The status and prospect on nature-based solution in South Asia: A

RESEARCH ARTICLE

The status and prospect on nature-based

solution in South Asia: A policy-based analysis

Shobha Poudel

*, Deepthi Wickramasinghe

, Mahua Mukherjee

Imon Chowdhooree

, Chimi Chimi

, Bhogendra Mishra

, Kumar Abhinay

Sudip Mitra

, Rajib Shaw

1 Research Department, Science Hub, Kathmandu, Nepal, 2 Faculty of Science, Zoology and Environment

Sciences, University of Colombo, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 3 Department of Architecture and Planning, Indian

Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India, 4 Postgraduate Programs in Disaster Management (PPDM), Brac

University, Dhaka, Bangladesh, 5 Architecture Department, College of Science and Technology, Royal

University of Bhutan, Phuntsholing, Bhutan, 6 Remote Sensing and GIS Department, Science Hub,

Kathmandu, Nepal, 7 Department of Architecture and Planning, Doctoral Research Scholar, Indian Institute

of Technology Roorkee, India, 8 Center for Disaster Management and Research, Indian Institute of

Technology, Guwahati, India, 9 Graduate School of Media and Governance, Keio University, Keio, Japan

* [email protected]

Abstract

South Asian countries face a disproportionate impact from disasters due to their unique

topography, poverty, low literacy rates, and socio-economic status. Human activities, such

as unplanned urbanization and poorly designed rural road networks, have further contrib-

uted to disasters in the region. The article explores the potential of nature-based solutions

(NbS) as a means of addressing these challenges through the integration of green, blue,

and grey infrastructure. The analysis evaluates the significance of NbS and examines poli-

cies and regional cooperation in Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka, highlight-

ing the importance of incorporating NbS into national policies and promoting collaboration

among these countries. The study identifies the current low implementation of NbS in South

Asia, with limited research in this area. While there are existing policy tools related to coastal

zone management, water, forest, and urban development, policies related to NbS should be

coherent, connected, and integrated with natural resources, climate change, disaster risk

reduction, and socio-economic growth to achieve sustainable development in the region.

Overall, the article emphasizes the need for effective policy implementation and research to

enhance resilience to climate change and promote sustainable development in South Asia.

1. Introduction

The practice of nature-based solutions (NbS) is getting global attention for a series of solutions

inspired by nature that support the idea of sustainable development by targeting economic

growth, strengthening social cohesion, and restoring degraded ecosystems [1–4]. NbS prom-

ises to limit the negative consequences of changed climatic variables and disaster risks, espe-

cially by utilizing the synergy of green (vegetation areas), blue (water bodies), and grey (built

environment) infrastructure that allows for the enjoyment of the benefits of preserving and

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a1111111111

OPEN ACCESS

Citation: Poudel S, Wickramasinghe D, Mukherjee

M, Chowdhooree I, Chimi C, Mishra B, et al. (2024)

The status and prospect on nature-based solution

in South Asia: A policy-based analysis. PLOS Clim

3(3): e0000289. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.

pclm.0000289

Editor: Bharath Haridas Aithal, Indian Institute of

Technology Kharagpur, INDIA

Received: June 12, 2023

Accepted: January 13, 2024

Published: March 4, 2024

access article distributed under the terms of the

Creative Commons Attribution License, which

permits unrestricted use, distribution, and

reproduction in any medium, provided the original

author and source are credited.

Data Availability Statement: All data are in the

manuscript and/or supporting information files. It

is based on the policy review, no additional data

available.

Funding: The authors received no specific funding

for this work.

Competing interests: The authors have declared

that no competing interests exist.

restoring biodiversity and ecosystem services [1–9] This idea highlights the need to incorpo-

rate NbS into national policies for combating climate change impacts and disaster risks in any

country, including the countries of South Asia. South Asia, due to its diverse topography,

changed climatic variables, high levels of poverty, political unrest conditions, unplanned

urbanization, low literacy rates, and challenged socio-economic status, is particularly suscepti-

ble to extreme events such as irregular rainfall, drought, extreme heat, flash floods, landslides,

earthquakes, rising sea levels, cyclones, salinity intrusion, and glacial lake outburst floods

(GLOFs) [1,10–12]. The rapid growth of urbanization by changing the natural landscape

results in a reduction in biodiversity and ecosystem services, thereby exacerbating the impact

of disasters on its populations [5,13].

However, adoption of NbS in South Asia is currently low, and research on this topic is rare.

One of the possible reasons for this is the lack of attention given to NbS in public policy, which

fails to address the complexities of existing and projected vulnerabilities [12]. The objective of

this paper is to evaluate and analyze the NbS major policy documents of five South Asian

countries (Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka) (Fig 1) and investigate how much

Fig 1. Map of Study area. Source: Author generated map.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000289.g001

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the documents acknowledge the importance of NbS. These countries were chosen due to their

shared cultural, environmental, political, historical, and economic characteristics. As well as

these countries are the member countries of the South Asian Alliance of Disaster Research

Institutes (SAADRI). The paper emphasizes the importance of integrating NbS into the

national policies of these countries, as NbS helps to improve human resilience by mitigating

and adapting to climate change and addressing climate-related challenges and disaster risks

[6,14,15]. This paper identifies gaps in current policies and suggests to explore opportunities

for incorporating NbS through further research and implementation.

2. Importance of nature-based solution in South Asia

The South Asian region is highly susceptible to natural disasters, as previously discussed. Cli-

mate change and its related disasters are currently the most significant challenges in the area

[11], compounded by the increasing population, environmental and social issues, which weaken

adaptive capacity and have a severe impact on ecosystems and the provision of natural services

to humans. Several studies indicate that without action, the majority of the population will be at

high risk of climate change [16]. It is crucial for policymakers to incorporate sustainable disaster

risk resilience building through NbS into national policies and programs. NbS plays an essential

role in enhancing the resilience of vulnerable communities, biodiversity, and ecosystems.

In the late 2000s, the World Bank introduced the nature-based solutions (NbS) approach to

promote ecosystem-based methodologies in their projects aimed at addressing climate vulnera-

bility and increasing disaster risks [12]. The concept was later adopted by the European Com-

mission (EC) in their Horizon 2020 research program, with the aim of promoting the use of

NbS in growing urban sprawls and establishing Europe as a world leader in this area. Over time,

ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA), urban natural infrastructure (UNI), urban green infrastruc-

ture (UGI), and ecosystem services (ESS) have been increasingly included and mainstreamed in

policymaking discussions and have become important topics in theoretical arguments [17].

Nature-based solutions (NbS) have gained significant attention in recent years as a strategy

for addressing various societal and environmental challenges, especially climate change, water

security, food security, human health, disaster risk reduction, and socio-economic develop-

ment. NbS includes diverse concepts such as green infrastructure, ecological engineering, eco-

logical restoration, forest landscape restoration, area-based conservation, ecosystem-based

management, natural infrastructure, ecosystem-based adaptation, ecosystem-based disaster

risk reduction, ecosystem-based mitigation, and climate adaptation services.

The importance of NbS has been recognized by international initiatives, including the UN

General Assembly’s sustainable development goals (SDGs), the Paris Agreement, the Ramsar

Convention, and the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction [2,3,9,15]. NbS was one

of the five primary themes of 2021 UN climate conference (COP26) Day 7- Sticking points

and Nature-based solutions [18–20].

