coarse sand? Is it rocky? Determine the soil pH, level of fertility and

and moisture organic-matter content by sending a soil sample to a lab for analysis (see Soil Analysis Services

under Sources of Materials, Specialized Equipment and Services). Soil characteristics play a part in

species selection and site-preparation options.

Built structures Note the presence of buildings, power-line poles and fences, as well as access to water and roads.

and facilities Consider their location in terms of the need for prescribed burns (some are hazards; others are

potential firebreaks).

Safety Can the necessary equipment gain access to the site? If the intention is to use the site for

and accessibility environmental education or other specific reasons, is the site easily accessible and is it free of

hazards? Note any natural or built features that may pose safety issues.

Animal life Note the animal life currently using the site, and features such as burrows and nests. Consider these

in site planning. If possible, make linkages to neighbouring natural areas to expand available habitat.

Adjacent land How will neighbouring land use affect the project, and how will the project activities affect

types and uses neighbours? Invite the neighbours to participate in the project from the planning process through

to planting. People are much more likely to accept something they understand. Note possible

weed sources, previous herbicide use that may affect the planting, as well as flammable objects or

vegetation types that will have to be protected from prescribed burning.

Prevailing winds Wind direction may affect the success and safety of prescribed burn activity for prairie plantings.

Design the site accordingly, including relative placement of vegetation, buildings and viewing

platforms.

Planning the Project 11

Making a Site Plan

The best designed prairie restorations look like they were

not designed at all. They simply look like a natural part of

the landscape. They fit the contours of the land, enhance

other natural features and human made structures and hide

their faults. (Morgan, Collicutt and Thompson 1995)

Just as a blueprint is drawn before a house is built, a site

plan should be produced before a planting project is

undertaken. A site plan is a detailed picture of the

finished project; it can also be used to help plan the

work schedule and sell the project to others.

Producing a good site plan involves various ecological,

practical and aesthetic considerations. The types of

features to include and the level of detail in the site plan

depend on several things, including the size, location and

intended use of the site. For example, if the project is a

small, decorative natural garden, one might design the

location of individual plants to produce the desired effect

of colour, height and texture (for references on natural

gardening, see Restoration, Naturalization and

Management as well as Plant Propagation and Cultivation

under Sources of Information). For a large-scale

restoration, you may not be concerned about individual

plant placement, but will be much more interested in

planning for equipment access and firebreaks.

Start the site plan by making a scale drawing of the site

(for large sites, refer to existing survey maps or aerial

photos). Add the detailed information collected during

the site analysis. For example, sketch in low wet spots,

high dry areas, buildings, utility lines and prevailing

wind direction. Next, sketch the planting area and add

management features such as firebreaks, trails and access

lanes if required. Now is the time to look at the

developing project to make sure the project goals will be

met. Will the project provide wildlife habitat and/or

environmental education opportunities, and does it make

sense? Use the following checklist to keep on track.

Planning for Managed Features

Firebreaks: Since regular managed fires are the optimum

means of maintaining prairie plantings, firebreaks must

be planned for and designed – for example, allocate

space around the perimeter to mow or plough strips, or

design trails that double as firebreaks. Designing also

involves ensuring that anything flammable on the site,

from power-line poles and fence posts to buildings and

boardwalks, is outside the fire zone or can be protected

from the flames. For details, refer to the Maintenance

and Monitoring section.

Trails: If the site is to be used for human enjoyment and

nature viewing, the type and placement of appropriate

facilities, including trails, viewing stations and

interpretive signs, need to be determined. Keep in mind

the need for a balance between human use and wildlife

needs. Trails should be kept to a minimum and should

be placed along the edge of the site to leave areas

relatively free of disturbance for wildlife use.

Considerations for a Site Plan

• How much of the area is to be planted? Where?

• Is there any native vegetation on site that should be

retained?

• Will plants having different requirements for soil type

and moisture level be planted in suitable locations on

the planting site?

• Is aesthetics important – for example, should

placement of plants produce complementary colour,

height and texture combinations?

• Will the planting be designed around existing natural

and built features in a safe and effective manner?

• If firebreaks are necessary, where will they be located?

Consider combining them with other features, such as

trails.

• If public facilities such as buildings and trails are

planned, where will they be built?

• How much site maintenance will be required?

• Have the needs of wildlife, such as food and shelter,

been considered?

Sketching a site plan will help you plan and carry out the planting

project. Lindsay Rodger

12 Planting the Seed

• Is the project compatible with local human land uses?

• Is the plan reasonable, given the budget, labour and

other resources available?

Scheduling the Work

Once the project is planned on paper, it is time to

schedule the work to ensure that each step runs

smoothly. See the sample project timeline provided

earlier in this section.

Obtaining Seed or Plants

A decision will have to be made whether to plant seed

or plants, or a combination of both. Seed is usually less

expensive and tends to do better when planted on heavy

soils; however, seeds take longer to develop into plants,

usually requiring an additional season to reach flowering

stage. For this reason, plants are often chosen for small,

highly visible sites so that a showy display develops

earlier. Volunteers often find it more enjoyable to plant

plants. A combination of seed and plants may be

considered to best suit the needs of the project.

Decisions regarding which species to plant must be made

well in advance to ensure availability. When seed and

plant material are to be obtained from a local supplier of

native plants, they may need to be ordered at least a few

months in advance, especially if large amounts are

required. It is better to contact appropriate suppliers at

least one year in advance to make sure that they can

provide seed and/or grow the plants that are required.

If you intend to collect the seed yourself, remember that

this must be accomplished in the growing season before

planting (see Acquiring Seed and Plants for more

information).

Ensuring Availability of Equipment

and Assistance

Once the size and scope of the project is known and the

site has been analyzed, the type of equipment that will

be required and the necessary help can be determined.

Allow enough time to find appropriate equipment and

sufficient “people power” to prepare the site, plant and

undertake ongoing maintenance.

Taking Time to Prepare the Site

Putting the appropriate time and effort into site

preparation is critically important – it can mean the

difference between a successful project and a failure.

The time and amount of work involved in preparing

the site before planting vary, but may entail several

activities over a whole year, so it is important to plan

ahead. Use the results of the site analysis and information

from Preparing the Site to help determine the necessary

timeline for site preparation. Remember, the effort

expended at this stage will more than pay off in terms

of time spent dealing with weeds in the future.

Planning for Ongoing Management

You cannot just walk away from a naturalization and

restoration project and expect it to succeed. Just like any

other planting, continual maintenance is required, so be

prepared to put in a fair amount of effort in the first few

years. As the plants are trying to establish, they may

require water, supplementary planting and some help in

overcoming weeds. Once the plants are established,

some ongoing maintenance activities will still be

necessary (see Maintenance and Monitoring) – for

example, regular prescribed burns for prairie plantings,

weed removal (especially for meadows) and control

of damaging human activities. Make sure to plan for

regular help as well as the necessary equipment and

supplies for ongoing management. Public acceptance

of the project will increase if litter is removed and edges

are kept tidy. Keeping a mowed edge, installing a rail

fence or putting up an interpretive sign, for example,

indicate that someone is maintaining the planting.

Developing a Species List 13

✔Determine ratio of grasses to wildflowers

In naturally occurring prairies, the ratio of grasses to

wildflowers varies. A prairie planting of half grasses

and half wildflowers (a 50:50 ratio) is recommended

for Ontario prairies. Meadows are highly variable in

their composition, but a good general guideline is to

include no less than 30 percent grasses and sedges.

✔Consider availability of species

When you develop the species list, consult seed

suppliers to determine which local-source seed or

plants are currently available. Planning a year in

advance will increase the likelihood of obtaining

seed of the desired species.

There is no such thing as an all-purpose species list for

a meadow or prairie planting. A dry sandy site in the

Peterborough area will be home to a very different group

of plants than those found on a wet clay-loam site near

Chatham. Use the following checklist to help determine

which species are best for the project.

✔ Determine the plant community

Is the intention to plant a meadow or a prairie?

✔ Choose native species that occur locally

Consult Appendix A, regional plant lists (called floras)

and local naturalists. Ask resource managers to assist

in determining appropriate species (see Regional Plant

Lists under Sources of Information). In addition, visit

nearby natural areas to become familiar with the local

native plants.

✔ Tailor species to project site and goals

Match information about plant preference, particularly

moisture and soil preferences, to the conditions of the

project site (see Appendix A). Make sure the choice

of species matches the project goals. For instance,

some species provide excellent erosion control, and

cover and food for wildlife, whereas others provide

a colourful show for aesthetic purposes.

✔Focus on core species

Core species form the backbone of naturally occurring

prairies and meadows. Core species that are common

in nature should likewise be common in the planting.

Rare species (such as those so noted in Appendix A)

should only be added to the list with guidance from

experts. Appendix A lists core species recommended

for most planting projects in Southern Ontario.

A giant swallowtail butterfly (Papilio cresphontes) on dense blazing star

(Liatris spicata), a prairie species that flowers from midsummer to late

summer. P. Allen Woodliffe

Developing a Species List

Milkweed species such as this butterfly milkweed (Asclepias tuberosa)

are the main sources of food for monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus)

caterpillars. Partially eaten leaves in July and August are a sign of their

presence. Ross Brown

Milkweed and the Noxious Weed List

Milkweed species are an important component of

healthy prairies and meadows. They provide nectar for

butterflies and hummingbirds, and their foliage is the

main food source for monarch butterfly caterpillars.

Milkweeds are currently classed as “noxious” under

Ontario’s Weed Control Act because one species, the

common milkweed, can be aggressive in agricultural

fields. Other milkweed species are suitable for prairie

and meadow plantings and are not aggressive; they

should be included in the planting.

14 Planting the Seed

Selecting the best site-preparation technique for the

project can involve many different options and

considerations. For example, if some prairie or meadow

plants are already present, the site-preparation choices

are different from those that would be suitable if the

site had no native vegetation. The choice of planting

method – use of seeds or plants, mechanized or hand-

planted – will also affect the type of site preparation.

Controlling Weeds

Whether you are planting meadow species in a garden or

restoring the “back forty” to tallgrass prairie, pay special

attention to site preparation. Clearing away undesirable

vegetation will remove competition and give seeds and

plants the best possible start. The weeds growing on the

planting site aren’t the only ones to contend with. Weed

seeds accumulate in the soil, sometimes for decades,

waiting for an opportunity to germinate. This is called a

seed bank. When the soil is cleared of surface vegetation,

the seed bank has an opportunity to germinate. What

looked like bare soil will be covered with weed seedlings

that need to be removed. Weed removal may need to be

done several times, over one or more growing seasons, to

deplete the seed bank and adequately control the weeds.

In a small garden, a hoe may be the tool of choice, but

for a 2-hectare field, mechanized equipment and/or

the application of a glyphosate-based herbicide may

be required.

There is a lot of debate about whether a herbicide

should be used to prepare a site. After all, one of the

goals of many restoration projects is to reduce the use of

herbicides, insecticides and fertilizers. Many herbicides

have associated negative environmental impacts, but not

all herbicides are equally harmful – for instance,

glyphosate-based herbicide, in particular, can be used

without causing harm to upland environments.

Preparing the Site

This 8-hectare site is free from weed competition and ready for planting.

Kim Delaney

Weed-Free Is Key!

Spending the time and effort on weed control before

planting and in the early stages of the project will save

countless hours of work in the future. If weeds are not

properly handled, they can quickly overtake a new

planting. Removing an infestation of weeds from between

new seedlings is extremely difficult and much more time-

consuming than minimizing the problem in the first

place. Resist the urge to skip site preparation and move

on to planting. Take the time to do it right – at the outset.

Non-chemical site-preparation methods have

environmental costs as well. For example, repeated use

of heavy equipment on a site with heavy soils can harm

or even destroy soil structure, which takes many years to

form. Frequent ploughing can deplete vital organic

material, disrupt intricate soil life and leave the site

prone to erosion problems. Before making a final

decision about site preparation, think carefully about the

environmental costs, and choose the method that will

achieve the desired results with minimum harm. Each

site is different, so it is naive to make a blanket statement

that one technique is more environmentally sound than

another before investigating each one thoroughly. Use

Table 1 to assist in comparing the potential

environmental impacts of the various site-preparation

techniques. Then choose a method on the basis of both

relative practicality and environmental risk factors.

Goldenrod: Not the Allergy Culprit

Several species of goldenrod

are found in prairies and

meadows and should be included

in planting projects. Goldenrod is

often blamed for the onset of

runny noses and itchy eyes

during the late summer allergy

season. The real culprits, however,

are species called common

ragweed and giant ragweed.

