Sample Paper: One-Experiment Paper

Running head: EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 1

Effects of Age on Detection of Emotional Information

Christina M. Leclerc and Elizabeth A. Kensinger

Boston College

Author Note

This research was supported by National Science Foundation Grant BCS 0542694

awarded to Elizabeth A. Kensinger.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Christina M. Leclerc,

Department of Psychology, Boston College, McGuinn Hall, Room 512, 140 Commonwealth

Avenue, Chestnut Hill, MA 02467. Email: [email protected]

Christina M. Leclerc and Elizabeth A. Kensinger, Department of Psychology,

Boston College.

Aut

hor

rch was supported by National Science Foundation Grant BCS 0

42694

A. Kens

er.

dence concerning this article should be addressed to Christina M. Leclerc,

ychology, Boston College, McGuinn Hall, Room

12, 140 Commonwealth

t Hill, MA 024

7. Email: [email protected]

M. Lec

erc an

A. Kens

nger, Department o

Psyc

ogy,

Writing the abstract, 2.04

Establishing a title, 2.01; Preparing the

manuscript for submission, 8.03

Formatting the author name (byline) and

institutional affiliation, 2.02, Table 2.1

Double-spaced manuscript,

Times Roman typeface,

1-inch margins, 8.03

Elements of an author note, 2.03

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION

Abstract

Age differences were examined in affective processing, in the context of a visual search task.

Young and older adults were faster to detect high arousal images compared with low arousal and

neutral items. Younger adults were faster to detect positive high arousal targets compared with

other categories. In contrast, older adults exhibited an overall detection advantage for emotional

images compared with neutral images. Together, these findings suggest that older adults do not

display valence-based effects on affective processing at relatively automatic stages.

Keywords: aging, attention, information processing, emotion, visual search

MANUSCRIPT STRUCTURE AND CONTENT

Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (The numbers refer to numbered

sections in the

Publication Manual

Paper adapted from “Effects of Age on Detection of Emotional Information,” by C. M. Leclerc and E. A. Kensinger,

2008,

Psychology and Aging, 23,

sixth edition

SAMPLE PAPERS

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 3

Effects of Age on Detection of Emotional Information

Frequently, people encounter situations in their environment in which it is impossible to

attend to all available stimuli. It is therefore of great importance for one’s attentional processes to

select only the most salient information in the environment to which one should attend. Previous

research has suggested that emotional information is privy to attentional selection in young

adults (e.g.,

& Tapia, 2004; Nummenmaa, Hyona, & Calvo, 2006), an obvious service to evolutionary drives

to approach rewarding situations and to avoid threat and danger (Davis & Whalen, 2001; Dolan

& Vuilleumier, 2003; Lang, Bradley, & Cuthbert, 1997; LeDoux, 1995).

For example, Ohman, Flykt, and Esteves (2001)presented participants with 3 × 3 visual

arrays with images representing four categories (snakes, spiders, flowers, mushrooms). In half

the arrays, all nine images were from the same category, whereas in the remaining half of the

arrays, eight images were from one category and one image was from a different category (e.g.,

eight flowers and one snake). Participants were asked to indicate whether the matrix included a

discrepant stimulus. Results indicated that fear-relevant images were more quickly detected than

fear-irrelevant items, and larger search facilitation effects were observed for participants who

were fearful of the stimuli. A similar pattern of results has been observed when examining the

attention-grabbing nature of negative facial expressions, with threatening faces (including those

not attended to) identified more quickly than positive or neutral faces (Eastwood, Smilek, &

Merikle, 2001; Hansen & Hansen, 1988). The enhanced detection of emotional information is

not limited to threatening stimuli; there is evidence that any high-arousing stimulus can be

detected rapidly, regardless of whether it is positively or negatively valenced (Anderson, 2005;

Anderson, 2005; Calvo & Lang, 2004; Carretie, Hinojosa, Marin-Loeches, Mecado,

ant

stimulus

Results

indicated

that

fear

relevant

images

were

quickly

detected

than

elevant items, a

nd larger search facilitation effects were observed for participants who

e st

. A s

ar pattern o

resu

een o

serve

en exam

ng t

grabbing nature of negative facial expressions, with threatening faces (includ

ng t

ose

to)

ent

ifi

more qu

y t

an pos

ve or neutra

aces

(

astwoo

, Sm

200

;

ansen,

988

)

. The enhanced detection of emotional information is

to t

reaten

ng st

; t

ere

s ev

ence t

at any

arous

ng st

us can

rap

idl

y, regar

ess o

s pos

y or negat

ly valenced (

erson

(

2005

;

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 4

Calvo & Lang, 2004; Carretie et al., 2004; Juth, Lundqvist, Karlsson, & Ohman, 2005;

Nummenmaa et al., 2006).