Restoration of degraded landscapes using natural practices has proven to be more sustain-

able and effective than engineering solutions, as it involves the natural course of matter and

energy flow with solutions based on local and traditional knowledge that includes the under-

standing of periodic changes in ecosystems [21]. NbS has emerged as a sustainable and effi-

cient approach for rehabilitating degraded ecosystems and reducing climate and disaster risks,

as proved by established field-based experiences [14].

3. Study framework and methodology

This study employed the PRISMA2020 guidelines for systematic reviews and meta-analyses to

investigate the scientific, policy, and practical aspects associated with nature-based solutions

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and ecosystem-based adaptation in five South Asian countries, namely Bangladesh, Bhutan,

India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka (S1 Checklist). A thorough search was conducted in google

scholar, ScienceDirect and Scopus, using a variety of relevant keywords, including "nature-

based solutions in South Asia," "nature-based resilience," "national policy," "nature-based solu-

tion," "science policy in South Asia," "ecosystem-based adaptation," "blue green infrastructure,"

and "regional cooperation," which led to the identification of over 1000 scholarly publications.

However, since the primary focus of this review was to examine the policies and their imple-

mentation details from the governments of these countries, the nature-based or ecosystem-

based adaptation policies were not included in the identified list. The authors noted that such

policies and relevant documents are often published in local languages and diverse formats,

such as Nepali documents in the "Preeti" font, which are not searchable online. To collect all

available policies in each country, all co-authors studied policies related to nature, natural

resource conservation, and management, and reviewed the relevant documents published by

the government agencies.

A total of 33 policy documents were identified, with Bangladesh (6), Bhutan (5), India (8),

Nepal (8), and Sri Lanka (6) each contributing to the list. All of the documents were thor-

oughly reviewed for this manuscript, and only policies related to the environment and natural

resources were considered (S1 Text). In the second stage, these policies were assessed and cate-

gorized into six distinct categories, namely Environment Policy (12), Water Policy (5), Land

Use and Land Cover Policy (6), Climate Change Policy (3), Disaster-related Policy (4), and

Other policies (3).

The third step involves evaluating the policies to determine whether they are effective, effi-

cient, and appropriate in addressing the identified problem. Additionally, this stage involves

assessing the level of synergy between the specific policy and other related policies that address

the same issue. This includes evaluating how the policy interacts with other policies and

actions aimed at resolving the problem.

In the fourth step, the policies were compared across the five countries to highlight their

core values, implementing agents, and the year of introduction. A policy matrix was then cre-

ated to map Nature-based Solutions (NbS) policies into the existing policies, followed by a

comparative analysis across the different countries. The analysis aimed to identify which poli-

cies were present in each country and those that were absent, helping to identify gaps and

strengths in the policies. For instance, some countries addressed water and forests in a single

policy, while others had separate policies. Based on the findings, recommendations were made

to address these gaps and leverage the strengths to improve policy coherence and effectiveness.

4. The key policy environment in South Asia

Ecosystem-based adaptation (EBA) and ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction (Eco-DRR)

have been considered in South Asia to enhance the resilience of vulnerable communities. It is

recommended that these approaches should be integrated into plans and programs to effec-

tively address the impact of climate change. Furthermore, to fully realize the potential of

Nature-based solution, it is important to integrate it into existing national governance.

However, South Asia faces several governance challenges such as poor coordination and insti-

tutional arrangements, inadequate financial resources, and insufficient monitoring and imple-

mentation of plans and policies. To overcome these issues, it is crucial to address these

governance challenges and incorporate Nature-based solution into national governance. It is also

advisable for each country in South Asia to include Nature-based solution in their Nationally

Determined Contributions (NDCs). By incorporating nature-based solutions into their NDCs,

countries can mitigate the impact of disasters and increase their resilience to climate change.

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Case 4.1 Bangladesh

The vast floodplain and active delta, proximity to active seismic zones, and exposed and vast

coast have made Bangladesh naturally prone to many hazards. The Intergovernmental Panel

on Climate Change (IPCC) also identifies it as one of the worst victims of climate change and

extreme events [22]. Along with preparing various plans, policies, and programs for addressing

disaster risks and impacts of climate change, the Government of Bangladesh prioritizes this

issue in all relevant plans, policies, and programs, believing in the concept of mainstreaming

disaster [23]. Nature-based solutions are often considered as sustainable measures for adapting

to climate change and reducing disaster risks [24,25]. In this context, major national policies

have been reviewed that acknowledge the components of Nature-based solution in

Bangladesh.

National water policy 1999. The National Water Policy 1999 aims to ensure efficient,

equitable, and decentralized management of surface and groundwater, to develop sustainable

water supply systems, considering water rights, water pricing, gender equity, and social justice

and to ensure public participation in water management with environmental awareness. As a

comprehensive document, it covers issues, like river-basin management, planning and man-

agement of water resources, water rights and allocation, public and private involvement, public

water investment, water supply and sanitation, water and agriculture, water and industry,

water and fisheries and wildlife, water and navigation, water for hydropower and recreation,

water for the environment, water for preserving various kinds of wetlands (ecological systems

and biodiversity), economic and financial management, research and information manage-

ment, and stakeholder participation. The document highlights the issue that most of the coun-

try’s environmental resources are linked to water resources and the continued development

and management of the nation’s water resources should include the protection, restoration,

and preservation of the environment and its biodiversity including wetlands, mangrove, and

other national forests, endangered species, and the water quality. The main target will be to

ensure environmental protection, restoration, and enhancement measures for preparing the

National Environmental Management Action Plan (NEMAP) and the National Water Man-

agement Plan (NWMP).

The document aims to protect natural waterbodies like rivers, swamps, marshlands, lakes,

ponds, canals, tanks, and estuaries from degradation due to man-made intervention. It recom-

mends developing water resources for conserving forestry and aquatic wildlife, and using riv-

ers for irrigation, fisheries, and navigation. It recommends massive afforestation for increasing

tree coverage in declining water tables, taking special measures to minimize disruption to the

natural aquatic environment, and planning water development projects to avoid environmen-

tal damage, maintain aquatic life movement, migration, and breeding, and ensure adequate

upland flow in water channels to maintain the coastal estuary eco-system.

National land use policy 2001. The National Land Use Policy 2001 aims to protect agri-

cultural lands for ensuring enough food production, to regulate non-agricultural uses of lands,

to prepare guidelines for ensuring the best use of lands based on their qualities, to ensure the

optimum utilizations of lands that are acquired for urbanization or any other development

projects, to preserve lands which can be used for future projects, to ensure the acceptable use

of lands considering the natural environment, to ensure the proper utilization of lands for

reducing poverty and increasing employment opportunities and to assist to minimize the

number of landless population. Additionally, it highlighted the importance of nature-based

solutions by increasing the forest cover and extending it to 25% of the total geographical area.

Coastal zone policy 2005. The Coastal Zone Policy 2005 aims to eliminate vulnerabilities

from natural hazards and preserve Critical Ecological Zones (CEZs). It focuses on socio-

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economic development, adaptation to changing climatic scenarios, and contribution to

national development. It includes components for economic growth, livelihood creation,

empowering communities, reducing vulnerabilities, ensuring women’s development, manag-

ing natural resources, and conserving and enhancing CEZ quality. However, science-based

strategies are not proposed for preserving and managing CEZ resources.

Disaster management policy 2015. The National Disaster Management Policy 2015 sug-

gests national approaches for reducing risks of all natural, environmental, and human induced

hazards and proposes strategies for managing any emergency condition so that sustainable

development can be ensured. It also portrays the broad national objectives for addressing the

impacts of climate change, unregulated urbanization, and environmental degradation. It sug-

gests changing the disaster management paradigm by focusing more on risk reduction, mitiga-

tion, and preparedness.