They often grow with goldenrod

and they flower at the same time

but are not nearly as visible.

Ragweed’s light airborne pollen

is easily inhaled, causing the

irritation. Goldenrod is rarely

the cause of respiratory

allergies because its heavy,

sticky pollen is carried by

insects, not wind.

The very light wind-blown pollen

of common ragweed (Ambrosia

artemisiifolia) is the main cause

of hay fever during August and

September. Judie Shore

Preparing the Site 15

Table 1: Weed-Control Techniques

Technique Method Comments

• Very effective at eliminating annual weeds.

• Loosens the soil to allow machine planting of plug plants.

• If perennial weeds are present in large numbers, the process

can take one to three years, and some of the weeds may still

persist.

• Not effective when tough perennial weeds such a Canada

thistle and quack grass are present. When the roots of these

plants are cultivated, many small pieces remain in the soil

and each piece is capable of producing a new plant.

Cultivation alone may increase these weeds.

• Cannot be used on waterlogged soils and may delay spring

planting.

• Repeated use of heavy equipment can harm soil structure

and beneficial soil life that has taken many years to develop.

• May leave soil prone to erosion by wind and water.

• Prolonged cultivation delays planting activity and results in

loss of wildlife habitat for one to three seasons.

• Equipment suffers wear and tear.

• Cultivation machines consume fossil fuels and release

emissions.

1. Turn under the existing vegetation

with a shovel, rototiller or tractor-

pulled plough.

2. Allow weeds to grow to a height of

10 to 15 centimetres.

3. Remove weeds manually (hoe,

cultivator) or by using a tractor-

pulled disc. If perennial weeds are

present, use a tractor-pulled harrow

to drag roots to the surface, where

they will wither.

4. Allow weeds to grow again and

repeat step 3 until you are satisfied

with weed control.* Each pass of

the disc should be increasingly

shallow until only the surface is

cultivated on the final pass.

Cultivation

• The Ontario Ministry of the Environment requires a

glyphosate-based herbicide to be applied by a licensed

commercial applicator who holds a valid Operator Licence

and an appropriate Exterminator’s Licence. Homeowners

can apply a glyphosate-based herbicide labelled as

“domestic” on their own property without a licence. But

remember, it must be applied according to the instructions.

Read and understand the label before using the product.

• Suitable for small or large sites.

• Absorbed into the entire plant, including the roots,

therefore effective at eliminating persistent perennial weeds.

• Does not disturb the seed bank; therefore, only the seed in

the top layer of the seed bank germinates, reducing

potential weed problems.

• Does not disrupt soil structure or soil life.

• Binds tightly to soil particles on contact so it will not leach

into the water table.

• Does not persist in the soil.

• Kills or stresses all vegetation (even desirable species) that

the chemical comes into contact with. In some cases it can

be applied when desirable vegetation is dormant.

• Cannot be sprayed over water or on any wet area.

• Must be applied in dry weather and cannot be applied on

windy days.

1. Glyphosate-based herbicide (e.g.,

Roundup

, Expedite Grass &

Weed

) is applied to vegetation

as per label instructions. Vegetation

will be stressed or killed within

two weeks.

2. Allow seed bank to germinate and

grow up to 5 to 7 centimetres, then

have the herbicide applied again.

Repeat this process until you are

satisfied with weed control.*

3. For shrub and tree removal, cut

stems near ground level and treat

stump with glyphosate-based

herbicide (e.g., Roundup

, Vision

)

as per label instructions to prevent

resprouting.

Glyphosate-

based herbicide

*Measures required for effective weed control can vary. It is most important to gain control of perennial and biennial weeds.

16 Planting the Seed

Choosing Appropriate Site-Preparation

Techniques

Deciding which site-preparation techniques are the most

appropriate can be confusing. The Site-Preparation Key

in Appendix C will assist you in making the right

decisions. Also consult local farmers or the extension

staff of the Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and

Rural Affairs for information on which techniques work

locally.

Table 1: Weed-Control Techniques (continued)

Technique Method Comments

• Useful where topsoil has already been removed

during construction activities.

• Prairie plants have a competitive edge on the poor

soils that remain after the topsoil has been removed,

although planting in very poor soil will result in less

lush growth.

• Since the topsoil contains the seed bank and roots of

weeds, removing it reduces the weed problem.

• If too much topsoil is removed, the subsoil below

may be too acidic or too alkaline to support plant

growth (do a soil test; pH should be in the range of 6

to 7.5; see Soil Analysis Services under Sources

of Materials, Specialized Equipment and Services).

• Very expensive unless soil is removed as part of a

construction process.

• Beneficial soil invertebrates are removed with the

topsoil and can take years to become re-established.

• The specific fungi or bacteria that some plants

require to survive are removed with the topsoil.

Consider adding bacterial inoculant, see Beneficial

Soil Organisms, below.

Remove topsoil with shovels or heavy

equipment, thereby removing weeds

and the seed bank.

Topsoil removal

• Depletes nitrogen in the soil, which weakens weeds

and reduces their competition with prairie plants.

• If too much organic matter is used, prairie plants

become stunted and die.

Turn into the soil organic materials

that are high in carbon, such as

sawdust and oat hulls.

Soil impoverishment/

reverse fertilization

• Practical only for very small projects.

• Plastic is difficult to pin or weigh down for extended

periods (prairie and meadow are usually established

on exposed sites).

• Most soil life is killed along with the plants and

seeds. Life will eventually return to the soil but the

long-term results are unknown.

• Persistent perennial weeds may not die.

Spread black plastic over the site and

pin or weigh it down for a season or

more.

The soil below heats up to the point

where seeds and vegetation are killed.

Solarization

Large project sites can be prepared with standard farm equipment

such as this combination of plough, disc and harrow. Kim Delaney

Acquiring Seed and Plants 17

Native plants grown from local seed

• are adapted to local growing conditions;

• have evolved with local wildlife and provide needed

food and shelter; and

• are a part of local ecosystems and thus unlikely to

upset the ecological balance.

Acquiring seed and plants can be one of the most

enjoyable aspects of a project. Most prairie and meadow

plants are perennial, returning every spring from the

same root system. For these plants, seed production is a

secondary means of reproduction. Seed is produced

mainly for dispersal to other locations or as a backup in

case the parent plant dies. You can assist seed dispersal

by collecting some of this seed and planting it in

appropriate areas.

Collecting seed can provide an opportunity to learn

more about local plants and ecosystems, but it can also

threaten the health and vigour of the few remaining wild

stands. As the need for seed grows, wild stands may not

be able to continue to satisfy the demand. Furthermore,

removing seed from wild plants removes food that

would otherwise be available for insects, birds and small

mammals. Consider purchasing most of the seed for the

project from a reputable native-plant nursery. These

companies use small quantities of wild seed to grow

plants in a nursery setting; the plants in turn produce

large quantities of seed. This approach relieves the

collection pressure on plants in the wild.

Use Local Seed

Seed for naturalization projects should be of local origin.

Defining “local,” however, is easier said than done. In

the absence of research on the issue, even the experts

are unable to agree on a definition. Recommendations

for seed collection range widely: from no more than a

few kilometres to more than 300 kilometres from the

project site. Keep in mind that the growing conditions a

hundred or more kilometres north or south of a project

site will probably be quite different from the conditions

the same distance east or west.

Soil Amendment

Nutrients

Do not add nitrogen to soil when planting prairie and

meadow species because these plants can compete better

with weeds when the soil is low in nitrogen; and do not

bring in topsoil, compost or manure since this material

often contains weed seeds as well as nutrients. If the soil

is very poor (e.g., subsoil remaining after construction

activities), a fertilizer high in phosphorus (P) and

potassium (K) may be added to assist root growth.

Beneficial Soil Organisms

Some specific types of bacteria are associated with plant

species such as showy tick-trefoil, round-headed bush-

clover, shrubby false-indigo and wild lupine. Such plant

species are called legumes. Bacteria assist legume growth

by taking nitrogen from the air and “fixing” it in nodules

on the plant’s roots. These nodules will eventually decay,

and nitrogen will be released into the soil where other

plants can access it. This bacteria can be introduced to

the plants by shaking seed in bacterial inoculant prior to

planting (for source of inoculum see Sources of

Materials, Specialized Equipment and Services). Plants

may show satisfactory growth without the inoculant, but

with it, nodule formation will increase.

Black-eyed Susan (Rudbeckia hirta) blooming on very poor

soil (less than 2 percent organic content), which was dredged

from the bottom of the St. Clair River. Kim Delaney

Acquiring Seed and Plants

Collecting seed offers the chance to get to know more about the native

plants that grow in your local area. P. Allen Woodliffe

18 Planting the Seed

If you are purchasing seed, ask about its source.

Reputable suppliers will tell you where they obtain

their seed. Also consider hiring a person to collect

seed; but make sure that the person contracted to

do this is qualified and uses ethical seed-collection

techniques (see below for further details). The Ontario

Chapter of the Society for Ecological Restoration (SER)

publishes a directory that lists growers and collectors

located in Southern Ontario (see Helpful Organizations

under Sources of Information).

Plants, too, should come from a local seed source. Grow

them from seed collected as close to the project site as

possible or purchase them from a native-plant nursery

that grows plants from local seed. It is surprising how

many plants sold as native wildflowers have been grown

from seed imported from as far away as Europe.

Avoid Planting Cultivars

Many nurseries sell horticultural varieties or cultivars of

native plants. These varieties have been developed by

the horticultural trade for traits such as showier blooms,

more attractive leaf colour or larger flowers. They are

often exact copies of the parent plant and therefore have

extremely low genetic diversity. Cultivars of the

following native species are widely available, but are

unsuitable for restoration or naturalization projects:

asters, goldenrods, wild strawberry, wild bergamot,

sneezeweed, black-eyed Susan and blazing star.

Ethical Seed Collection

Reputable seed collectors follow guidelines for ethical

seed collection. Spread the word and help new seed

collectors understand the issues.

• Always obtain permission from the landowner before

collecting. Remember that seed-collecting is normally

prohibited in national and provincial parks, national

wildlife areas, nature reserves and nature sanctuaries.

• Do not collect all the seed from one stand of plants.

Guidelines on the amount to collect recommend a

maximum of 50 percent of the seed from perennial

plants and 10 percent of the seed from annual plants.

The problem with this approach is that you may not

know whether a plant is an annual or a perennial, and

you have no idea how much seed has already been

collected before you begin, or if others will harvest

after you. Use your judgment and leave a lot more

than you take.

• Do not collect seed from vulnerable, threatened or

endangered species without the guidance of a

qualified ecologist or biologist. Under Ontario’s

Endangered Species Act, it is illegal to pick the seeds

of various endangered plant species.

• Store and handle this valuable, perishable resource

wisely.

• Share seed and information with other local seed

collectors and propagators.

Ethical Plant Salvage

• Do not dig plants from natural areas unless the donor

site is to be cleared for development.

• Ask permission from the landowner to enter the site,

and strictly follow the landowner’s directions with

respect to access.

• If salvaged prairie and meadow plants are properly

potted and watered, they can be stored outdoors in

a sunny location for at least a year, until a suitable

recipient site is found.

• Keep in mind that it is always a priority to help protect

natural areas, and salvaging a few plants from a

development site does not save the complete habitat.

Ensure Genetic Diversity

Weather in Southern Ontario is extremely variable

and plants need to be able to adapt to these changes.

Genetic diversity allows plants the ability to do so.

Increase the genetic diversity of a planting by observing

the following guidelines.

• Collect seed from a large population. Take small

quantities of seed from many individual plants rather

than large quantities from a few specimens. Avoid

Seed collecting can be

done by hand or with

various machines designed

for this purpose.

Larry Lamb (top and

lower right) and

P. Allen Woodliffe

Acquiring Seed and Plants 19

choosing only the most handsome plants. Valuable

genetic traits for long-term survival may be missed if

you are too selective.

• Collect seed of each species from several different

locations with varying soil and moisture conditions.

• The seed of some species ripens over a period of time.

In these cases, collect early-, mid- and late-ripening

seed.

• Collect in different years and add to your planting site.

Seed-Collecting Tips

• Seed for most prairie and meadow species begins

to ripen by mid-summer (except for some early-

blooming species such as prairie buttercup, hoary

puccoon and narrow-leaved blue-eyed-grass).

• Most seed is ready for collection six to eight weeks

from time of blooming.

• Let seed ripen thoroughly on the plant because not all

seed will continue to mature once picked.

• Seed is ripe when

– it is dry and falls away readily when seed head

is handled;

– individual seeds are brown, tan or grey, and hard

(pinch with fingernails to test for hardness); or

– seed pods are brown or tan and beginning to split

open, and seed is easily dislodged or readily falls

from pod when it is shaken.