From this research, it seems clear that younger adults show detection benefits for

arousing information in the environment. It is less clear whether these effects are preserved

across the adult life span. The focus of the current research is on determining the extent to which

aging influences the early, relatively automatic detection of emotional information.

Regions of the brain thought to be important for emotional detection remain relatively

intact with aging (reviewed by Chow & Cummings, 2000). Thus, it is plausible that the detection

of emotional information remains relatively stable as adults age. However, despite the

preservation of emotion-processing regions with age (or perhaps because of the contrast between

the preservation of these regions and age-related declines in cognitive-processing regions; Good

et al., 2001; Hedden & Gabrieli, 2004; Ohnishi, Matsuda, Tabira, Asada, & Uno, 2001; Raz,

2000; West, 1996), recent behavioral research has revealed changes that occur with aging in the

regulation and processing of emotion. According to the socioemotional selectivity theory

(Carstensen, 1992), with aging, time is perceived as increasingly limited, and as a result, emotion

regulation becomes a primary goal (Carstensen, Isaacowitz, & Charles, 1999). According to

socioemotional selectivity theory, age is associated with an increased motivation to derive

emotional meaning from life and a simultaneous decreasing motivation to expand one’s

knowledge base. As a consequence of these motivational shifts, emotional aspects of the

Writing the introduction, 2.05

Ordering citations within

the same parentheses, 6.16

Selecting

the correct

tense, 3.18

Continuity in presentation

of ideas, 3.05

Citing one

work by six

or more

authors, 6.12

No capitalization in

naming theories, 4.16

Numbers

expressed

in words,

4.32

Numbers that represent

statistical or mathematical

functions, 4.31

Use of hyphenation for

compound words, 4.13,

Table 4.1

Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)

sixth edition

MANUSCRIPT STRUCTURE AND CONTENT

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 5

To maintain positive affect in the face of negative age-related change (e.g., limited time

remaining, physical and cognitive decline), older adults may adopt new cognitive strategies. One

such strategy, discussed recently, is the positivity effect (Carstensen & Mikels, 2005), in which

older adults spend proportionately more time processing positive emotional material and less

time processing negative emotional material. Studies examining the influence of emotion on

memory (Charles, Mather, & Carstensen, 2003; Kennedy, Mather, & Carstensen, 2004) have

found that compared with younger adults, older adults recall proportionally more positive

information and proportionally less negative information. Similar results have been found when

examining eye-tracking patterns: Older adults looked at positive images longer than younger

adults did, even when no age differences were observed in looking time for negative stimuli

(Isaacowitz, Wadlinger, Goren, & Wilson, 2006). However, this positivity effect has not gone

uncontested; some researchers have found evidence inconsistent with the positivity effect (e.g.,

Grühn, Smith, & Baltes, 2005; Kensinger, Brierley, Medford, Growdon, & Corkin, 2002).

Based on this previously discussed research, three competing hypotheses exist to explain

age differences in emotional processing associated with the normal aging process. First,

emotional information may remain important throughout the life span, leading to similarly

facilitated detection of emotional information in younger and older adults. Second, with aging,

emotional information may take on additional importance, resulting in older adults’ enhanced

detection of emotional information in their environment. Third, older adults may focus

principally on positive emotional information and may show facilitated detection of positive, but

not negative, emotional information.

The primary goal in the present experiment was to adjudicate among these alternatives.

To do so, we employed a visual search paradigm to assess young and older adults’ abilities to

motional

processing

associated

with

the

normal

aging

process

First

remain important throu

hout the lif

pan, leadin

to similarl

l inf

n i

oun

er and older adults. Second, with a

may take on additional importance, resulting in older adult

’

ced

l information in their environment. Third, older adults ma

foc

e emot

ona

ormat

on an

may s

ili

tate

etect

on o

pos

ve,

ormat

oal in the present experiment was to ad

udicate amon

these alternatives.

d a visual search paradi

m to assess

oun

and older adult

’ abilities to

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION

rapidly detect emotional information. We hypothesized that on the whole, older adults would be

slower to detect information than young adults would be (consistent with Hahn, Carlson, Singer,

& Gronlund, 2006; Mather & Knight, 2006); the critical question was whether the two age

groups would show similar or divergent facilitation effects with regard to the effects of emotion

on item detection. On the basis of the existing literature, the first two previously discussed

hypotheses seemed to be more plausible than the third alternative. This is because there is reason

to think that the positivity effect may be operating only at later stages of processing (e.g.,

strategic, elaborative, and emotion regulation processes) rather than at the earlier stages of

processing involved in the rapid detection of information (see Mather & Knight, 2005, for

discussion). Thus, the first two hypotheses, that emotional information maintains its importance

across the life span or that emotional information in general takes on greater importance with

age, seemed particularly applicable to early stages of emotional processing.