National forest policy 2016 (Draft). This policy admits the need of preserving the biodi-

versity and ecosystem for ensuring rational utilization of resources, reducing disaster risks and

adapting to climate change. Though it does not provide a definition for designating forest

areas it admits that the natural forest cover is decreasing. It primarily targets to increase the

forest cover to at least 20% of the country’s geographical area to address emerging environ-

mental challenges. Along with afforestation in various areas (natural forest areas, denuded

hilly areas, newly accreted inland river islands and coastal islands, roadside lands, etc.), expan-

sion and sustainable management of zoological and botanical gardens, arboretums and other

related categories of protected areas are proposed. But it did not propose anything for Ecolog-

ically Critical Area (ECA) s, whereas the National Sustainable Development Strategy 2013 asks

to declare ECAs and prepare management plans for those areas. The policy is also unaware of

the important issue of controlling Invasive Alien Species (IAS), Genetically Modified Organ-

isms (GMO), and the agreement signed with India for preserving the shared mangrove forest

of Sundarbans.

National environment policy 2018. It targets to have environment-friendly economic

development, sustainable production, and consumption and proposes science-based specific

strategies for different sectors, i.e. land resource management, water resource management, air

pollution control, safe food and water, agriculture, public health and health service, accommo-

dation housing, and urbanization, education and mass awareness, forest and wildlife, fisheries

and livestock, biodiversity-ecosystem conservation and biosafety, hill ecosystem, coastal and

marine ecosystem, disaster management, climate change preparedness and adaptation, man-

agement of chemical substances, other pollution control, ecotourism, industrial development,

energy and mineral resources, communication and transportation, science research informa-

tion and communication technologies, and human resources management.

Case 4.2 Bhutan

Bhutan being one of the Himalayan countries, it is extremely exposed to the adverse impacts

of climate change and its disasters due to its fragile mountainous environment. Moreover,

with the economic development of the country, there is more human intervention in nature

triggering more natural disasters like landslides and flood. Therefore, Nature-based solution

strategies are emphasized in all the national policies, strategies and guidelines, which is moni-

tored under the umbrella of National Environment Commission [26].

To achieve ecologically balanced sustainable development, Article 5 of the Constitution of

the Kingdom of states that the country should maintain a minimum of 60% of forest cover for

all the time [26]. Thus, Environment conservation has become one of the four pillars of the

country’s Gross National Happiness (GNH) philosophy. This is reinforced by a Bhutanese

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belief of actual development takes place only when socio- economic, spiritual and environ-

mental well-being complement and reinforce each other [27]. Today, all the developmental

activities of different scale, including five-year plans are assessed and monitored based on

GNH indicators, where environmental indicators must be fulfilled [28].

Bhutan water policy 2007. The Bhutan water policy calls for integrated water resource

management and provides directive to protect all forms of water resources and water related

problems. It comprises principles of environmental conservation, integrated water resources

management, economic efficiency and good governance. This policy seeks comprehensive

watershed management soil conservation, watershed area protection, protection and incre-

ment of forests area to reduce flood related disaster [28]. It also assured all Bhutanese people to

have access to adequate, safe, and affordable water to enhance the quality of their lives as

enshrined in Water Act of Bhutan, 2011 [29].

National forest policy of Bhutan 2009. Bhutan has been gifted with a rich forest cover

and renewable natural resources. The forest policy 1974 has been successful in conservation

and protection as per the Forest Act of 1969 [30]. With change of emphasis in forest manage-

ment Forest policy 2009 focus on balancing conservation with sustainable utilization guided

by Article 5 of the Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan [29]. This policy is framed flexible

manners that can be adapt and support on-going changes. Bhutan also ensured to maintain

minimum of 60% of country’s land area under forest cover for all time as per 1974 policy and

later included in the Constitution of Bhutan [30].

Climate change policy of the Kingdom of Bhutan 2020. Being highly vulnerable to the

consequences of climate change, Bhutan endeavors to achieve healthy and ecologically bal-

anced sustainable development in accordance with GNH’s Middle path philosophy aligned

with National Environmental Protection Act 2007. This policy focus on having carbon neutral

development which can be implemented with effective and coordinated actions. This policy

also tries to protect the wellbeing of the people by adapting to climate change by addressing

the challenges at appropriate levels [31].

Economic development policy 2016. With the Bhutan’s vision of a green and self-reliant

economy. It intends to ensure green and sustainable economic development while developing

Brand Bhutan theme [32]. All the strategies in this policy ensures to have environmental sus-

tainability through diverse economic base with minimal ecological footprint; harness and add

value to natural resources in a sustainable manner; promote Bhutan as an organic brand by

reducing dependency on fossil fuel [32].

National Human Settlement Policy of Bhutan (NHSPB) 2019 and National Housing

Policy (NHP) 2019. With rapid socio-economic development leading to adverse impacts on

environment and cultural landscape triggering climate change induced disaster risks and

rural-urban migration, NHSPB 2019 intends to guide development of human settlements by

providing framework of environmentally sustainable, culturally and economically vibrant and

disaster resilient human settlement plans [33] supported by Bhutan National Urbanization

Strategy (BNUS) 2008 and Bhutan National Human Settlement Strategy (BNHSS) 2017 [33].

This ensures to balance rapid urbanization and protect fragile ecology though limiting conver-

sion of farmland and forests for infrastructure developments. It also guides to protect

encroachment of environmentally sensitive and disaster-prone areas as per the Land Act of

Bhutan. Further the NHP 2019 ensures all housing development projects to put efforts in pre-

serving local ecosystems with adequate monitoring to have minimal disturbance on it without

compromising on community vitality [33].

Bhutan prioritized focusing on SDG 13—Climate Action and SDG 15- Life on Land as per

Comprehensive development plan of Bhutan 2030 [33]. Thus, the entire above listed policies

act as guiding principles to achieve sustainable socio-economic development of the country

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aligned with international commitments on implementing 2030 Agenda for Sustainable

Development.

Case 4.3 India

India being the largest country in the south Asian region with the maximum population in the

world which is approximately 1.4 billion, faces great threats from the natural disasters and

adversities of climate change. India’s natural resources like water, air, and soil are under exten-

sive pressure due to the huge population and are additionally being impacted by climate change.

India is facing issues of urban heat island [34], drought [35], urban flooding, water, and air pol-

lution change in precipitation patterns, soil erosion, and slope destabilization [36] due to alter-

ation and depletion in the natural system and green covers, especially in urban areas of India.

Nature-based solutions using a mix of gray and green infrastructure [5] could be very effective

and have been proven to be effective in various cases in India. A successful example of the

implementation of Nature-based Solutions (NbS) to achieve resilience has been seen in the case

of Gurugram through the concept of “Greening cities” including eco-corridors, vegetation belts,

biodiversity parks to tackle against the adversities like UHI, air pollution and water stress [5].

Some of the major policies linked to Nature-based resilience are discussed below.

National forest policy, 1988. The National Forest Policy was articulated in 1988 for the

management of state forests in the country sighting to the severe depletion of forests in then-

recent periods. It aimed to have a minimum of one-third of the total plains and two-thirds of

the total hills under the forest cover through eco-centric approach. It also focused on the

involvement of the local community in promoting afforestation along with joint programs like

society forestry and farm forestry. The policy also brought the perspective of education and

research on the importance and management of forests into the mainstream. As a result of this

policy, the forest cover increased in the nation from around 19% in 1987 to over 23% [37] in

2005.