• Plants in seed often bear little resemblance to the

same plants in full bloom. Identify species and record

locations when plants are in bloom in order to help

find them and ensure accurate identification later in

the season. Tying colour-coded yarn on typical

specimens of species works well.

• Use a hand lens and pen knife to check the quality of

seed in the field before spending time collecting it.

Look for full seeds with no insect damage.

• Use paper or burlap bags to hold seed, and store in a

cool, dark place. Do not use plastic because it heats

up and retains moisture, which will damage the seed.

• Immediately after collecting, label each bag with the

species name, the date when and the location where

the seed was collected.

Seed Drying and Cleaning

Seed should be thoroughly dry before it is stored; for

most seed, this will take four or five days in good

conditions. Place it in shallow pans or on screens in an

area free of rodents, or place it in a paper bag and hang

it from a rafter of an unheated garage or barn. Do not

use a conventional oven, microwave oven or food-drying

machine. Make sure each container is labelled with the

species name, collection date and location. Low

humidity and warm temperatures will speed the

drying process, but higher temperatures will reduce

seed viability.

Before seed can be cleaned, pods and hulls need to be

shattered, and seed heads broken up. Always wear a

mask when processing dried seed because there can be a

lot of dust, and, in some cases, the potential for

contracting disease associated with mouse feces.

Separate the dried seed from the waste plant material

(chaff) using one of the following techniques:

• Sift seed through a variety of sieves and/or screens.

• Separate seed from its pappus (fluff) by rubbing it

gently through a screen. Use a hand lens to check

periodically for seed damage.

• Pour the seed from one container into another

outside in a light breeze or indoors in front of a fan.

The heavier seed will land in the container or in front

of the fan, and the lighter chaff will blow away.

• On a smaller scale, a hair dryer can be useful for

blowing chaff from a pan of seed.

These dry, black-eyed Susans (Rudbeckia hirta) have ripe seed ready

to be harvested. Lindsay Rodger

This pink form of the typically purple New England aster (Aster

novae-angliae) has begun to produce ripe seed. Joanne Rzadki

20 Planting the Seed

Seed Storage

To remain viable for as long as possible, dry seed should

be stored at low temperatures (4 degrees Celsius) and

low humidity (no more than 10 percent). Store dry seed

in airtight containers (jars or plastic pails with tight-

fitting lids) in a refrigerator or in an unheated building

over the winter, and in a space that can be kept as cool

as possible during summer months. Seed stored above

28 degrees Celsius will lose viability quickly.

Insect eggs that are present at the time of collection can

hatch, and the larvae can damage seed. Just because

insects are not visible, do not assume there are no eggs.

Eggs are often present inside the seed. Check stored

seed periodically for the presence of insects. At the first

sign of insect activity, place seed along with small pieces

of No-Pest

strips in sealed bags or containers.

Alternatively, sprinkle diatomaceous earth (obtained at

garden centres or farm supply stores) throughout the

seed. This will kill any insect larvae that emerge while

the seed is in storage. Only a very small amount of

diatomaceous earth is needed. Be sure to wear a dust

mask while handling seed treated with diatomaceous

earth. Squirrels and mice can also damage the seed;

however, cats can be a good deterrent for mice in indoor

storage areas.

Seed Treatment

The majority of prairie and meadow plants native to

Ontario produce seeds that require a period of chilling,

or stratification, before germination. This cold period

approximates conditions that the seed would experience

during the fall and winter months. Many species require

additional treatments to induce germination. Appendix

A lists germination codes on a species-by-species basis,

and Appendix B explains germination requirements and

corresponding codes.

Growing Plants

If a heated space with a lot of sunlight is available, you

can consider growing some of the plants for the project.

For example, teachers may have their students produce

a few trays of plants in a south-facing window, under

grow lights or in a cold frame. Many high schools have

empty greenhouse space that could be put to use.

Consider the size of the project when deciding whether

or not to grow your own plants. Growing plants can be

an enjoyable experience if small quantities are required

and there are appropriate facilities and enough time.

Keep in mind that at a recommended planting rate

of 25,000 plants per hectare, it is usually best to have

a grower produce most or all of the plants.

Basic Growing Techniques

Many good books are available on growing plants from

seed, and these can be consulted to learn more about

basic growing techniques (see Plant Propagation and

Cultivation under Sources of Information). Here is a

brief summary of the process:

• Sterilize all containers by dipping them in a 2 to

3 percent bleach solution to prevent diseases.

• Fill containers with a growing medium of either a

no-soil seedling mix or a sterilized potting soil, which

will prevent fungal diseases such as damping off.

Potting soil can be sterilized by heating one large

zipper bag of soil in a microwave and then allowing it

to cool. The moist growing medium should be settled

by tamping down firmly; add more soil if necessary.

• Place four or five seeds on top of the soil in each

container. If the seed requires light to germinate (see

Appendices A and B), simply press the seed lightly

into the soil. Otherwise, cover the seed with soil to a

depth of approximately two times the diameter of the

seed. A flour sifter is useful for this.

• Mist soil lightly after seeding. Plastic covers can be

used to keep moisture in until germination occurs.

Don’t overwater new seedlings since waterlogged soil

prevents the oxygen

exchange necessary for

proper root growth.

• Thin seedlings to one

per container.

• Once plants are growing

strongly, water them

generously and allow

the soil surface to

become slightly dry

before watering again.

Water the edges of the

growing area

thoroughly – they dry

out quickly. If fungus

gnat larvae infest plant

roots, or if other insects

become a problem,

Large-scale plug production requires greenhouse space to ensure

adequate light levels. Kim Delaney

Plants grown from seed in

containers that are divided into

compartments are called plant

plugs or plugs. Kim Delaney

Planting the Project Site 21

such as 7-7-7. Organic growers can use fish

emulsion or liquid seaweed.

• Harden off plants by gradually exposing them

to outdoor conditions before they are planted

permanently outside; initially, allow them only

indirect sunlight since even 10 minutes in full

sun can burn the leaves.

All the hard work so far has been geared towards getting

seeds and plants ready to put into the ground. Planting

is one of the most rewarding aspects of naturalization

and offers a perfect opportunity to involve interested

community members in some hands-on work. Children,

in particular, love planting, and many will watch the

progress of their plants with great interest.

Planting Seed or Plants:

Timing and Techniques

Choose appropriate timing as well as a suitable planting

technique to give the planting the best possible chance

of success. Use the information in Tables 2, 3 and 4 to

help make decisions regarding the timing and

techniques of putting the seed or plants into the ground.

Make sure that the seeds and plants are cared for on

planting day. Seed left in a container in the hot sun will

be damaged, maybe even killed; so keep seed containers

lightly work the soil surface and hang yellow sticky

plastic cards above the plants to capture adults.

Insects are attracted to the yellow colour of the card

and will be trapped by the sticky surface. These cards

are readily available at most garden centres. Predatory

mites are another non-chemical means of insect

control (see Greenhouse Supplies under Sources of

Materials, Specialized Equipment and Services).

• About four to six weeks after germination, fertilize

lightly with a diluted solution of a balanced fertilizer

in a cool, shaded spot. Plants will need protection from

the sun and wind prior to planting, and they may also

need watering. Keep an eye on them because they can

dry out very quickly on a windy day.

Planting the Project Site

Proud teacher and students of Howard-Harwich-Moravian Public

School in Ridgetown have used their schoolyard prairie planting

as a venue for outdoor theatre. Lauren Harris

This volunteer is hand

seeding the weed-free bed.

Mary Gartshore

While small projects can be

seeded by hand, large-scale

projects require machines such

as this seed drill.

Kim Delaney

Table 2: Appropriate Seeding and Planting Times

Seeding Planting Plants

• In Southern Ontario,

best done in May

(before the end of June

at the latest), to take

advantage of rainfall

and the long growing

season ahead.

• Plants can be planted

throughout the season

if watering is a

practical option.

• Fall planting is possible

only in well-drained

soils because frost will

heave fall-planted plants

out of the ground in

wet, heavy soils.

• Best done as early as

possible in the spring

and before the end of

May in Southern

Ontario, to take

advantage of seasonal

rainfall.

• Early-winter seeding

is an option for

wildflowers but does

not work well for

grasses. Broadcast the

wildflower seed over

frozen soil, where it

will remain cool and

moist until spring.

This technique is

called frost seeding.

22 Planting the Seed

Table 3: Seeding Techniques

Seeding Technique Method Comments

• Suitable for small projects and gardens.

• Unskilled labour can be used.

• Equipment is inexpensive.

• Can be done on wet sites or slopes that equipment

cannot reach.

• Seeding rates are twice those recommended for

drilling (see Drilling, below).

• Cannot be done on windy days.

• The simplest method is to scatter

seed by hand over the bare soil.

Mixing seed with sand before

broadcasting allows for more even

seed distribution.

• Various hand-cranked seed

broadcasters are available for

surface broadcasting of seed.

• Two passes over the site works

best, at right angles to each other.

• Rake seed in lightly.

• Firmly pack soil after seeding to

ensure good seed-soil contact. On a

small site, stamp it in – or let

children have fun jumping on

plywood boards that are moved

around the site. Larger sites can be

rolled or cultipacked.

Hand broadcasting

• Suitable for large projects.

• No-till option available.

• Designed to handle fluffy seed, but seed must be free

of chaff and stems.

• Most efficient use of limited seed.

• Can be done on windy days.

• Ensures good soil contact without use of additional

equipment.

• Equipment availability and price can be a problem.

• Skilled labour is necessary.

• Equipment can get plugged up if seed is not clean

enough; add cracked grain to seed to help it flow

through the equipment.

• A tractor-pulled native-seed drill

places the seed at a predetermined

depth and spacing, and then packs

soil firmly. Equipment brand names

include Truax™, Nesbit™, Great

Plains™, Brillion™ and Tye™.

• One pass over the site is adequate.

Drilling

• Suitable for large projects.

• Equipment is less expensive than a drill.

• Equipment availability and price can be a problem.

• Skilled labour is necessary.

• Seeding rates are twice those recommended for

drilling (see Drilling, below).

• Calibrating the seed rate can be difficult.

• Cannot be done on windy days.

• Fluffy seed will not always flow through seeder, but

cracked grain can be added to help prevent

equipment from plugging.

• A tractor-pulled wildflower seeder

or an ATV-mounted seeder

broadcasts seed. Equipment brand

names include Bevco™ and

Truax™.

• Incorporate seed lightly into the

soil by raking or dragging chains

behind the ATV.

• Use a lawn roller or tractor-pulled

cultipacker after broadcasting seed

to make the soil firm and ensure

good seed-soil contact.

Machine

broadcasting

Planting the Project Site 23

Seeding and Planting Rates

The following guidelines will assist you in determining

the appropriate amounts of plants or seed to use. Before

planting, take note of any major differences in conditions

such as soil moisture within the site, and match species

to conditions. For seeding, this may mean preparing two

seed mixes – for example, one mix with species suited

to moist conditions and the other with species preferring

dry conditions.

Seed

In the tallgrass prairie region of Southern Ontario, the

recommended seeding rate for drilling

seed is 13 kilograms

per hectare (see Table 3 for information on hand and

machine broadcasting). Of this, 9 kilograms is grass seed

and 4 kilograms is wildflower seed. This guideline aims

at achieving a 50:50 grass-to-wildflower ratio. Double the

amount of seed per

hectare when

broadcast seeding.

Certain projects may

require different

seeding rates. For

example, wildlife

managers planting for

northern bobwhite

prefer a more open

planting to facilitate

the movement of birds. This would requiring a drill-

seeding rate of approximately 9 kilograms per hectare.

Meadows can be seeded at a similar rate, but to

accommodate the higher percentage of wildflowers,

divide the 13 kilograms into 7 kilograms of grass seed

and 6 kilograms of wildflower seed. This is a general

guideline; quantities can be adjusted to suit the project

goals, such as providing food plants for a butterfly

meadow, seed-producing species for birds or a high

percentage of showy blooms.

If you use equipment such as a seed drill that can be

calibrated, the seed should be spread at a rate of 320

to 540 seeds per square metre.

If you are hand broadcasting

the seed, mix it with dampened

sand and divide into two

batches. Take the first batch

and starting at one end of the

site, spread it as evenly as

possible over the entire area.

Then take the second batch

and starting at right angles to

the first pass, spread it as

evenly as possible. This

technique will ensure that

there is enough seed to cover

the entire area.

Table 4: Planting Techniques

Seeding Technique Method Comments

• Suitable for small projects and gardens.