Indeed, a couple of prior studies have provided evidence for intact early processing of

emotional facial expressions with aging. Mather and Knight (2006) examined young and older

adults’ abilities to detect happy, sad, angry, or neutral faces presented in a complex visual array.

Mather and Knight found that like younger adults, older adults detected threatening faces more

quickly than they detected other types of emotional stimuli. Similarly, Hahn et al. (2006) also

found no age differences in efficiency of search time when angry faces were presented in an

array of neutral faces, compared with happy faces in neutral face displays. When angry faces,

compared with positive and neutral faces, served as nontarget distractors in the visual search

arrays, however, older adults were more efficient in searching, compared with younger adults,

Capitalization of words

beginning a sentence after

a colon, 4.14

Using the colon between

two grammatically

complete clauses, 4.05

Using the semicolon to

separate two independent

clauses not joined by

a conjunction, 4.04

Using the comma between

elements in a series, 4.03

Punctuation with citations

in parenthetical material,

6.21

Citing references in text,

inclusion of year within

paragraph, 6.11, 6.12

Hypotheses and their

correspondence to research

design, Introduction, 2.05

Prefixes and

suffixes that

do not require

hyphens,

Table 4.2

Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)

sixth edition

SAMPLE PAPERS

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 7

negative stimuli were not of equivalent arousal levels (fearful faces typically are more arousing

than happy faces; Hansen & Hansen, 1988). Given that arousal is thought to be a key factor in

modulating the attentional focus effect (Hansen & Hansen, 1988; Pratto & John, 1991; Reimann

& McNally, 1995), to more clearly understand emotional processing in the context of aging, it is

necessary to include both positive and negative emotional items with equal levels of arousal.

In the current research, therefore, we compared young and older adults’ detection of four

categories of emotional information (positive high arousal, positive low arousal, negative high

arousal, and negative low arousal) with their detection of neutral information. The positive and

negative stimuli were carefully matched on arousal level, and the categories of high and low

arousal were closely matched on valence to assure that the factors of valence (positive, negative)

and arousal (high, low) could be investigated independently of one another. Participants were

presented with a visual search task including images from these different categories (e.g., snakes,

cars, teapots). For half of the multi-image arrays, all of the images were of the same item, and for

the remaining half of the arrays, a single target image of a different type from the remaining

items was included. Participants were asked to decide whether a different item was included in

the array, and their reaction times were recorded for each decision. Of primary interest were

differences in response times (RTs) based on the valence and arousal levels of the target

categories. We reasoned that if young and older adults were equally focused on emotional

information, then we would expect similar degrees of facilitation in the detection of emotional

stimuli for the two age groups. By contrast, if older adults were more affectively focused than

were younger adults, older adults should show either faster detection speeds for all of the

emotional items (relative to the neutral items) than shown by young adults or greater facilitation

y, g ,

e target

mage o

diff

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rom t

e rema

ere as

e w

er a

diff

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tem was

ere recorded for each decision. Of primary interest were

) based on the valence and arousal levels of the targe

and older adults were equall

focused

similar degrees of facilitation in the detection of emotional

contrast, if older adults were more affectively focused than

hould show eith

r faster detection speeds for all of the

tra

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an s

own

y young a

ts or greater

ili

tat

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 8

for the arousing items than shown by the young adults (resulting in an interaction between age

and arousal).

Method

Participants

Younger adults (14 women, 10 men, M

age = 19.5 years, age range: 18–22 years) were

recruited with flyers posted on the Boston College campus. Older adults (15 women, nine men,

Mage = 76.1 years, age range: 68–84 years) were recruited through the Harvard Cooperative on

Aging (see Table 1, for demographics and test scores).

Participants were compensated $10 per

hour for their participation. There were 30 additional participants, recruited in the same way as

described above, who provided pilot rating values: five young and five old participants for the

assignment of items within individual categories (i.e., images depicting cats), and 10 young and

10 old participants for the assignment of images within valence and arousal categories. All

participants were asked to bring corrective eyewear if needed, resulting in normal or corrected

to normal vision for all participants.