National water policy 2012. The National Water Policy was first adopted by National

Water Resource Council (NWRC) in 1987 and was revised in 2002 with the aim to ensure the

minimum flow in perennial streams maintaining ecology and social considerations. The

Water Policy, 2002 also brought the concept of “polluter pays”[38] into the picture to bring

accountability towards water resources and the related ecosystem.

The latest National Water Policy 2012 was to cope with the threat of Climate change on

water resources and maintain ecological sustainability. The policy addressed the threat of Cli-

mate change on water resources through the National Water Mission, which was one of the

eight missions launched by GoI [38]. The new policy also highlighted the threat of urbaniza-

tion and industrial developments to the natural aquifers and water bodies and suggested to

keep a check on them.

National conservation strategy and policy statement on environment and development,

1992. The policy established certain priorities and strategies for action which indirectly pro-

moted nature-based solutions to enhance the resilience in society. Classification and zoning of

land based on the uses were suggested to ensure the forest cover, agriculture, catchment area,

grasslands, etc. Traditional knowledge like contour trenching, contour bounding, small stor-

ages, and catchments, of minimizing soil and run-off losses were to be promoted extensively

throughout the country. Conservation of wetlands was directed to ensure sustainable ecologi-

cal and economic benefits. Green belts with pollution-tolerant species were to be raised to

tackle the issue of air pollution [39].

National environment policy, 2006. The National Environment Policy intended to inte-

grate environmental concerns into all forms of development. The seven objectives of this

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policy emphasize the wise use of the environment to protect the natural resources and envi-

ronment as well as focuses on the equitable and efficient distribution of natural resources [40].

The policy also established fourteen principles. These principles require that the services of

environmental resources be given economic value, and such value to count with the economic

values of other goods and services, in the analysis of alternative courses of action. One of the

principles also repeats the concept of “polluter pays” with more legal liability to achieve eco-

nomic efficiency and sustainable use of natural resources at the same time. The NEP 2006 also

formulated strategies and actions to establish Environmentally Sensitive Zones, use of eco-

nomic principles in environmental decision-making, enhance and conserve environmental

resources and check the degradation of land, deserts, forests, wetlands, and water bodies.

National policy on disaster management, 2009. The National Policy on Disaster Man-

agement (NPDM) was created in compliance with the Disaster Management Act, 2005. The

Policy covers all facets of disaster management, including institutional, legal, and financial

arrangements; preparedness for, and mitigation of, disasters; a techno-legal framework;

response, relief, and rehabilitation; reconstruction and recovery; building capacities; and

knowledge management and research and development (National Disaster Management

Authority, 2009). The policy intended to encourage mitigation measures based on technology

mixed with traditional knowledge to achieve environmental sustainability. A special highlight

on the nature-based traditional knowledge of mitigating and managing risks was given in the

policy. Such nature-based resilience against flooding, slope destabilization, biodiversity degra-

dation, and water and air pollution could be very useful and hence needs to be promoted.

National Agroforestry Policy, 2014. The National Agroforestry Policy was launched in

2014 which creates the framework for the nation’s targeted national policy and appropriate

institutional architecture for promoting agroforestry as a tool to mitigate the impacts of cli-

mate change [41]. The main objectives of the policy were to (i) to create a National Agrofor-

estry Mission or Agroforestry Board to implement the National Policy, (ii) improve the

productivity; employment, income, and livelihood opportunities of rural households, espe-

cially women and children, (iii) enhance the effectiveness of the National Agroforestry Mis-

sion, (iv) to promote agroforestry through incentives and government support.

National Urban Policy Framework (NUPF), 2020. The core of the policy lies with the 10

principles of the policy which emphasize the implementation of nature-based solutions as a

tool to achieve sustainable urbanization [42]. Further, the urban areas are classified into 10

functional areas based on the field of interventions. Under the environmental sustainability

functional area of the policy, it suggests expanding the green spaces as a tool of resilience

against issues like air pollution and urban heat island. The preservation and conservation of

lands with significant environmental functions, such as those designated as national parks,

wildlife sanctuaries, reserve forests, or eco-sensitive zones, as well as regulating land use for the

aforementioned areas to lessen land-use conflicts or adverse environmental impacts, are some

pertinent policy goals that align with the NbS approach.

Recent Initiatives in India. Apart from this, several initiatives and programs like MISHTI

(Mangrove Initiative for Shoreline Habitats & Tangible Incomes), 2023 with the objective of

exploring the possible area for development, sharing best practices on plantation techniques,

conservation measure, management practices for mangroves has been started by GOI.

Another such scheme named, Amrit Dharohar, 2023 encompasses promoting the conserva-

tion of wetlands to enhance the bio-diversity, carbon stock, ecotourism and economy genera-

tion for the local communities. National Afforestation Programme (NAP), 2019, was a similar

program which aimed to restore and afforest degraded forests and non-forest lands to increase

forest and tree cover while sequestering carbon and improving local livelihoods. The Green

India Mission (GIM), 2014, focused on restoring ecosystems, afforestation, and biodiversity

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conservation to improve the quality and extent of forest and tree cover in the country. Namami

Gange (Clean Ganga Mission), 2014 was a mission that focused on cleaning and rejuvenating

the Ganges River by promoting afforestation along the river’s bank and also through sustain-

able river management practices.

Case 4.4 Nepal

The mountainous country Nepal is one of the most disaster-prone countries in the world. Fre-

quently occurring natural disasters such as earthquakes, landslides, floods, fires and thunder-

storms are weakening the ecosystem of the country. Similarly, the increasing number of

natural hazards such as landslides and floods [43] are causing large number of lives and eco-

nomic losses every year. In addition to that, there is always a high risk of Glacier Lake outburst

floods (GLOFs), avalanches and epidemics. The heterogeneous topography with young moun-

tain ranges is fragile to heavy monsoon rainfall leading to a wide range of geological and

hydro-meteorological disasters across the country [5]. Several types of research have shown

that haphazard development and human intervention in the environment contribute to the

increased number of natural disasters [6]. And on the other hand, human behavior may also

play an imperative role in resilience building to disasters. Nature-based solution is one of the

measures to adapt to changing climate and frequently occurring natural disasters. In this con-

text, managing disaster risk through Nature-based solution should be emphasized in all the

programs and policies of the government of Nepal. Here, we reviewed the major national poli-

cies and programs that acknowledge the importance of Nature-based solution in Nepal.

National Water Resource Policy 2020. The National Water Resources Policy 2020 has

been released with a long-term vision of promoting equitable and sustainable development of

water resources for economic prosperity and social transformation through multi-purpose

uses [44]. The primary objective of the policy is to achieve economic prosperity and social

transformation by conserving, enhancing, and utilizing the available water resources in a sus-

tainable manner. Additionally, the policy aims to develop and use water resources while reduc-

ing water-induced disasters and minimizing the negative impacts on the economy, society,

and environment. By prioritizing integrated water resource management and multi-purpose

use of water resources, the policy aims to maximize the benefits derived from these resources

while minimizing negative impacts.