• Good opportunity to involve the community.

• Equipment (trowels, shovels, dibbles) is readily

available and inexpensive.

• Can be done on wet sites or slopes that equipment

cannot reach.

• Time-consuming.

• Hauling sufficient water can be difficult.

• Place potted plants and plugs in a

hole slightly larger than the root

mass. Firm the soil around roots

leaving a slight depression to catch

water, and water plants thoroughly.

Ensure that roots are not left

exposed after watering.

• Bury tubers and rhizomes below

the surface, firm the soil around

them and water thoroughly.

Hand planting

• Suitable for large projects.

• Very efficient use of time – for example, a two-row

planter can plant up to 40,000 plugs a day.

• Water is used efficiently because it is delivered to the

roots as plants are planted.

• Rows are evenly spaced, which allows for machine

cultivation of site for weed control.

• Equipment availability and price can be a problem.

• Needs a level or gently sloping site with good site

preparation.

A tractor-pulled plug planter cuts a

trench, places plugs at a

predetermined depth and spacing,

waters each plant and then closes the

trench.

Machine planting

Hand planting plugs is an

enjoyable activity for all ages.

Lindsay Rodger

Prairie grass seed destined for a

restoration project in Southern Ontario.

P. Allen Woodliffe

24 Planting the Seed

Plug Plants

Plant plugs at a rate of 25,000 per hectare. This works

out to 2.5 plants per square metre, or 25 plants per

10 square metres. For some projects, and where funding

permits, plugs can be planted closer. Spacing the plugs

25 to 40 centimetres apart (that is, between 9 and

5 plants per square metre respectively) will result

in a thicker and showier planting. Mix species during

planting so that grasses and wildflowers are evenly

distributed throughout the project area.

Successional Planting

Prairies and meadows change over time. When you

are establishing either a prairie or a meadow from seed,

certain species will be more successful in the early

stages and create conditions that allow other species to

establish more readily later on as the community

matures. You may wish to plant a prairie or meadow

by seed and patiently wait up to five years or more for

the later-successional species to appear. Or you may

prefer to

initially plant

only the

seed of early-

successional

species and

add plugs

of the later-

successional

species in

subsequent

years.

• Some early-successional species are black-eyed Susan,

gray-headed coneflower, wild bergamot and showy

tick-trefoil.

• Some later-successional species are dense blazing star,

closed gentian, fringed gentian and round-headed

bush-clover.

See Appendix A for more listings of early- and

later-successional species.

Cover Crops

Cover crops are sometimes planted for aesthetic reasons

or to prevent erosion on steep slopes. They also provide

quick cover that helps to suppress the growth of weeds

while prairie or meadow plants become established. The

non-native annual oats is a good cover crop because it

suppresses weeds before disappearing from the planting.

Annual oats is broadcast on the surface of the soil at the

same time as planting or seeding, or up to two months

before the first fall frost. Canada wild rye, a cool season,

early-successional grass species that is native to tallgrass

prairie, is gaining popularity as a cover crop. It

establishes quickly, overwhelms many weeds and

becomes less prevalent as the other prairie species

become established. Do not use rye grain, rye grass or

winter wheat because these species grow aggressively

and are often persistent. They are also thought to release

toxins that interfere with the growth of other plants.

There is debate about the effectiveness of cover crops.

On the one hand, cover crops

• protect tender young plants from sun scald and wind

burn;

• shelter the soil, thereby helping it retain moisture and

reducing compaction from driving rains;

• provide quick cover, which protects the soil from

erosion due to wind and rain;

• compete with annual weeds;

• provide fuel for a prescribed burn the following

spring; and

• can be harvested as hay or grain crop, which may

provide income.

On the other hand, they

• compete for sunlight, moisture and nutrients with the

young plants they are intended to protect;

• often require mowing when in bloom to prevent seed

from maturing; and

• may persist in the planting for several years longer

than desired.

Cover crops such as annual oats are most effective when

used with plug plants because the plugs have a head

start on the seeded cover crop. When a cover crop is

used in a seeding project, the results are more

unpredictable. Experience suggests that annual oats may

While hand planting is fine for small projects, mechanized equipment

such as this modified tomato planter is more appropriate for plug

planting large areas. Lauren Harris (top) and Thomas Chatterton

Gray-headed coneflower (Ratibida pinnata)

blooms from early summer to midsummer.

Ross Brown

Maintenance and Monitoring 25

Many Hands Make Light Work

Some aspects of maintenance and monitoring are periodic

and somewhat labour intensive. The involvement of

community members who have a passionate desire to

help out and see the project progress can make a valuable

contribution to the long-term success of the project. Local

youth groups, such as Scouts or Girl Guides, can gain

insight into a natural ecosystem while working towards

an environment or a community badge. Students from a

local high school, college or university may be interested

in undertaking monitoring work as a school project. The

more involvement from the local community, the greater

the understanding of and interest in the project goals. The

most successful kind of project is one that all members of

the community understand, participate in and enjoy.

Maintaining the New Planting

Watering

Seedlings and small plugs are particularly vulnerable to

drought as they are becoming established in their new

environment. If rainfall is not regular and sufficient, the

plants will benefit from watering. Watering is rarely

necessary if seed is used, since most seed will not

germinate until there is adequate moisture. The

exception to this rule occurs when there is a prolonged

dry period after the seedlings have started growing. Plug

plants, however, may require periodic watering during

their first season in the ground. Portable sprinkler

systems are an advantage if a large water supply is

readily available. Any water is better than none,

however, for watering will improve almost any project’s

results, especially in the first year.

Once the seedlings are established, they should need no

further watering; even in dry years they will survive

much better than most surrounding vegetation. Prairie

plants, in particular, spend most of the first season

developing a good root system, an adaptation critical to

survival in a drought-prone environment.

A Community Restoration on the

Rice Lake Plain

Tony and Heather Kenny own land along the Otonabee

River in Peterborough County. Working with the local

Stewardship Council, the Kennys restored 5 hectares

of their agricultural land on the Rice Lake Plain to

tallgrass prairie. More than 50 volunteers came out

to help plant the prairie, and many continue to assist

with ongoing maintenance.

A demonstration garden was established at the entrance

to the project so visitors can identify some of the 20

species of plants used in the restoration. Two years after

the first plant went into the ground, the number of

songbirds and butterflies was already rising.

work better on sand than on clay. If a cover crop is used,

broadcast it at a rate of 30 kilograms per hectare, and

mow it to a height of 20 centimetres in midsummer.

Mulch

Mulch can be considered for the planting. Mulch will

• protect the soil from erosion;

• shelter the soil and keep it moist;

• help prevent weed seeds in the soil from germinating

(although seed may blow in and root in the mulch

itself); and

• use nitrogen while decomposing, which depletes soil

reserves of the nutrient. This nitrogen depletion,

known as reverse fertilization, favours the growth of

prairie and meadow species over weedy species.

Mulch is best used on small plantings since it is far

too labour intensive for large projects. Use weed-free,

biodegradable material such as aged sawdust or

shredded or chopped straw (not hay, which contains

weed seeds), and spread it between plants – deeper

around more established plants (sawdust 3 to 5

centimetres, straw 5 to 10 centimetres). Do not allow

the mulch to touch the individual plants because it can

trap moisture against the plant tissue and cause rot.

Mulch can also be used on seeded sites, but must be

spread very lightly over the seed bed.

Ripe seed heads of Canada wild rye (Elymus canadensis), a tall,

attractive grass that can be used as a cover crop. Kim Delaney

Maintenance and Monitoring

26 Planting the Seed

Weeding

One of the biggest challenges in the early stages after

planting is the suppression of weeds. Even with the

most rigorous site preparation, weeds will appear,

although this is less of a problem in sandy soils than

in clay or organic (nutrient-rich) soil.

It is important to identify the weeds growing in your

planting and to determine which are annual, which

are biennial and which are perennial (see Restoration,

Naturalization and Management under Sources of

Information). It is quite possible that there may be

some of each.

In the case of annual weeds such as common barnyard

grass, it is not necessary to remove the whole plant,

since it only lives to produce seed once and then dies.

Annuals can be controlled effectively by preventing

them from producing seed; this is best done by mowing

them in the growing season to remove the flowers.

Mowing might have to be done several times in one

season to keep seed from forming. A tractor-mounted

mower may be necessary for the first mowing. Setting

the mower at about 20 centimetres high should allow

for the cutting of the flower parts of the weeds, which,

in the first year of planting, will likely shoot up above

most of the planted species. Even if you mow the tops

off the perennial prairie or meadow species, this will

not harm them, but will prevent them from flowering.

Follow-up weed control can be done with a gas-powered

“weed eater” to control problem patches while minimizing

the impact on growing prairie or meadow.

Biennial weeds, such as white sweet-clover, won’t flower

until the second season of growth, so it isn’t necessary to

mow them during the first season of growth. In the

second year, they should be mowed to prevent them

from flowering and setting seed. If there are only a few

biennial weeds in a planting, individual flowering stems

can be cut off by hand, at the base just above the root.

For hard-to-control species, including biennials and

most perennials such as red clover, Queen Anne’s lace

and Canada thistle, spot spraying with a glyphosate-

based herbicide is recommended. Remember that

glyphosate will kill all actively growing plants it comes

into contact with, including the planted species, so it

must be applied in a way that only undesirable plants

are sprayed. Mowing perennial weeds is not an effective

technique. While mowing can keep them from setting

seed, it will not remove them from the planting and will

provide, at best, only limited control.

Hand pulling is an option for weed control, but not the

preferred method in most cases. Pulling up roots

disturbs the soil, which brings dormant weed seeds to

the surface where they are likely to germinate and thus

exacerbate the weed problem. It is hard, time-consuming

work, and it is often difficult to interest volunteers in

this activity. If you wish to hand-pull, it is important to

remove the entire root, especially when pulling

perennials, because even the smallest piece of root may

be capable of producing a new plant. If not done

properly, pulling can compound the problem. On sandy

sites, weeds can be pulled anytime. On clay sites, it is

easiest to get the entire root when the soil is damp – for

example, the day after a good rain. Removing the

material from the site is recommended, especially if the

plants are mature enough to have begun to set seed. If it

rains before the weeds die, they may have a chance to

reroot and all the hard work will go to waste!

Unwanted Guests: Weeds That Won’t

Go Away

In some plantings, specific unwanted plants may

cause problems, even with the best weeding and

mowing efforts. For example, plants such as Canada

thistle, black locust trees and dog-strangling vine

(pale swallowwort) can be very invasive, and special

efforts may be required to completely remove them.

Take time to identify, to the species level, any problem

plants in the planting. Then use the various resources

on exotic and invasive plants listed in Restoration,

Naturalization and Management under Sources of

Information to figure out the best way to get rid of

these unwanted guests.

Long-Term Maintenance

After the planting has become established and has

covered all exposed ground, maintenance requirements

will be substantially reduced. The deep roots of prairie

plants, in particular, help minimize the establishment

and growth of weedy species. Long-term maintenance

involves simulating natural disturbance to keep woody

species from moving in and turning the prairie or

meadow into a woodland. This can best be done with

prescribed burning for prairie plantings and with tree

and shrub control for meadows.

Persistent perennial weeds such as Canada thistle (Cirsium

arvense) can be effectively controlled with a spot-spray of

glyphosate-based herbicide. Steven Aboud

Maintenance and Monitoring 27

Maintaining Meadow Plantings

Natural meadows along rivers, on floodplains and on

very dry sites often rely on the natural processes of

flooding or drought to maintain them. This periodic

disturbance keeps woody species from becoming

established and prevents succession to a treed landscape.

In a meadow planting, these disturbance processes are

likely to be absent, thereby allowing woody species to

become established. The key to long-term meadow

maintenance, then, is to keep a balance between

herbaceous and woody species. When trees and shrubs

become too numerous, selective removal is necessary.

Some can be controlled by mowing with a heavy-duty

mower or hand-held brush saw. Mowing, however, may

actually encourage the spread of other species such as

dogwoods and willows. Removing these species requires

a different approach: cut the woody stems near ground

level and have a commercial herbicide applicator (see

Sources of Materials, Specialized Equipment and

Services) follow immediately behind to treat the stumps

with a glyphosate-based herbicide (e.g., Roundup

Vision

) as per label instructions to prevent resprouting.

Prescribed Burns for Prairie Plantings

CAUTION: This guide does not provide detailed

instruction for successfully carrying out a prescribed

burn. It merely highlights some of the concerns to be

considered and provides contacts where proper

assistance can be obtained. If you have no experience

with prescribed burning, seek help and training from

someone who does. For assistance in planning and

preparation, read reference material such as How to

Manage Small Prairie Fires (Pauly 1988). Contact the

local Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources (OMNR)

district office for guidance, and the local fire department

for permission to conduct the burn.