Materials and Procedure

The visual search task was adapted from Ohman et al. (2001). There were 10 different

types of items (two each of five Valence × Arousal categories: positive high arousal, positive low

arousal, neutral, negative low arousal, negative high arousal), each containing nine individual

exemplars that were used to construct 3 × 3 stimulus matrices. A total of 90 images were used,

each appearing as a target and as a member of a distracting array. A total of 360 matrices were

presented to each participant; half contained a target item (i.e., eight items of one type and one

target item of another type) and half did not (i.e., all nine images of the same type). Within the

Prefixed words that

require hyphens,

Table 4.3

Using abbreviations, 4.22; Explanation

of abbreviations, 4.23; Abbreviations

used often in APA journals, 4.25;

Plurals of abbreviations, 4.29

Elements of the Method

section, 2.06; Organizing

a manuscript with levels

of heading, 3.03

Using numerals to express

numbers representing age, 4.31

Numbering and

discussing tables

in text, 5.05

Identifying

subsections

within the

Method

section, 2.06

Participant (subject)

characteristics,

Method, 2.06

Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)

sixth edition

MANUSCRIPT STRUCTURE AND CONTENT

Running head: EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 10

selected such that the arousal difference between positive low arousal and positive high arousal

was equal to the difference between negative low arousal and negative high arousal.

Similarity ratings. Each item was rated for within-category and between-categories

similarity. For within-category similarity, participants were shown a set of exemplars (e.g., a set

of mushrooms) and were asked to rate how similar each mushroom was to the rest of the

mushrooms, on a 1 (entirely dissimilar) to 7 (nearly identical) scale. Participants made these

ratings on the basis of overall similarity and on the basis of the specific visual dimensions in

which the objects could differ (size, shape, orientation). Participants also rated how similar

objects of one category were to objects of another category (e.g., how similar the mushrooms

were to the snakes). Items were selected to assure that the categories were equated on within-

category and between-categories similarity of specific visual dimensions as well as for the

overall similarity of the object categories (ps > .20). For example, we selected particular

mushrooms and particular cats so that the mushrooms were as similar to one another as were the

cats (i.e., within-group similarity was held constant across the categories). Our object selection

also assured that the categories differed from one another to a similar degree (e.g., that the

mushrooms were as similar to the snakes as the cats were similar to the snakes).

Procedure

Each trial began with a white fixation cross presented on a black screen for 1,000 ms; the

matrix was then presented, and it remained on the screen until a participant response was

recorded. Participants were instructed to respond as quickly as possible with a button marked yes

if there was a target present, or a button marked no if no target was present. Response latencies

and accuracy for each trial were automatically recorded with E-Prime (Version 1.2) experimental

unn

ing

head: EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION

elected such that the arousal difference between positive low arousal and positi

as equa

to t

diff

erence

etween negat

ow arousa

negat

aro

imilarity ratin

Eac

tem

as rate

hin

ategory an

etwee

ty. For w

hin

ategory s

ty, part

pants were s

own a set o

exe

f mushrooms

)

and were asked to rate how similar each m

hroom

as to the r

mushrooms, on a 1

(

entirely dissimila

)

to 7

(

nearly identica

(

) scale. Partici

ant

atings on the basis of overall similarity and on the basis of the specific visual d

whi

e o

ects cou

diff

er (s

e, s

ape, or

entat

on). Part

pants a

so rate

bjects of one category were to objects of another category (e.g., how similar th

ere to t

e sna

es). Items were se

ecte

to assure t

at t

e categor

es were equat

ategory an

categor

es s

ty o

spec

ifi

c v

sua

mens

ons as we

overall similarity of the object categorie

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(

> .20). For examp

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ecte

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 9

matrix. Within the 180 target trials, each of the five emotion categories (e.g., positive high

arousal, neutral, etc.) was represented in 36 trials. Further, within each of the 36 trials for each

emotion category, nine trials were created for each of the combinations with the remaining four

other emotion categories (e.g., nine trials with eight positive high arousal items and one neutral

item). Location of the target was randomly varied such that no target within an emotion category

was presented in the same location in arrays of more than one other emotion category (i.e., a

negative high arousal target appeared in a different location when presented with positive high

arousal array images than when presented with neutral array images).

The items within each category of grayscale images shared the same verbal label (e.g.,

mushroom, snake), and the items were selected from online databases and photo clipart

packages. Each image depicted a photo of the actual object. Ten pilot participants were asked to

write down the name corresponding to each object; any object that did not consistently generate

the intended response was eliminated from the set. For the remaining images, an additional 20

pilot participants rated the emotional valence and arousal of the objects and assessed the degree

of visual similarity among objects within a set (i.e., how similar the mushrooms were to one

another) and between objects across sets (i.e., how similar the mushrooms were to the snakes).