Nepal Climate Change Policy 2019. Nepal’s climate change policy was initially formu-

lated in 2011 and replaced by the latest policy in 2019 [45]. One of the objectives of Nepal’s cli-

mate change policy is to build the resilience of ecosystems that are at risk of adverse impacts of

climate change. Nepal Climate Change Policy aims to reduce the vulnerability to climate

change enhancing the climate change adaptation capacity of local people to utilize the maxi-

mum products and services provided by natural resources and their efficient management

[45]. The main strategies of climate change policy are: agro-forestry development in sloppy

and low-grade forest areas and riverbeds that are affected by climate-induced risk; to formulate

the action plan and implement it to conserve rare and endangered wildlife and plants as well

as sensitive ecosystems that are at risk of climate change.

National Land use policy 2015. Land use policy 2015 prioritizes and focuses on to pre-

paring green certificates through map-survey and demarcation of forest and Reserves Areas. It

also stresses on the protection of Churia Bhabhar Hill Areas that provides abandoned natural

resources to the Tarai region of Nepal. Relocation of the human settlement that is in the hill

areas having low productivity and high risk of natural disasters is another priority of the policy.

The principle of sustainable development is adopted in development works to keep a balance

between land, environment and development in view of the impact of climate change.

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National policy for disaster risk reduction 2018. This policy came into effect after the

approval of the Disaster Risk Reduction and Management National Council as per the man-

date of the Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act 2017. The goal of this policy is to

reduce disaster mortality and the number of affected people substantially, increase resiliency

by reducing disaster damage to means of livelihoods as well as critical infrastructures and dis-

ruption of basic services such as agriculture, industry, roads, communication, water supply

and sanitation, education and health facilities, and reduce direct disaster economic loss. It

focuses on participatory disaster risk management and resilience-building especially commu-

nity-based disaster risk reduction activities by the maximum utilization of local knowledge,

skill, recourses and materials.

National Wetland policy 2003. Nepal has formulated the National Wetland Policy in

2003 to conserve and manage wetlands resources wisely and in a sustainable way with local

people’s participation [46]. Nepal has various types of wetlands that cover almost 5.5% of the

total land. The major objective of the policy is to identify local people’s knowledge, skill and

practice regarding wetlands and promote their innovations and traditional research for the

sustainable use of wetlands resources. Furthermore, it focuses on the integration of scientific

knowledge and technology to identify the wetlands and prepare detailed management plans

for each of them to prevent the degradation and disappearance of wetlands in Nepal. Nepal

has shown its commitment to wetlands conservation, especially the conservation of waterfowl

habitats of international importance, by signing the Ramsar Treaty 1971.

Rangeland policy 2012. The "Rangeland policy 2012" is published in 2012 by the Ministry

of Agricultural Development [47]. It has defined rangeland as natural pastureland that

includes grasslands and shrublands. The National Rangeland Policy 2012 has recommended to

establish various rangeland management institutions at the ministry, departmental, district

and user levels with their corresponding roles and responsibilities. It aims to increase the qual-

ity and productivity of range land and increase the industry based on range land as well as

increase biodiversity through the protection.

National Agroforest policy 2019. The national agroforest policy has been implemented

to promote the farmers to practice the integrated practices of agriculture, livestock and forest

activity on the same piece of land [48]. The major objectives of the policy include: increasing

the productivity of land through the multipurpose use of land, conserving the environment

and biodiversity by reducing the pressure over forests, enhance the climate resilience ecosys-

tem. Similarly, it aims to increase income generation along with food security in marginalized

communities, promote research and development in the agroforestry field and increase the

investment opportunities in agroforestry to contribute in the national economy.

Case 4.5 Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka is an island country located in the Indian Ocean off the southern tip of India. As in

many other countries, impacts of climate change are increasingly felt in and experienced by Sri

Lanka. Although a natural phenomenon, climate change is augmented by various anthropo-

genic activities. The island is experiencing a wide array of natural hazards including two

extreme events of the water cycle, namely floods and drought caused by uneven rainfalls

[49,50]. In general, reports indicate that the annual mean surface air temperature has been

increasing in many parts of the country. On the contrary, studies identify that precipitation

has been declining in most districts in the island [51–53].

Impacts of rainfall induced landslides are sometimes accelerated by unsustainable human

activities [54]. Sri Lanka frequently faces disturbances in the atmosphere that include winds

and tropical cyclones [55]. The risk of disasters is linked with many environmental issues

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including the rapid deforestation, destruction of natural habitats involving coastal and inland

wetlands, land degradation and over-extraction of resources [56–58]. Cascading effects and

compounded impacts of diverse disasters together with poverty affect the capacity of disaster

preparedness and reduce the risk of future hazard events.

Increasing preparedness to impacts of climate change and adopt mitigatory measures while

meeting the Millennium Development Goals could be challenging for a developing country

such as Sri Lanka. Yet, country’s rich natural habitats and ecosystems could present “regret-

free” solutions. Against this backdrop, Nature based solutions could offer an attractive and

cost-effective, solution to reduce disaster risks and promote climate change mitigation and

adaptation. Even though being an emerging concept, NbS have developed in some countries

as a promising concept and practice to address societal issues. Therefore, analysis of polices

related to environment and development provides policy makers a powerful tool to under-

stand whether NbS are incorporated sufficiently.

National Environmental Policy (NEP) (2003). Sri Lanka’s National Environmental Pol-

icy (NEP) which was introduced in 2003 by the Ministry of Environment and Mahaweli Devel-

opment, has become a main guide for the environmental conservation and sustainable

development in the country. However, as policies need to be revived periodically, the Ministry

currently is in the process of revising and further develop the policy.

The Constitution of Sri Lanka emphasizes that the duty of every person to protect nature

and conserve its components. The NEP recognizes the essential need to conserve the island’s

rich ecosystems and environment and pursues to provide necessary guidance to identify, plan

and execute steps in order to different aspects of the environment, namely land, water, atmo-

sphere and living (biodiversity) components. Thus, this Policy is supported by many other pol-

icies and strategies developed for other sectors.

Nowhere in this policy mentions about NbS directly. Yet, there are various secondary direc-

tives mentioned that could help and enhance NbS.

Land and Water

The policy emphasizes a special protection provided for highly erodible areas, inland and coastal,

and areas prone to landslides. It also mentions the need of catchment conservation of water main-

taining existing natural vegetation and adopting other conservation measures as appropriate. Pro-

tection of wetlands to support their ecological functions is emphasized.

Biological Diversity

Under this section restoring degraded ecosystems, conservation of high priority forests where

important habitats and biodiversity exist, adequate protection given to key coastal and marine

ecosystems are mentioned. All species of fauna and flora that are threatened, including the

wild relatives of cultivated species have gained special attention.

National policy on protection and conservation of water sources, their catchments and

reservations in Sri Lanka (2014). This policy was prepared by the Ministry of Land and

Land Development with adequate emphasis paid on micro catchments which include rivers

and streams, their reservations and their spouts and flood plains of the rivers. In addition, nat-

ural or manmade tanks and reservoirs and shallow lakes (villu), their reservations and “imme-

diate catchments” of these habitats are to be protected.

The policy emphasizes that as global warming, other climatic changes and the natural disas-

ters could affect water sources and accordingly, when formulating future strategies for conser-

vation adequate attention should be paid to include management measures. The document

also recommends identifying the institutions which contribute directly or indirectly for the

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protection and conservation of the areas related to the water sources and establishing a

National Level Operational Committee.

National Land Use Policy of Sri Lanka (2012). This policy focuses on the sustainable

management of land resources. Many recommendations are presented in relation to the pro-

tection, conservation and improvement of the quality of natural resources,

The policy places high priority on natural forests which have a high biological and hydro-

logical value and other forests with multiple uses are to be protected. All such natural vegeta-

tion will be managed through management plans based on bio-diversity conservation

principles.