CAUTION: It is necessary to obtain permission before

conducting a prescribed burn. In some areas, municipal

bylaws prohibit the setting of fires. In other places,

permits may be necessary. Check local regulations by

contacting the municipal office, and discuss the plans

with the local fire department. A written burn plan helps

to satisfy local requirements.

Fire is a key maintenance tool for prairie remnants and

plantings. When performed correctly, a prescribed burn

will serve to both discourage weeds and stimulate

growth of the fire-adapted prairie plants.

Unlike a forest wildfire, a prairie prescribed burn is a

low-intensity fire that moves quickly over the landscape.

Extensive experience with prescribed burns in Southern

Ontario has demonstrated that they can be carried out

safely on prairie remnants and plantings, even in cities

(see Fire in the City, on page 28). However, a prescribed

burn must be carefully planned and conducted, with

experienced people advising and assisting.

The deep roots of native prairie grasses can block the spread of

persistent perennial weeds with lateral root systems (such as Canada

thistle), whereas non-native, more shallowly rooted grasses do not

control these weeds. Judie Shore

Fire is a natural and important part of prairie ecology.

P. Allen Woodliffe

28 Planting the Seed

A Prescribed Burn Plan

Preparing a prescribed burn plan is an essential first step

that will help you think through all the necessary

preparations and precautions. Keep in mind that simple

small-scale prescribed burns have fewer planning

requirements than larger burns, and that the OMNR can

provide advice on preparing a plan that is appropriate

for the complexity of the burn. Once this plan is in

place, it can be revised annually, and, depending on the

complexity of fire issues, can possibly be carried out

with minimal OMNR involvement. If additional

assistance is needed in subsequent years, the local

OMNR fire-management office will be able to provide

information on consultants and contractors who are

involved with prescribed burning in the area (see

Sources of Materials, Specialized Equipment and

Services).

A prescribed burn plan should cover the following:

• A list of the objectives and how they will be

accomplished

• Amount of land to be burned

• Timing and frequency of burns

• Site preparation (e.g., setting up firebreaks)

• Appropriate weather conditions for conducting

the burn (e.g., wind direction and humidity)

• Equipment and people required

• Water sources available

• A step-by-step outline of how the burn will be

conducted

• The necessary fire permits

• A communications plan (notifying appropriate local

authorities and local residents)

• Safety and emergency procedures

Use the following information to develop a prescribed

burn plan:

• Burn frequency

For new plantings, fire should be used when there is

enough build-up of dry grass to carry the fire, usually

by the second or third year after planting. Burning

every year initially and every two years on average

after the planted vegetation is well established can be

the most effective tool in controlling weedy and/or

non-native competition as well as in stimulating the

prairie vegetation. As the prairie matures (once non-

native plants are largely removed and the prairie

plants have covered the bare ground), conduct burns

less frequently (every three to five years).

Fire in the City

Toronto’s High Park is home to a remnant oak savanna

that has become degraded, in part due to decades of

fire suppression. When the restoration initiative for

this site started in 1993, volunteers were faced with

an invasion of

non-native trees and

herbaceous plants.

Various restoration

techniques, including

prescribed burning,

are being used to

help bring the oak

savanna back to its

former glory. The

OMNR worked with

the volunteer group

and the city’s Parks

and Recreation Division to develop a prescribed burn

plan, and trained OMNR employees conducted the

burns. Initially, some Toronto residents expressed

concern about the burning, but members of the High

Park project took steps to explain the vital role that fire

plays. They made presentations at community meetings,

installed informative signs in the park and wrote articles

in local newspapers. Thanks to their efforts, community

support for this restoration project has grown. As of

Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources fire crew

members conduct a prescribed burn to restore

oak savanna habitat in High Park, Toronto.

Karen Yukich

1999, two small burns had been safely conducted right

in the heart of Canada’s largest city. Following this

success, the city is planning to proceed with operational-

scale burns of 10 to 15 hectares per year, for the next

eight years. The annual burns are to be implemented by

experts, with the help of city staff and volunteers.

Restoration work in this city park has become a

concerted effort with the addition of a seasonal field

crew dedicated to this purpose.

The remnant population of wild lupine (Lupinus perennis) in High Park has

flourished since the reintroduction of fire. Gera Dillon

Maintenance and Monitoring 29

• Time of year

In the past, prairie fires would be sparked by lightning

strikes and they likely occurred at different times of

the year. Most prescribed burns are done in early

spring (mid-March to late April in southwestern

Ontario, late April to mid-May in more northerly

areas) for both ecological and practical reasons. Fires

set at other times may favour certain weed species that

do not cope as well with early spring burns. Consult

an expert if you would like help in fine-tuning the

timing of the burn to manage the planting for specific

prairie species within the mix of forbs and grasses.

• Animal refuges

Many animals will be able to escape the flames, but

some wildlife, such as insect eggs and larvae, will be

lost. If practical, leave some areas unburned to allow

refuges for wildlife. Consider burning half of the site

each time on a rotating basis.

• Safety

Ensure that adequate firebreaks are created by

ploughing a 2-metre strip of vegetation or mowing a

strip and laying out a soaker hose or treating it with

fire-retardant foam. Take advantage of existing

firebreaks such as rivers or roads. Fire should be

managed so that smoke does not become a nuisance

or hazard to residents or motorists.

Prairie Fires

Fire is one of the most important factors leading to the

development of prairie and is vital for keeping a prairie

healthy and thriving. Prairie fire

• Consumes dead plant material and recycles nutrients

quickly.

• Directly kills or at least suppresses non-prairie

species.

• Releases nitrogen into the atmosphere, making it less

available for plant growth. Prairie species are adapted

to low nitrogen levels and thus have an advantage

over weedy species.

• Leaves a layer of black ash on the soil surface, which

absorbs warmth from sunlight and stimulates the

growth of prairie plants.

Alternatives to Burning Prairie

Burning will not be an option at every location. If this is

the case at your site, mowing can be a partial substitute

for fire. Mow in late fall, according to the same cycle

that would be used for burning. By then, birds have

finished nesting, and prairie and meadow plants have set

seed. Consider mowing only half the site on a rotating

basis to retain adequate winter cover for wildlife.

Remove the cut stems because the thatch (dead grass)

layer will provide an additional nitrogen source for weed

growth. Once the thatch is removed, sunlight will warm

the ground and encourage the growth of prairie plants.

Monitoring and Reporting

There is nothing like hard evidence to demonstrate the

successes (and pitfalls) of any project. Written notes,

photos and numerical data provide a record of what has

been done for your own satisfaction. But this information

can also be useful to

• demonstrate success to project funders;

• nullify potential opposition to secondary phases of a

project;

• advertise and promote for future fund-raising;

• add to the knowledge base in your local area and

encourage others; and

• learn which approaches and techniques worked

and which did not; this is valuable information

for modifying management methods and for

future projects.

Monitoring a project requires patience and realistic

expectations – a ploughed field does not become

a dense, weed-free flowering prairie or meadow in

one season. Use the information in Table 5 to assess

progress or troubleshoot.

Photo Monitoring

One of the easiest monitoring methods is using photos

to record the process from the beginning, the species

that are present and the people involved. Photos taken

from fixed reference points can be useful to demonstrate

both obvious and subtle changes over time. This should

be done seasonally and annually.

Firebreaks such as this ploughed strip are used to contain the

prescribed burn within selected areas. John Bayes

30 Planting the Seed

Number of species

growing versus

number planted

High percentage of species survival;

if seeded, increasing number of

species appear in future years.

Estimate of

percentage of plant

survival for each

species (if using

plugs)

At least 75 percent in first year. Gaps

will be filled in through clumping or

self-seeding in subsequent years.

Troubleshooting comments above are applicable here

as well.

General plant

health and vigour

Hardy, green (or red-brown in late

season), growing plants, with no

sign of damage or disease.

If an excessive amount of mulch has severely depleted

available soil nitrogen, plants will appear yellow.

Consider fertilizing with small amounts of nitrogen.

Flowering and

seed set

If planted early enough, flowering

and seed set of plugs could occur in

first year. Most plants, whether

starting from seed or plugs, should

flower and produce seed by second

year.

Extreme growing conditions may cause delay in growth

and development. Excess weed problem could hamper

growth. Patience is needed. If the plants are still alive,

with proper maintenance (weed control, prescribed

burns) all should flower and produce seed.

Plant cover

By second or third year, there could

be a relatively even, dense plant

cover over the entire project area.

Assess very large bare patches for specific problems

(e.g., too wet/dry, herbicide drift from adjacent areas)

and augment by planting with appropriate species. Bare

patches in moderation are important for wildlife such as

insects, birds and snakes.

Weed types and

abundance

No invasive weeds; reduction of

weed diversity and abundance over

time, with planted species becoming

dominant.

Excess weeds suggest that site preparation was

inadequate. Remove weeds using most appropriate

means (see Weeding, above).

Table 5: Assessing the Success of the Planting Project

Items to Monitor Signs of Success Troubleshooting

Poor results may suggest

• poor species choice for site conditions;

• extreme early growing conditions (too wet or dry);

• site contamination by herbicides;

• inadequate maintenance (e.g., water needed to

establish); or

• heavy grazing by insects or other animals (e.g.,

rabbits, geese).

Assess problem/conditions and augment planting with

appropriate species.

A Final Thought 31

Natural landscapes need not be confined to parks,

conservation areas and nature reserves. Restoring

ecological communities to settled landscapes can provide

vital connections among remnant natural areas.

Opportunities for prairie and meadow restoration exist

everywhere, including in local community parks, along

highway shoulders, on marginal rural land and even in

backyards.

Prairie and meadow are low-maintenance, high-biodiversity

habitats that add beauty and value to settled landscapes.

Well-planned prairie and meadow naturalization

projects will help to restore the health of our settled

landscapes and bring back some of the rich diversity

of Ontario’s natural heritage.

Cultivating these changes in community landscapes

can involve everyone, offering both fun and an

educational experience. This guide provides the basic

tools to help you dig in and restore Southern Ontario’s

grassland communities.

Statistical Monitoring

Although a statistical evaluation of a project is more

involved than photo monitoring, it can be useful. Over

time, the data recorded will demonstrate even subtle

changes and provide information that can be used to

make appropriate management decisions. This works

best for plantings greater than 0.5 hectares. Methods for

collecting data will differ from project to project. The

Tallgrass Restoration Handbook for Prairies, Savannas

and Woodlands (Packard and Mutel 1997) has a chapter

devoted to vegetation monitoring (see Restoration,

Naturalization and Management under Sources of

Information). Check an academic library for other

introductory field biology books that cover vegetation-

sampling techniques. Ask an ecologist for some

assistance with appropriate data collection and

statistical-analysis techniques for the project, and check

with a nearby college or university to see if students

might like to assist as part of a course project.

A Final Thought

Monitoring your project closely helps you notice and troubleshoot any

problems and keep track of ongoing changes and successes.

Kim Delaney

P. Allen Woodliffe

This table can be used as a guide to help you develop a

species list for your project. Use the information to

choose species that are appropriate to the location and

conditions of your project site.

Key to the Species Table

Prairie: The species is associated with prairie and may

be suitable for a prairie planting within the range indi-

cated in the Range column.

Meadow: The species is associated with meadow and

may be suitable for a meadow planting within the range

indicated in the Range column.

Range: The area in Southern Ontario where the species

currently occurs and/or historically occurred. The Range

indicators are shown as two-letter codes that refer to a

county or municipality. For the purposes of this guide,

we recommend that a species be planted only within the

general range of its historical occurrence in Southern

Ontario – that is, only within the counties or municipal-

ities specified. Range information is taken from a vari-

ety of sources, primarily regional distribution lists, with

the terms used as follows:

• Throughout: The species is found throughout the 26

counties/municipalities within the historical range of

prairie; however, those species identified as meadow

only are not necessarily limited to the historical range

of prairie and do, in fact, occur beyond that range.

• Widespread: The species is generally found across

the entire range of the 26 counties/municipalities,

but with several exceptions (noted in parentheses).

• Restricted: The species is not widespread, and the

nine or more counties/municipalities where the

species has been recorded are listed.

• Very restricted: The species is not widespread, and

the less than nine counties/municipalities where the

species has been recorded are listed.

The two-letter range codes are as follows:

BN Brant County

CK Municipality of Chatham-Kent

(formerly Kent County)

DF Dufferin County

DR Durham County

EL Elgin County

ES Essex County

HL Regional Municipality of Halton

HN Regional Municipality of Haldimand-Norfolk

HS Hastings County

HU Huron County

HW Regional Municipality of Hamilton-Wentworth

LA Lambton County

MI Middlesex County

NI Regional Municipality of Niagara

NO Northumberland County

OX Oxford County

PE Prince Edward County

PL Regional Municipality of Peel

PR Perth County

PT Peterborough County

SI Simcoe County

TO Toronto

VI Victoria County

WA Regional Municipality of Waterloo

WE Wellington County

YO Regional Municipality of York

Core Species: Core species are the species forming the

backbone of naturally occurring prairies and meadows.

Core species that occur in the project area (consult

Range column) should form the common component of

the planting. Other species on the following list not

marked as core species can be used for planting projects

within the appropriate range, but should not be as

prevalent as core species.

Moisture Preference: Moisture preference describes the

site moisture conditions in which the species is general-

ly found. Conditions range from Wet (W) to Wet Mesic

(WM), Mesic (M), Dry Mesic (DM) and Dry (D).

Soil Preference: Soil preference describes the soil type(s)

on which the species is generally found. Basic soil types

include sand (S), loam (L) and clay (C).

Germination Code: Germination requirements and cor-

responding codes are explained in Appendix B: Seed-

Treatment Techniques. (N/A [not available] in the table

below indicates that the requirements are not yet

known.)

Successional Stage: Successional stage refers to the peri-

od in which the species becomes best established when

seeded; that is, species identified as early should become

well established in the first five years, and later succes-

sional species after five years. Of course, local conditions

will vary, and some species may become established ear-

lier or take longer, depending on soil conditions, the

seed mix, etc. (N/A [not available] in the table below

indicates that the successional stage has not yet been

determined.)

Height and Other Comments: Height classes are as

follows: short species are less than 1 metre high;

medium species are 1 to 1.7 metres high; tall species

are higher than 1.7 metres.

32 Planting the Seed

Appendix A: Recommended Species for Prairie and Meadow Plantings in Southern Ontario

Appendix A 33

Prairie

Meadow

Core Species

Moisture

Preference

Soil

Preference

Germination

Code

Successional

Stage

Height

and Other

Comments

Range

Species

Grasses

and Sedges

Andropogon gerardii ●●Widespread (not in DF); ● WM–DM S, L, C CD or CM Early Tall, to 3.0 m

Big bluestem dominates many prairies or more

Bromus kalmii ● Widespread (not in DF, WM–DM S, L CD N/A Medium, to

Kalm’s brome DR, GR, OX, PL, PR, WE); 1.6 m

never dominant

Calamagrostis ●●Throughout; common on wet W–M S, L, C CD N/A Medium, to

canadensis sites and can be quite dominant 1.6 m

Canada bluejoint

Carex bebbii ● Throughout ● WM S, L, C CM Early Short

Bebb’s sedge

Carex comosa ● Throughout WM S, L, C CM Later Short

Bristly sedge

Carex crinita ● Throughout WM S, L, C CM Early Short

Fringed sedge

Carex retrorsa ● Throughout WM S, L, C CM Early Short

Retrorse sedge

Carex stipata ● Throughout ● WM S, L, C CM Early Short

Awl-fruited sedge

Carex stricta ● Throughout WM S, L, C CM Early Short

Tussock sedge

Carex vulpinoidea ● Throughout ● WM S, L, C CM Early Short

Fox sedge

Cyperus esculentus ● Throughout WM S, L, C CM Early Short

Yellow nut-grass

Eleocharis obtusa ● Throughout WM S, L, C CM Early Short

Blunt spike-rush

Elymus canadensis ●●Widespread (not in DF, PR, VI) ● WM–D S, L, C CD Early Medium, to 1.3 m

Canada wild rye

Elymus hystrix ● Throughout M–DM S, L CD or CM N/A Medium, to 1.3 m

Bottle-brush grass

Glyceria striata ● Throughout WM S, L, C CM Later Tall

Fowl manna grass

Hierochloe odorata ●●Widespread (not in HL, HW, NI, W–WM S, L CD N/A Short, to 0.6 m

Sweetgrass OX, PE, PL); locally abundant

Juncus articulatus ● Throughout ● WM S, L, C CM Early Short

Jointed rush

Juncus balticus ● Throughout WM S, L, C CM Early Short

Baltic rush

Juncus effusus ● Throughout ● WM S, L, C CM Early Short

Soft rush

Juncus tenuis ● Throughout ● WM S, L, C CM Early Short

Path rush

Prairie

Meadow

Core Species

Moisture

Preference

Soil

Preference

Germination

Code

Successional

Stage

Height

and Other

Comments

Range

Species

34 Planting the Seed

Juncus torreyi ● Throughout WM S, L, C CM Early Short

Torrey’s rush

Leerisia oryzoides ● Throughout WM S, L, C CM Early Short

Rice cut grass

Panicum virgatum ●●Widespread (not in DF, HL, HS, ● M–D S, L CD or CM Early Medium, to 1.6 m

Switch grass PT, VI, WA); sometimes dominant

on drier sites

Schizachyrium ● Widespread (not in DF, DR, NO, ● DM–D S, L CD Later Medium, to 1.3 m

scoparium PR, PT); often dominant on

Little bluestem drier sites

Scirpus atrovirens ● Throughout ● WM S, L, C CM Early Medium

Green bulrush

Scirpus cyperinus ● Throughout ● WM S, L, C CM Early Medium

Wool-grass

Sorghastrum nutans ● Widespread (not in DF, DR, HL, ● WM–DM S, L, C CD Later Tall, to 2.5 m

Indian grass OX, PR, VI); often dominant

Spartina pectinata ● Widespread (not in DF, DR, HL, ● W–WM S, L CM Later Tall, to 2.3 m

Prairie cord grass NO, OX, VI, WE); often Low

dominant on wet sites viability

Sporobolus asper ● Natural occurrences believed to DM–D S, L CD Early Medium, to 1.2 m

Rough dropseed be restricted to BN, CK, EL, ES,

HN, MI, NI, SI, WA, YO, but

often found as introduced

or adventive in most other areas,

often along roads

Sporobolus ● Widespread (not in BN, DR, DM–D S, L CM, S N/A Short

cryptandrus OX, PL, PR)

Sand dropseed

Forbs

Achillea millefolium ●●Throughout; some locations may W–DM S, L CD Early Short

Yarrow have an introduced subspecies

Amphicarpaea ●●Widespread (not in DF, PE) WM–M S, L CD, S, I N/A Medium, usually

bracteata entangled with

Hog peanut other vegetation

Anemone canadensis ●●Throughout WM–M S, L CM N/A Short, to 0.4 m

Canada anemone

Anemone cylindrica ●●Widespread (not in HU, OX, PR) ● M–DM S, L CM N/A Short, to 0.5 m

Thimbleweed

Apios americana ●●Widespread (not in PR, DF) WM–M S, L N/A N/A Medium, usually

Groundnut entangled with

other vegetation

Apocynum ●●Throughout W–M S, L, C CM N/A Medium, to 1.2 m

cannabinum

Indian hemp

Prairie

Meadow

Core Species

Moisture

Preference

Soil

Preference

Germination

Code

Successional

Stage

Height

and Other

Comments

Range

Species

Appendix A 35

Asclepias incarnata ●●Throughout ● W–WM S, L, C CM N/A Medium, to 1.5 m

Swamp milkweed

Asclepias tuberosa ●●Widespread (not in DF, HU, OX, ● M–DM S, L, C CM Later Short, to 0.7 m;

Butterfly milkweed PR, PT, VI) highly desirable,

attracts insects,

especially

butterflies

Aster ericoides ●●Throughout; one of the most ● WM–DM S, L, C CD Early Short

Heath aster common and widespread asters

in Southern Ontario

Aster laevis ●●Widespread (not in DF, NO, OX, ● WM–DM S, L CD Later Medium, to 1.2 m

Smooth aster PE, PL, PR, VI)

Aster lateriflorus ● Throughout; common WM–M S, L, C CD Early Medium, to 1.5 m

Calico aster

Aster novae-angliae ●●Throughout; one of the most ● WM–DM S, L, C CM Early Medium, to 1.2 m

New England aster common and widespread asters

in Southern Ontario

Aster oolentangiensis ●●Widespread (not in DF, HU, PE, WM–D S, L CD Later Short, to 1 m

Sky blue aster PR, OX, WE)

Aster pilosus ●●Throughout ● WM–M S, L CD Early Medium

Hairy aster

Aster puniceus ● Throughout; common WM–M S, L, C CM Early Tall, to 2.4 m

Purple-stemmed

aster

Aster umbellatus ●●Widespread (not in DF, PE) ● W–WM S, L CM Early Tall, to 2 m

Flat-topped white

aster

Aster urophyllus ●●Widespread (not in HU, PR) WM–M S, L CD Later Medium, to 1.2 m

Arrow-leaved aster

Bidens frondosa ● Throughout WM–M S, L, C CD Early Medium

Devil’s beggar-ticks

Campanula ●●Throughout W–WM S, L CM, L N/A Short; usually

aparinoides sprawling in low

Marsh bellflower vegetation

Cirsium discolor ● Widespread (not in DF, HL, HU, WM–DM S, L, C CM Early Tall, to 2.2 m;

Field thistle HW, NO, PE, PL, PR, PT, WE) can be aggressive,

but is easily

controlled

Chelone glabra ● Throughout WM S, L, C CM Later Medium

Turtlehead

Desmodium ●●Widespread (not in DF, HU, PR) ● W–M S, L, C CD, S, I Early Tall, to 1.8 m;

canadense showy

Showy tick-trefoil

Prairie

Meadow

Core Species

Moisture

Preference

Soil

Preference

Germination

Code

Successional

Stage

Height

and Other

Comments

Range

Species

36 Planting the Seed

Eupatorium ● Throughout WM–M S, L, C CD N/A Tall, to 3.0 m;

maculatum showy

Spotted

Joe-pye-weed

Eupatorium ● Throughout WM–M S, L, C CD N/A Tall, to 1.8 m

perfoliatum

Boneset

Euphorbia corollata ●●Restricted; found in BN, CK, ES, ● WM–D S, L CM Later Short

Flowering spurge LA, MI, OX, PR, WA, YO

Euthamia ● Throughout WM–M S, L, C CD Early Medium

graminifolia

Grass-leaved

goldenrod

Fragaria virginiana ●●Throughout ● WM–D S, L, C CD N/A Short

Wild strawberry

Gentiana andrewsii ●●Widespread (not in DF, HS, PL) W–M S, L, C CM, L Later Short, to 0.6 m

Bottle gentian

Gentianopsis crinita ●●Widespread (not in DF, HS, WM–M S, L L, FM Later Short, to 0.6 m

Fringed gentian HU, PR)

Helenium autumnale ● Widespread (not in DF, DR, HW, WM–M S, L, C CM Later Short, to 0.8 m

Sneezeweed NO, OX, PL, SI, TO, VI, YO)

Helianthus giganteus ●●Restricted; found in BN, CK, EL, ● WM–DM S, L, C CD or CM Later Tall, to 3.0 m or

Tall sunflower ES, HN, HU, HW, LA, MI, PL; more

may occur elsewhere, but is

believed to be introduced

Helianthus strumosus ● Widespread (not in DF, HU, OX, WM–DM S, L, C CD or CM N/A Medium

Pale-leaved PR, VI, WE)

sunflower

Heliopsis helianthoides ●●Restricted; found in BN, CK, W–M S, L, C CD or CM Later Medium, to 1.5 m

False sunflower DR, EL, ES, HN, HU, HW, LA,

MI, SI, WA, VI, YO

Hypoxis hirsuta ● Restricted; found in BN, CK, ES, W–WM S, L CM Later Short, less

Yellow star-grass HN, HS, HW, LA, MI, NI, YO* than 0.2 m;

early flowering

Impatiens capensis ● Throughout WM–M S, L, C CM Early Medium

Spotted jewel-weed

Iris versicolor ● Throughout WM S, L, C CM Later Short

Multi-coloured

blue-flag iris

Iris virginica ● Very restricted; found in CK, EL, WM S, L, C CM Later Short

Southern blue-flag ES, HN, HW, LA, MI, NI

iris

Lathyrus palustris ● Widespread in BN, CK, DR, ES, W–WM S, L CD, S, I N/A Short; climbing,

Marsh vetchling HN, HS, HW, LA, MI, NI, NO, vine-like

PE, PL, PT, SI, TO, VI, YO

Lespedeza capitata ●●Widespread (not in DF, OX, PE, ● WM–D S, L, C CD, S, I Later Medium, to 1.2 m

Round-headed PR, VI, WE)

bush-clover

* Can be rare within these areas; consult the ecologist at your local OMNR office before including in the planting.