Land in landslide prone areas should be developed with adequate care and appropriate con-

servation measures to be taken. River catchments receive a special attention together with con-

servation and management of wetlands. Another salient feature in this policy is its concern

over natural disasters in the coastal zone. Appropriate zoning with regulated activities will be

demarcated to conserve such areas.

National Climate Change Policy (NCCP) 2012. The NCCP communicates broad

national policy statements to ameliorate the impacts and challenges of climate change. The

preamble to the NCCP recognizes that present and future generations will have to live with cli-

mate change and the vulnerability of developing countries such as Sri Lanka due to inadequate

adaptive capacity.

The major points that have been elaborated is to maintain ecosystems stability, conserva-

tion of water resources and biodiversity. The policy recommends taking action to minimize

the impacts on water resources due to erratic precipitation patterns temperature rise and sea

water rise.

The document highlights the essential need of enhancing climate change resilience of natu-

ral ecosystems and its diversity.

National policy on Disaster Management (2013). The Disaster Management Act No 13

of 2005 (DM Act) provides the basis for the current disaster management approach.

Unfortunately, this policy doesn’t pay adequate attention to NbS and focusses only on disas-

ter management. It emphasizes that during pre-disaster phase the highest priority will be

accorded to early warning, preparedness for response, mitigation, prevention, awareness and

training. The policy advises on formulation and issuance of early warning for many disasters.

Highest priority during a disaster will be placed on to save and protect life and environment.

5. Comparison among countries

The nature-based solutions are more effective, eco-friendly and sustainable in nature and

require a comparatively very less initial investment and almost no operational cost. The World

is now concentrating more on green interventions and nature-based solutions and investing a

lot in the field and projects. The countries of South Asia do not have direct policies related to

Nature-based solutions and resilience; still, they have aptly emphasized the nature-based solu-

tions to be incorporated in various policies related to environmental protection, water man-

agement, land utilization, disaster management and others. Table 1 shows the major policies

from the five nations, i.e., Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal and Sri Lanka, related to the envi-

ronment, water, land use, disaster management and others that have incorporated or

highlighted the use of nature-based solutions to achieve resilience.

Bangladesh, in its National Water Policy, 1999 emphasized preserving and maintaining

water bodies and resources with natural intervention to achieve biodiversity sustainability.

The policy also outlined afforestation as one of the measures to conserve natural resources and

biodiversity. The National Land Use Policy, 2001 of Bangladesh targeted to achieve 25% forest

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cover of the total geographic area. As discussed above, other policies related to NbS in Bangla-

desh have also focused on incorporating nature-based solutions to enhance resilience to the

degradation of natural resources and natural disasters. The prime objective of these policies

has been to keep a balance between economic development and environmental sustainability.

Similarly, Bhutan has also been proactive in mentioning the NbS as a tool to attain environ-

mental sustainability and quality of life for its citizens. They have targeted maintaining about

6% of their total geographic area under forest cover. The Economical Development Policy,

2016, advocates economic development with a minimal ecological footprint. The policy on

human settlement and housing intend to ensure a culturally and economically vibrant disas-

ter-resilient human settlements plan without compromising the environmental sustainability

of the nation.

India, the largest country in terms of geographical area, population and diversity in the

South Asian region, faces challenges ranging from almost all-natural disasters, huge popula-

tion density and urbanization since its independence. India has seen rapid growth in terms of

urbanization and infrastructure development in the recent few decades, which has severely

impacted the natural resources of India. The Indian policymakers have been aware of this

beforehand and were considering using natural solutions to issues like water resource manage-

ment, air quality management and disaster resilience. The focus on the use of NbS in policies

started in the late 1980s with a major focus on preserving and maintaining the forest cover of

the nation to conserve biodiversity and environmental and ecological balance. The National

Table 1. Policy Matrix from the selected countries.

Country Environment Policy Water Policy LULC Policy Climate Change

Policy

Disaster-related

Policy

Others

Bangladesh Coastal zone policy 2005

National Forest Policy 2016

National Environment Policy

2018

National Water Policy 1999 National Land use

Policy 2001

National Disaster

Management Policy

2008 (Draft)

Bhutan Bhutan Water Policy, 2007 National Forest

Policy of Bhutan

2009

Climate Change

Policy of the

Kingdom of

Bhutan 2020

National Human

Settlement Policy of

Bhutan (NHSPB)

2019

Economic

Development Policy,

2016

India National Conservation

Strategy and Policy Statement

on environment and

development, 1992

National Forest Policy, 1988

National Environmental

Policy, 2006

National Agroforestry Policy,

2014

National Water Policy (1987,

2002, 2012)

National Land

utilization policy

(Draft), 2013

National Urban

Policy Framework

(NUPF), 2020

National Policy on

Disaster

Management, 2009

Nepal National Wetland Policy

2003

National Rangeland Policy

2012

National Agroforestry policy

2019

National Water Resource Policy

2022

National Land use

policy 2015

Climate Change

Policy 2019

National Policy for

Disaster Risk

Reduction 2018

Sri Lanka

National environmental

policy and strategies 2003

National Policy on Protection

and Conservation of Water

Sources, their Catchments and

Reservations in Sri Lanka

National Land Use

Policy of Sri Lanka

2012

The National

Climate Change

Policy of Sri

Lanka

2012

National policy on

Disaster

Management

2013

Sri Lanka Energy

Policy

2019

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Forest Policy 1988 paved the path of achieving 23% forest cover in 25 from 19% in 1987. The

national water policy of India has majorly focused on using a mix of gray and green infrastruc-

ture to manage water bodies and ensure water availability to its citizens. Other policies on

disaster management, environment, and afforestation have highlighted the ability of nature-

based solutions to achieve resilience from natural disasters, improved air-water-soil quality, a

tool against the adverse effects of Climate Change and hence, recommends adopting the NbS

as much as possible.

Major policies related to NbS in Nepal have been majorly focused on achieving resilience to

natural disasters and the effects of Climate Change due to its higher vulnerability and expo-

sure. Nepal is one of the most upfront nations from the South Asian region in terms of incor-

porating NbS to achieve resilience in its national policies. The National adaptation

proclamation (NAPA), 2010 identified cross-sectoral, multi-stakeholders and multi-criteria

adaptations likely to be the Nature-based solution approaches. The Nepalese policy on climate

change recommended environmentally friendly strategies, such as agro-forestry in sloppy and

low-grade forest areas and riverbeds. Nepal’s National Land use policy governs assessing the

high-risk hilly regions with human settlements and relocating them to safer locations. Nepal

also has a dedicated policy for conserving and managing wetlands. Wetlands are a tool against

the adverse effects of climate change and regulate the water and air quality, flood and drought

prevention, providing habitat to several species and livelihood opportunities to the nearby

community.

Sri Lanka, also, like other countries in the South Asian region, does not have a direct men-

tion of NbS in their policies but indirectly promotes the application of NbS against landslide

and soil erosion and water conservation for maintaining existing natural vegetation. The Sri

Lankan National Environmental Policy of 2003 emphasized the conservation of high-priority

forest that supports biodiversity and provides habitat to several flora and fauna. The policy

also advocates the protection of wetlands and the promotion of nature-based tourism. The

National Policy on Protection and Conservation of Water Sources, their Catchments and Res-

ervations in Sri Lanka (2014) emphasizes the protection of the river catchments and small

water bodies through management measures as a preparatory solution to the impending

effects of global warming and changing climate. The National land Use Policy of Sri Lanka pri-

oritizes the conservation of natural forests because of their high biological and hydrological

value. Policy Matrix from the selected countries is shown in Table 1 and Policy and NbS link-

age is shown in Table 2.