Prairie

Meadow

Core Species

Moisture

Preference

Soil

Preference

Germination

Code

Successional

Stage

Height

and Other

Comments

Range

Species

Appendix A 37

Lespedeza hirta ●●Widespread (not in DF, DR, M–D S, L CD, S, I N/A Short

Hairy bush-clover HS, HU, NO, OX, PE, PR, SI,

VI, WE)

Liatris cylindracea ● Very restricted; found in CK, HN, M–D S CM N/A Short, to 0.6 m

Cylindric blazing LA, NI, NO, TO, WA, YO*

star

Liatris spicata ● Very restricted; found in CK, EL, ● WM–M S, L, C CM Later Medium, to 1.5 m

Dense blazing star ES, LA, MI, NI, YO*

Lilium michiganense ●●Widespread (not in DF, HS, PE, W–M S, L WM N/A Tall, to 2.0 m

Michigan lily PT, VI) (90 days)

/CM

(20-60

days) or F

Lilium philadelphicum ● Widespread (not in DF, HS, HU, WM–DM S, L WM N/A Short

Wood lily OX, PE, PL, PR, TO) (90 days)

/CM

(20-60

days) or F

Lithospermum ● Very restricted; found in BN, ES, M–D S, L WM Later Short, to 0.6 m

canescens HN, LA, MI, PE, WA* (60 days)

Hoary puccoon /CM

(120 days)

Lobelia siphilitica ● Throughout ● W–M S, L, C CD Early Short

Great lobelia

Lobelia spicata ●●Widespread (not in DF, OX, PE, ● WM–DM S, L, C CM, L Later Medium, to 1.3 m

Pale-spiked lobelia PL, PR, PT, TO, VI)

Lycopus americanus ● Throughout WM S, L, C CM Later Short

Cut-leaved water

horehound

Lysimachia ciliata ●●Throughout WM–M S, L CM N/A Short

Fringed loosestrife

Lysimachia ● Restricted; found in BN, ES, HN, W–M S, L CM N/A Short, to 0.6 m

quadriflora HU, HW, LA, MI, NI, SI

Prairie loosestrife

Lysimachia ● Restricted; found in BN, CK, DR, M–D S, L CM N/A Short, to 0.6 m

quadrifolia EL, ES, HL, HN, NI, NO, OX, PE,

Whorled loosestrife PL, PT, TO, WA, YO

Lythrum alatum ●●Restricted; found in CK, DR, ES, W–M S, L CM Later Medium, to 1.2 m;

Winged loosestrife EL, HN, HW, LA, MI, PT, WA* this species should

not be confused

with the closely

related and

invasive purple

loosestrife

(

Lythrum salicaria)

– the two species

can sometimes

hybridize

Mentha arvensis ● Throughout WM S, L, C CM Later Short

Wild mint

* Can be rare within these areas; consult the ecologist at your local OMNR office before including in the planting.

Prairie

Meadow

Core Species

Moisture

Preference

Soil

Preference

Germination

Code

Successional

Stage

Height

and Other

Comments

Range

Species

38 Planting the Seed

Mimulus ringens ● Throughout WM S, L, C CM Early Short

Square-stemmed

monkey-flower

Monarda fistulosa ●●Throughout ● WM–D S, L, C CD Early Short; showy

Wild bergamot

Oenothera biennis ● Throughout ● WM–D S, L, C CD Early Tall; showy but

Common can be weedy

evening-primrose

Parnassia glauca ●●Widespread (not in DF, HL, PE, W–WM S, L CM N/A Short, usually less

Bluegreen PR, TO, VI, YO) than 0.4 m

grass-of-Parnassus

Penstemon digitalis ●●Throughout ● M–DM S, L, C CM Early Medium,

Foxglove (30 days) to 1.4 m

beard-tongue

Penstemon hirsutus ●●Widespread (not in HU, OX, PR) ● M–DM S, L, C CD Early Short

Hairy beard-tongue

Polygala sanguinea ● Very restricted; found in CK, EL, WM–M S, L N/A N/A Short, to 0.4 m

Field milkwort ES, HN, LA, PL, WA

Polygala senega ● Widespread (not in DF, HU, OX, WM–DM S, L CM N/A Short, to 0.4 m

Seneca-snakeroot PR, VI)

Polygala verticillata ● Restricted; found in CK, DR, EL, WM–M S, L N/A N/A Short, to 0.3 m

Whorled milkwort ES, HL, HN, HW, LA, MI, NI, PL,

WA, YO

Potentilla arguta ●●Widespread (not in DF, HL, HU, ● M–D S, L CM Later Medium, to 1.2 m

Prairie cinquefoil HW, MI, NI, OX, PL, PR, YO)

Prenanthes alba ● Widespread (not in OX, PR, VI) M–DM S, L CM N/A Medium, to 1.6 m

White lettuce

Prenanthes racemosa ● Very restricted; found in CK, ES, M–DM S, L CM N/A Medium, to 1.3 m

Glaucus HL, LA, SI

white lettuce

Pycnanthemum ●●Restricted; found in CK, DR, EL, WM–DM S, L CD N/A Short

tenuifolium ES, HN, LA, MI, NI, TO, YO*

Slender-leaved

mountain-mint

Pycnanthemum ●●Widespread (not in DF, HL, HS, ● W–DM S, L, C CD Later Short

virginianum HU, HW, NO, OX, PE, PL, PR,

Virginia VI, WE)

mountain-mint

Ranunculus ● Restricted; found in CK, DR, HN, M–D S, L F N/A Short, to 0.2 m

rhomboideus HS, LA, MI, NO, PT, SI, YO

Prairie buttercup

Ratibida pinnata ● Very restricted; found in CK, EL, ● M–DM S, L, C CD or CM Early Tall, to 1.8 m

Gray-headed ES, LA, MI*

coneflower

* Can be rare within these areas; consult the ecologist at your local OMNR office before including in the planting.

Prairie

Meadow

Core Species

Moisture

Preference

Soil

Preference

Germination

Code

Successional

Stage

Height

and Other

Comments

Range

Species

Appendix A 39

Rudbeckia hirta ●●Throughout; common ● WM–DM S, L, C CD Early Short

Black-eyed Susan

Sisyrinchium ● Throughout ● WM–M S, L CM N/A Short, to 0.45 m;

montanum will probably

Montane appear in plantings

blue-eyed-grass whether it is

planted or not

Sisyrinchium ●●Widespread (not in DF, EL, HL, WM–M S, L CM, N/A Short, to 0.2 m

mucronatum HN, HS, HW, NO, OX, PE, PL, germinates

Narrow-leaved PT, TO, VI, YO) in cool

blue-eyed-grass soil

Solidago altissima ● Throughout ● W–M S, L, C CM, S Early Tall, to 2.1 m; will

Tall goldenrod probably appear

in plantings

whether it is

planted or not

Solidago canadensis ● Throughout ● W–M S, L, C CM, S Early Medium, to 1.5 m;

Canada goldenrod will probably

appear in

plantings

whether it is

planted or not

Solidago nemoralis ●●Throughout; common ● M–D S, L, C CD Later Short, to 0.5 m

Gray goldenrod

Solidago ohioensis ●●Widespread (not in DF, DR, HL, WM–M S, L CM N/A Medium, to 1.4 m

Ohio goldenrod HS, HW, NO, OX, PE, PL, PR, (30 days)

PT, TO, VI, WE)

Solidago patula ● Throughout W–M S, L, C CM, S Early Tall, to 2.1 m; will

Rough-leaved probably appear

goldenrod in plantings

whether it is

planted or not

Solidago riddellii ● Very restricted; found in CK, EL, WM–M S, L CM Later Medium, to 1.2 m

Riddell’s goldenrod ES, LA, MI*

Solidago rigida ● Restricted; found in BN, CK, EL, ● WM–D S, L, C CM Early Medium, to 1.5 m;

Stiff goldenrod ES, HW, LA, MI, PR, YO* this species can be

aggressive early in

a planting if there

is not enough

competition from

other planted

species; plant

sparingly

Solidago rugosa ● Throughout ● WM–M S, L, C CM, S Early Tall, to 2.1 m; will

Rough-stemmed probably appear in

goldenrod plantings whether

it is planted or not

* Can be rare within these areas; consult the ecologist at your local OMNR office before including in the planting.

Prairie

Meadow

Core Species

Moisture

Preference

Soil

Preference

Germination

Code

Successional

Stage

Height

and Other

Comments

Range

Species

40 Planting the Seed

* Can be rare within these areas; consult the ecologist at your local OMNR office before including in the planting.

Teucrium canadense ●●Widespread (not in DF, OX, WM–DM S, L CM N/A Medium, to 1.2 m

Germander PR, VI)

Thalictrum ●●Restricted; found in BN, CK, DR, WM–M S, L CM N/A Tall, to 2 m

dasycarpum EL, ES, LA, MI, PT, SI, WA

Purple meadow rue

Verbena hastata ●●Throughout W–M S, L, C CD or CM N/A Tall, to 2 m

Blue vervain

Vernonia missurica ●●Very restricted; found in CK, ES, ● W–M S, L, C CM Later Medium, to 1.5 m.

Missouri ironweed LA, MI* V. missurica,

traditionally

misidentified as

V. gigantea, has

recently been

determined to be

the most common

Vernonia in

Southern Ontario;

V. gigantea seems

to be much less

common, at least

in the southwest.

More easterly

populations (in

EL, HN and NI)

have not been

verified and may

be either

V. missurica or

V. gigantea

Appendix B 41

Appendix B: Seed-Treatment Techniques

Technique How It’s Done Germination Code

Cold Dry

Stratification

• Place seed in a refrigerator or unheated building for 6 to 8

weeks, and protect from rodents.

Cold Moist

Stratification

• Mix 1 part seed with 2 to 3 parts damp (not wet), sterile

potting medium or sand, and place in a plastic bag. Place in

a refrigerator for up to 60 days unless otherwise indicated

(see Appendix A), or

• Plant seed in trays or pots, and cover with plastic to keep

moisture in. Place in an unheated building or cold frame for

up to 60 days unless otherwise indicated (see Appendix A),

and protect from rodents.

CM (# days)

Warm Moist/

Cold Moist

Stratification

WM/CM (# days)

Scarification

• Rub the seed between two pieces of sandpaper or shake in a

jar lined with sandpaper to abrade the seed coat and allow

moisture and oxygen to enter.

Needs Light to

Germinate

• Do not cover seed after sowing. Do not let seed dry out; cover

with clear plastic until germination occurs.

Sow Fresh Seed

• Early flowering species often germinate best if seed is sown as

soon as it ripens. It may germinate within a few weeks or it

may not germinate until the following spring.

Sow Fresh Seed

in Special Soil

Mix

• Sow freshly collected seed in a 1-to-1 mix of potting medium

and composted leaf litter from a beech-maple forest.

Inoculation • Coat seed with appropriate bacterial inoculant (see Inoculum

for Legumes under Sources of Materials, Specialized Equipment

and Services) just prior to seeding.

• Mix 1 part seed with 2 to 3 parts damp (not wet), sterile

potting medium or sand, and place in a plastic bag. Store

at room temperature, then place in a refrigerator – see

Appendix A for required number of days for each stage, or

• Sow outdoors and allow one full year for germination.

Step 1. Is vegetation present?

Yes: Go to Step 4.

No: Go to Step 2.

Step 2. Has the topsoil been removed?

Yes: Test the remaining soil for pH (see Soil Analysis

Services under Sources of Materials, Specialized

Equipment and Services). Most plants prefer a range

of pH 6 to 7.5. Since vegetation and seed bank are not

present on this site, take advantage of the situation

and seed or plant as soon as possible. If this is not an

option, plant a cover crop such as annual oats, which

will discourage the establishment of weeds and pre-

vent erosion. Go to Step 9.

No: Go to Step 3.

Step 3. Has the site been used to grow agricultural crops?

Yes: Check history of herbicide use (i.e., persistence

in the soil). Some chemicals remain active in the soil

for several years. If persistent herbicides are not pre-

sent, allow the seed bank to germinate and go to Step 4.

If persistent herbicides are present, check label infor-

mation to determine which plants are resistant and

sow a resistant cover crop. Wait until the residue is

no longer active and go to Step 9.

No: Allow the seed bank to germinate and go to Step 4.

Step 4. Are prairie/meadow plants present?

Yes: Go to Step 5.

No: Go to Step 7.