Though these nations of the South Asian region have incorporated NbS mostly indirectly in

their policies, there is a dire need to have focused and dedicated policies on Nature-based Solu-

tions to achieve resilience and environmental sustainability. The dedicated policies will pro-

mote the implementation of NbS in the development projects which are lagging at the current

time. The position of the South Asian countries, in terms of the number of projects approved

in the DRM portfolio and the amount of investment in project Components Containing

Nature-based Solutions, is far below that in cases of Africa & the Middle East and East Asia &

the Pacific.

6. Need for regional cooperation on science and policy practice

The broader aim of this paper is to pinpoint opportunities for enhancing decision-making and

integrating actions by optimizing the structure and organization of different institutes and pol-

icies that use concepts of NbS and to learn from each other. In South Asia, the governments

are investing in disaster risk reduction and improving response capabilities at various levels.

To integrate these efforts, the NbS should be included in the objectives and action plans of the

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Table 2. Policy and nature based solution linkages.

Country Policy Target resource NbS Linkage

Bangladesh

National Water Policy 1999 Water and water-side

land/forest

• Protection of natural waterbodies from degrading due to any man-

made intervention or action

• Management of all types of water resources, including protection,

restoration, and preservation of the environment and biodiversity of

wetlands, mangroves, and other natural forests, natural habitats of

aquatic vegetation, wild life, and aquatic wild life

• Maintenance of natural drainage, water flow, and water quality

• Maintenance of the coastal estuary eco-system is threatened by the

intrusion of salinity from the sea

National Land Use Policy 2001 Land, Water, and Forest • Uses of land resources, considering the natural environment of the

area

• Control of unregulated use of lands for agricultural and non-

agricultural purposes

• Targets to increase the forest cover to 25% of the country’s

geographical area

Maintaining the natural water quality of all natural water sources

Coastal Zone Policy 2005 All Natural Resources of

Coastal Area

• Preservation and improvement of the quality of the Critical

Ecological Zones (CEZ) of coastal areas

Mitigation of the gradual deterioration of the natural environment

due to climate change impacts and anthropogenic causes

Disaster Management Policy 2015 Life, Livelihood and

Well-beingness

• Mitigation of the impacts of climate change, unregulated

urbanization, and environmental degradation

National Forest Policy 2016 (Draft) Forest • Conservation of biodiversity and ecosystems for ensuring rational

utilization of resources

• Targets to increase the forest cover to at least 20% of the country’s

geographical area

• Expansion and sustainable management of zoological and botanical

gardens, arboretums and other related categories of protected areas

National Environment Policy 2018 All-natural Resources • Science-based specific approaches for land resource management,

water resource management, air pollution control, safe food and water

consumption, agricultural practices, forest and wildlife conservation,

fisheries and livestock production, biodiversity-ecosystem

conservation and biosafety, coastal and marine ecosystem, disaster

risk reduction, climate change preparedness and adaptation,

management of chemical substances, other pollution control etc.

Bhutan

Water Policy, 2007 Water, Land, Forest Calls for Integrated Water Resource management.

Seeks Comprehensive watershed management, soil conservation and

water related disaster.

National Forest Policy of Bhutan, 2009 Forest, renewable

resources

• Maintain 60% of country land under forest cover.

• Balance conservation and sustainable utilization of forest resources.

Climate Change Policy of the Kingdom of Bhutan,

2020

Environment, Livelihood

and Well-beingness

• Achieve healthy and ecologically balanced sustainable development

• Focus on having carbon neutral development

• Safeguard the welfare of people by addressing climate change

challenges with appropriate levels.

Economic Development Policy, 2016 Environment, Economy • Ensure green and sustainable economic development

• Ensure environmental sustainability through diverse economic base

with minimal ecological footprint

National Human Settlement Policy of Bhutan

(NHSPB) 2019

Livelihood, Well-

beingness, Environment

• Guides developments by providing environmentally sustainable,

culturally and economically vibrant and disaster resilient human

settlement plans

• Balance urbanization and protect fragile ecology though limiting

conversion of farmland and forests.

• Protect encroachment of environmentally sensitive and disaster-

prone areas

National Housing Policy (NHP) 2019 Livelihood, Well-

beingness, Environment

• Preserve local ecosystems with adequate monitoring and minimal

disturbance without compromising community vitality

(Continued )

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Table 2. (Continued)

Country Policy Target resource NbS Linkage

India

National Forest Policy, 1988 Forest • An ecology-centric approach for protection, management, and

raising the forest cover.

National Water Policy, 1987, 2002, and 2012 Water • Conservation of water through green and grey infrastructure was

introduced and emphasized.

National Conservation Strategy and Policy

Statement on Environment and

Development, 1992

Water, Land, and Forest • Classification and zoning of land under forest cover, agriculture,

catchment area, and grasslands.

National Environment Policy, 2006 All-natural Resources • Establishment of Environmentally Sensitive Zones.

National Policy on Disaster Management, 2009 Life, Livelihood and

Well-beingness

• Encourage mitigation measures based on technology mixed with

traditional knowledge to achieve environmental sustainability

National Agroforestry Policy, 2014 Food and Land • Promoting agroforestry as a tool to mitigate the impacts of climate

change

National Urban Policy Framework (NUPF), 2020 Air, land, well-beingness • Expanding the green spaces as a tool of resilience against issues like

air pollution and urban heat island designated as national parks,

wildlife sanctuaries, reserve forests, or Eco-sensitive zones

Nepal

National Water Resource Policy 2020 Water and water-side

land

• Sustainable development and multipurpose use of water resources.

• Sustainably conserve, manage and to carry out multipurpose

development of available water resources to contribute to the

economic prosperity and social transformation of the country

• Minimize the impact of water induced disasters and maintenance of

natural drainage, water flow, and water quality

Nepal Climate Change Policy 2019 Ecosystem, Land, Water,

and Forest

• Build the resilience of ecosystems that are at risk of adverse impacts

of climate change

• Utilize the maximum products and services provided by natural

resources and their efficient management

• Agro-forestry development in sloppy and low-grade forest areas and

riverbeds that are affected by climate-induced risk

• Watershed and landscape management

National Land Use Policy 2015 Forest, Reserve Area and

Land

• Preparation of green certificates through map-survey and

demarcation of forest and Reserves Area

• Keep a balance between land, environment and development in view

of the impact of climate change.

National Policy for Disaster Risk Reduction 2018 Life, Livelihood resilience

and Well-beingness

• Enhance resilience by disaster damage to means of livelihood,

community-based disaster risk reduction and mitigation of the

impacts of climate change

• Maximum utilization of local knowledge, skill, recourses and

materials

National Agroforest policy 2019 Agriculture, Forest and

Environment

• Promote the farmers to practice the integrated practices of

agriculture, livestock and forest activity on the same piece of land

Conservation of environment and biodiversity by reducing the

pressure over forests enhance the climate resilience ecosystem

National Wetland policy 2003 Wet lands, Livelihoods,

Indigenous knowledge

• Conservation, maintenance and development of country’s wetlands

• Identify local people’s knowledge, skill and practice regarding

wetlands and promote their innovations and traditional research for

the sustainable use of wetlands resources

• Integration of scientific knowledge and technology to identify the

wetlands and prepare detailed management plans.