Step 5. Are the desirable plants scattered (as opposed

to grouped) throughout the site?

Yes: Go to Step 6.

No: Protect prairie/meadow plant groupings in

specific areas by flagging them, and go to Step 8.

Step 6. Option 1: Do-nothing approach. The approach

of allowing the vegetation to grow in the hope that a

native plant community will eventually result on its

own is not recommended for prairie creation and is

only marginally successful for meadow creation. It is

discussed here only because restorationists are often

asked why a site shouldn’t be left to naturalize on its

own. It has a chance of success only if adequate num-

bers of desirable plants are growing nearby to provide

the seed source. Usually, though, the seeds that come

into the site are largely weeds and invasive species.

Option 2: Hands-on approach for prairie sites.

Glyphosate-based herbicide application and/or culti-

vation are not options since they will harm the very

plants requiring protection. Conduct a prescribed

burn (see Maintenance and Monitoring) in early spring

to stress the undesirable vegetation and stimulate

the warm season prairie plants. Take advantage of the

stressed non-native vegetation and the upcoming

spring rains, and seed or plant using a no-till

technique such as hand planting or seed drilling.

Option 3: Hands-on approach for meadow sites

(and prairie sites when burning is not possible).

Mow vegetation as close to the ground as possible

and remove cut stems. On larger projects, a hay baler

provides a convenient way to gather and remove the

cut stems. Seed or plant using a no-till technique.

Step 7. Is the site currently in turf grass?

Yes: Spray turf with a glyphosate-based herbicide.

Allow the site to green up, and spray again. Seed or

plant using a no-till technique. If no-till equipment is

unavailable, plough under any vegetation still present,

and go to Step 10.

No: Go to Step 8.

Step 8. Are perennial weeds present?

Yes: Glyphosate-based herbicide is a fairly effective

treatment for perennial weeds. Cultivation alone may

compound the problem by cutting roots into many

small pieces, each of which can grow into a new

plant. Begin by spraying the site with glyphosate-

based herbicide in fall or early spring. Allow vegeta-

tion to die back and then let the site green up until

weeds are 10 to 15 centimetres tall. Spray again.

Repeat this process until you are satisfied that weed

control is acceptable. It is most important to gain

control of perennial and biennial weeds. This may

take an entire growing season or longer for very

difficult weeds such as Canada thistle. Go to Step 9.

No: Go to Step 9.

Step 9. Will a no-till seeding/planting technique

be used?

Yes: Spray a glyphosate-based herbicide one final time

as soon as weeds are greened up in the spring, and

then seed or plant as soon as possible after herbicide

has dried.

No: Plough under any vegetation still present. Go to

Step 10.

Step 10. Are plugs being planted?

Yes: Allow the site to green up until weeds are 10 to

15 centimetres tall, and disc to a depth of 10 to 15

centimetres. Some restorationists recommend two

passes at right angles to each other. Allow to green

up again, and disc to a depth of 5 to 10 centimetres.

Allow to green up and then disc to a depth of 2 to 3

centimetres. Plant.

No: Allow the site to green up until weeds are 10

to 15 centimetres tall, and disc to a depth of 5 to 6

centimetres. Allow to green up again, and disc to

a depth of 2 to 3 centimetres. Allow to green up and

then disc the surface lightly. Plant the seed.

42 Planting the Seed

Appendix C: Site-Preparation Key

Appendix D 43

Appendix D: Common and Botanical Names of Plant Species Referred to in This Guide

Native Species Weed Species

Common Name Botanical Name

Big bluestem Andropogon gerardii

Black-eyed Susan Rudbeckia hirta

Blue vervain Verbena hastata

Boneset Eupatorium perfoliatum

Butterfly milkweed Asclepias tuberosa

Canada wild rye Elymus canadensis

Closed gentian Gentiana andrewsii

Common evening-primrose Oenothera biennis

Dense blazing star Liatris spicata

Fringed gentian Gentianopsis crinita

Gray goldenrod Solidago nemoralis

Gray-headed coneflower Ratibida pinnata

Hoary puccoon Lithospermum canescens

Indian grass Sorghastrum nutans

Narrow-leaved Sisyrinchium mucronatum

blue-eyed-grass

Prairie cord grass Spartina pectinata

Prairie white-fringed orchid Platanthera leucophaea

Round-headed bush-clover Lespedeza capitata

Showy tick-trefoil Desmodium canadense

Shrubby false-indigo Amorpha fruticosa

Sneezeweed Helenium autumnale

Spotted Joe-pye-weed Eupatorium maculatum

Swamp milkweed Asclepias incarnata

Tall sunflower Helianthus giganteus

Virginia Culver’s-root Veronicastrum virginicum

Wild bergamot Monarda fistulosa

Wild lupine Lupinus perennis

Wild strawberry Fragaria virginiana

Common Name Botanical Name

Black locust (tree) Robinia pseudo-acacia

Canada thistle Cirsium arvense

Chicory Cichorium intybus

Common barnyard grass Echinochloa crusgalli

Common ragweed Ambrosia artemisiifolia

Dog-strangling vine Cynanchum spp.

Giant ragweed Ambrosia trifida

Ox-eye daisy Chrysanthemum leucanthemum

Quack grass Elymus repens

Queen Anne’s lace Daucus carota

Red clover Trifolium pratense

Smooth brome Bromus inermis

White sweet-clover Melilotus alba

Crop Species

Annual oats Avena sativa

Rye grain Secale cereale

Rye grass Lolium spp.

Winter wheat Triticum aestivum

44 Planting the Seed

Appendix E: Metric and Imperial Measures Conversion Table

When you know Multiply by To find

Length centimetres 0.39 inches

metres 3.28 feet

kilometres 0.62 miles

inches 2.54 centimetres

feet 0.305 metres

miles 1.61 kilometres

Area square metres 10.8 square feet

hectares 2.47 acres

square kilometres 0.391 square miles

square feet 0.093 square metres

acres 0.405 hectares

square miles 2.59 square kilometres

Mass (weight) kilograms 2.20 pounds

pounds 0.454 kilograms

Mass/Area kilograms per hectare 0.88 pounds per acre

pounds per acre 1.14 kilograms per hectare

adventive Spreading from a native or naturalized source,

but not yet well established.

annual A plant with a life span of one growing season.

biennial A plant that completes its life cycle in two

growing seasons, usually flowering and fruiting

during the second season.

biodiversity The variety of living things, both plants

and animals, that live in a particular place.

biomass The total quantity or weight of organisms in

a given area or of a given species.

clay An inorganic soil component having particles that

are less than 0.002 millimetres in diameter.

cool season Describes a plant that achieves most of its

growth early in the growing season, and then later in

the cool fall season.

core species Species that are common in a particular

ecological community and geographical area. Planting

projects should make use of the core species occur-

ring within the county or municipality where the

project is located in order to complete a locally

appropriate, balanced and diverse planting.

damping off The collapse of seedling plants at the soil

level; caused by fungal growth and encouraged by

overwatering, poor drainage, overcrowding or poor

handling techniques.

diatomaceous earth A substance made from the silica

cell walls of microscopic algae that kills soft-bodied

invertebrates by puncturing their skin.

dibble A hand-held tool with a pointed end; used for

making holes in the ground for plug plants.

ecological community A naturally occurring group of

organisms that live and interact together.

ecology The study of plants and animals and their

environment.

endangered Describes a plant, animal or ecological

community threatened with extinction throughout

all or a significant portion of its range.

exotic Describes a plant (i.e., most weeds) or animal

that is not native to the region in question, having

originated in another region.

firebreak A barrier that stops a fire and contains it in a

controlled area. A firebreak can be a road, a river, a

ploughed strip of ground or a bare, burned patch of

ground.

flora The plants of a particular geographical area,

or a document listing the plant species found in a

particular area.

forb A specialized term for any non-grassy herbaceous

plant. Used particularly for the broad-leaved plants

of prairies.

genetic diversity The variability, within a species,

of the genetic material that forms the basis of

inherited qualities.

germination The beginning of the growth of a seed into

a plant.

girdle To kill a woody plant by removing bark in a ring

around the trunk.

grass Any plant having narrow leaves with parallel

veins, small flowers and stems with joints that appear

as easily visible bulges where the leaves attach – that

is, any plant of the Grass family (whose botanical

name is Poaceae).

habitat The place where a plant or animal lives.

harden off Adjusting plants that are raised indoors or in

a greenhouse to outdoor conditions. This is usually

achieved by gradual exposure to outdoor conditions.

herbaceous Describes an annual, biennial or perennial

plant that is not woody and dies back at the end of

the growing season.

herbicide A chemical that is used to kill plants.

invasive plant A plant that reproduces so aggressively

that it displaces other plant species in the area.

invertebrate An animal that does not possess a back-

bone – for example, insects and spiders.

legume A plant having seeds in pods and usually root

nodules able to “fix” nitrogen from the air – that is,

any plant of the Pea, Bean or Legume family (whose

botanical name is Fabaceae, formerly Leguminosae).

loam A class of soil texture that is composed of sand,

silt and clay. Silt is an inorganic soil component with

particles ranging between 0.002 and 0.02 millimetres

in diameter.

mesic Habitat containing a moderate amount of mois-

ture – that is, having average moisture conditions.

natural gardening A gardening approach that involves

the use of mostly native plants, usually with emphasis

on form, colour and texture. Arrangement of plants

is usually based on naturalistic rather than formal

patterns. Plants are not necessarily native to the place

where they are planted.

naturalization Any effort to convert managed

landscapes to more natural and naturally evolving

landscapes, relatively free of human intervention.

Glossary 45

Glossary

No-Pest

strip A resin vaporizer strip impregnated with

insecticide, which is typically used to kill flies and

mosquitoes indoors.

no-till A technique used to plant seed or plants in the

soil without turning over the soil (i.e., no ploughing

or discing). This technique helps reduce soil erosion

and seed-bank germination.

perennial A plant that has a life span of more than two

growing seasons.

pH A number used to indicate the degree of acidity

or alkalinity of soils and solutions. Values lower

than about 7 indicate acidity; higher values indicate

alkaline conditions.

plug A seedling plant growing in a cylinder of soil,

with roots fully formed and some top growth unless

dormant. Plugs are grown individually in separate

cells in a tray. Trays vary in depth, size and number

of cells.

prescribed burn A carefully planned and authorized set

and controlled fire.

remnant The small portion that remains of an ecological

community that was once much larger but that is now

nearly destroyed.

restoration The process of renewing and maintaining

ecosystem health by turning a degraded or altered site

back into a biologically diverse natural state. More

precisely, it restores an ecosystem that formerly

existed on the site, with the use of appropriate native

plant material from local sources.

reverse fertilization See soil impoverishment.

sand An inorganic soil component whose particles range

between 0.02 and 2 millimetres in diameter.

savanna A type of ecological community that is similar

to prairie but also contains widely spaced oak, red

cedar, hickory, ash, plum or hawthorn trees.

sedge A grass-like herbaceous plant having stems that

are triangular in cross-section; found mainly in damp

and marshy habitats.

soil impoverishment A technique that temporarily

reduces the amount of nitrogen available to plants.

This is done by incorporating high-carbon material,

such as sawdust, into the soil of the planting site.

Nitrogen in the soil assists in the decomposition of

this material and is unavailable to plants during the

time it does so.

stewardship The process and attitude of taking

responsibility for fostering a healthy environment

and for passing such an environment on to future

generations. Stewardship is an especially important

aspect of landownership.

stratification The simulation of the soil conditions of

fall and winter. Seeds are placed in a moist, sterile

potting medium or sand, or kept in a cold dry place –

depending on the treatment strategy (see Appendix B).

succession A series of natural changes that occur in

an ecological community over time – for example,

the changes that occur as a piece of bare ground

eventually turns into a forest.

threatened Describes a plant or animal that is likely to

become endangered if limiting factors are not reversed.

topography The surface features of a landscape.

viability Describes the likelihood that a seed

will germinate.

vulnerable A species of special concern because of

characteristics that make it particularly sensitive

to human activities or natural events.

warm season Describes a plant that starts its growth

relatively late in the spring, after the soil has warmed

up, and typically remains active even through dry

periods of the summer (e.g., many species of prairie

ecosystems).

weed A plant that is growing where it is not wanted.

weed diversity The variety of weed species in a

particular area or planting.

wildlife Term for all wild living animals and plants.

wildlife diversity The variety of species of wild living

things in a particular ecosystem.

46 Planting the Seed

This section provides a list of recommended reading

materials (some of which are referenced in the text)

for further information on the concepts discussed in

this guide, and a list of helpful organizations.