Rangeland policy 2012 • Increase the quality and productivity of rangeland and increase the

industry based on rangeland

• Increase biodiversity through the protection, and sustainable and

scientific resources uses by the balanced use of the environment

(Continued )

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South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), with capacity-building initiatives

included in bilateral and multilateral collaborations. India could play a significant role in shar-

ing its knowledge from its green revolution program with other South Asian nations, as it is

the leading economic partner for most countries in the region and has supported various

fields.

Given the challenges posed by increasing populations, urbanization, climate change, food

security, natural and human-induced disasters, collaboration is crucial. Each country in the

region has unique characteristics that require individual consideration when formulating

regional policies and plans. For instance, mountainous countries like Nepal and Bhutan face

different challenges than Sri Lanka and Bangladesh. The level of urbanization varies signifi-

cantly between countries, with widespread slums in Dhaka and Mumbai compared to Kath-

mandu and other SAARC countries. Despite these differences, the region shares similarities,

such as economic development trajectories in India’s Uttar Pradesh and Nepal’s western

region, and Bihar State and Nepal’s Tarai region.

The Hindu Kush-Himalaya Mountain range, which spans eight countries from Afghanistan

to Myanmar, has more than 25,000 glaciers and provides water and energy to 1.9 billion people

[59]. Unfortunately, these glaciers are retreating faster than ever, posing a high risk of glacial

lake outburst floods (GOLFs) in the region. South Asian countries must build their resilience

and enhance adaptive capacity to overcome common challenges caused by natural phenom-

ena. Furthermore, agriculture is the livelihood of the majority of the population in the region

and highly vulnerable to climate change. Therefore, prompt action is necessary in the SAARC

policies to enhance the resilience of the agriculture sector and farmers in the region.

7. Conclusion and future direction

Nature-based solution offers a chance to improve the resilience of susceptible communities

and cities, as well as to attain sustainable development goals. Although none of the countries in

the region specifically refer to NbS, all five nations have expressed the conservation of nature

and ecosystems to achieve several environmental and socio-economic objectives in various

Table 2. (Continued)

Country Policy Target resource NbS Linkage

Sri Lanka

National Environmental Policy

2003

Environment- water, soil,

air, biodiversity

• Conservation of the environment including water, soil, air and

biodiversity and their interconnections to ensure healthy and sound

functioning of nature

• Highlighting conservation of the special areas such as sensitive

areas/ elements

• Restoration of degraded ecosystems

National Policy on Protection and Conservation of

Water Sources, their Catchments and Reservations

in Sri Lanka (2014)

Water • Conservation of water sources, both natural and manmade and the

catchments is emphasized.

• Remedial management measures to mitigate the impacts of climate

change and disasters on water resources are highlighted.

National Land Use Policy of Sri Lanka (2012) Land • Wise use and sustainable management of land resources to ensure

smooth functioning of environmental components

• Special emphasis on managing sensitive and environmentally

important land

National Climate Change Policy (NCCP) (2012) Environment and

resources

• To mitigate the impacts of climate change on the environment

• Elaboration on maintaining ecosystem stability, conservation of

resources including water and biodiversity

National Policy on Disaster Management, (2013) Environment and

resources

• Emphasizes saving and protecting life and the environment before,

during and after natural disasters

• Emphasizes post-disaster recovery in land, water, and ecosystems

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ways. Environmental and land use policies indirectly address NbS in all countries. However,

policies for managing the impacts of climate change and disaster risk are not evident in all

countries, necessitating a reassessment of policy dialogues. However, there are several barriers

to the adoption of NbS in South Asia due to the specific environmental, social, geopolitical,

and structural characteristics of the region. It is crucial for future research to examine the

application of NbS in the region and learn from both successful and unsuccessful approaches

to NbS. In all the countries under review, policies related to NbS are scattered in many organi-

zations and it is apparent that these organizations act “in solo” without focusing the “inte-

grated picture”. This research can help propose solutions to overcome these barriers.

The above points clearly indicate that governments have not given sufficient attention to

policies that reflect and promote "Nature-based Solutions" (NbS). Direct policies on NbS are

inadequate in all countries, leaving ample room for the initiation and introduction of new

tools and further research. This situation requires urgent attention from governments, as exist-

ing policies do not effectively respond to the current needs of utilizing nature’s free services to

reduce disaster risk, particularly given the double burden of poverty and escalating depletion

of natural resources.

Planning and developing new policies should consider learning from other countries where

strong policies are implemented. One of the objectives of this article is to share information

about NbS across participating countries and create a way to share experiences and status quo.

As some sectors in the region share common features, issues, and challenges, sharing baseline

and key information would be a good starting point to enhance knowledge. For example, the

destruction of nature’s green infrastructures such as Mangroves is evident in many countries.

In such cases, organizing information-sharing and capacity-building platforms involving from

each country to share knowledge and good practices could be more practical than feasible.

At the local level, each policy should produce an appropriate mix of intersectoral interven-

tions. For instance, sectors where common resources are covered, such as forests, wildlife, and

coastal habitats, should be carefully analyzed and integrated to produce meaningful, practical,

and effective policies.

Moreover, evidence-influenced policymaking is vital, including essential information from

the sectors. In many instances, academic research is focused merely on professional fora or

journal articles where essential information is not communicated to policymakers. Both aca-

demics and policymakers should discuss a common platform to identify research gaps neces-

sary to formulate effective policy tools. For instance, a policymaker may include a new closure

to conserve seagrass beds without knowing or ignoring the fact that these habitats are impor-

tant for fishery, carbon sequestration, and biodiversity. Introducing new management tools

requires an understanding of policy gaps, which calls for more theoretical and applied

research.

This section highlights the key policy tools required for managing ecosystems towards NbS,

but many governments have additional instruments related to coastal zone management,

water, forest, and urban development. To develop well-articulated policy tools, it is crucial to

consider the following factors:

a. Nature appraisal and environmental awareness should be explicitly incorporated in all

phases of policy formulation.

b. Proper management plans should be in place for effective allocation of financial, human,

and technological resources.

c. Quantitative targets and performance indicators should be specified for monitoring and

evaluating success.

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Nature-based solutions in South Asia

PLOS Climate | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000289 March 4, 2024 19 / 23

d. Social accountability, innovation, and adaptive governance should be aligned with policy

formulation and implementation.

To ensure efficiency and effectiveness, policies related to NbS should be coherent, con-

nected, and integrated with natural resources, climate change, disaster risk reduction, and

socio-economic growth, to achieve sustainable development in the region.

Supporting information

S1 Checklist. Supplementary information for methodology and process of literature

review.

(PDF)

S1 Text. Supplementary information for Table 1 and Table 2. These files include the list of

literatures reviewed while writing this paper.

(DOCX)

Author Contributions

Conceptualization: Shobha Poudel, Deepthi Wickramasinghe, Mahua Mukherjee, Rajib

Shaw.

Formal analysis: Shobha Poudel, Mahua Mukherjee, Imon Chowdhooree, Chimi Chimi, Bho-

gendra Mishra, Kumar Abhinay, Sudip Mitra.

Methodology: Shobha Poudel, Bhogendra Mishra.

Writing – original draft: Shobha Poudel, Deepthi Wickramasinghe, Chimi Chimi, Bhogendra

Mishra, Kumar Abhinay, Sudip Mitra.

Writing – review & editing: Mahua Mukherjee, Imon Chowdhooree, Chimi Chimi, Bhogen-

dra Mishra, Kumar Abhinay, Sudip Mitra, Rajib Shaw.

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