Valence and arousal ratings. Valence and arousal were judged on 7-point scales (1 =

negative valence or low arousal and 7 = positive valence or high arousal). Negative objects

received mean valence ratings of 2.5 or lower, neutral objects received mean valence ratings of

3.5 to 4.5, and positive objects received mean valence ratings of 5.5 or higher. High-arousal

objects received mean arousal ratings greater than 5, and low-arousal objects (including all

neutral stimuli) received mean arousal ratings of less than 4. We selected categories for which

both young and older adults agreed on the valence and arousal classifications, and stimuli were

Latin abbreviations, 4.26

Numbers expressed in words

at beginning of sentence, 4.32

Italicization of anchors

of a scale, 4.21

Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)

sixth edition

SAMPLE PAPERS

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 11

software. Before beginning the actual task, participants performed 20 practice trials to assure

compliance with the task instructions.

Results

Analyses focus on participants’ RTs to the 120 trials in which a target was present and

was from a different emotional category from the distractor (e.g., RTs were not included for

arrays containing eight images of a cat and one image of a butterfly because cats and butterflies

are both positive low-arousal items). RTs were analyzed for 24 trials of each target emotion

category. RTs for error trials were excluded (less than 5% of all responses) as were RTs that

were ±3 SD from each participant ’s mean (approximately 1.5% of responses). Median RTs were

then calculated for each of the five emotional target categories, collapsing across array type (see

Table 2 for raw RT values for each of the two age groups). This allowed us to examine, for

example, whether participants were faster to detect images of snakes than images of mushrooms,

regardless of the type of array in which they were presented. Because our main interest was in

examining the effects of valence and arousal on participants’ target detection times, we created

scores for each emotional target category that controlled for the participant’s RTs to detect

neutral targets (e.g., subtracting the RT to detect neutral targets from the RT to detect positive

high arousal targets). These difference scores were then examined with a 2 × 2 × 2 (Age [young,

older] × Valence [positive, negative] × Arousal [high, low]) analysis of variance (ANOVA). This

ANOVA revealed only a significant main effect of arousal, F(1, 46) = 8.41, p = .006, η

= .16,

with larger differences between neutral and high-arousal images (M = 137) than between neutral

and low-arousal images (M = 93; i.e., high-arousal items processed more quickly across both age

groups compared with low-arousal items; see Figure 1). There was no significant main effect for

valence, nor was there an interaction between valence and arousal. It is critical that the analysis

Symbols, 4.45;

Numbers, 4.31

Abbreviations

accepted as

words, 4.24

Numbering and discussing

figures in text, 5.05

Nouns followed

by numerals or

letters, 4.17

Reporting

p values,

decimal

fractions,

4.35

Statistical symbols,

4.46, Table 4.5

Elements of the

Results section, 2.07

Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)

sixth edition

MANUSCRIPT STRUCTURE AND CONTENT

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 12

revealed only a main effect of age but no interactions with age. Thus, the arousal-mediated

effects on detection time appeared stable in young and older adults.

The results described above suggested that there was no influence of age on the

influences of emotion. To further test the validity of this hypothesis, we submitted the RTs to the

five categories of targets to a 2 × 5 (Age [young, old] × Target Category [positive high arousal,

positive low arousal, neutral, negative low arousal, negative high arousal]) repeated-measures

ANOVA.

Both the age group, F(1, 46) = 540.32, p < .001, η

= .92, and the ta rget category,

F(4, 184) = 8.98, p < .001, η

= .16, main effects were significant, as well as the Age Group ×

Target Category interaction, F (4, 184) = 3.59, p = .008, η

= .07. This interaction appeared to

reflect the fact that for the younger adults, positive high-arousal targets were detected faster than

targets from all other categories, ts(23) < –1.90, p < .001, with no other target categories

differing significantly from one another (although there were trends for negative high-arousal

and negative low-arousal targets to be detected more rapidly than neutral targets; p < .12). For

older adults, all emotional categories of targets were detected more rapidly than were neutral

targets, ts(23) > 2.56, p < .017, and RTs to the different emotion categories of targets did not

differ significantly from one another. Thus, these results provided some evidence that older

adults may show a broader advantage for detection of any type of emotional information,

whereas young adults’ benefit may be more narrowly restricted to only certain categories of

emotional information.

Discussion

As outlined previously, there were three plausible alternatives for young and older adults’

performance on the visual search task: The two age groups could show a similar pattern of

enhanced detection of emotional information, older adults could show a greater advantage for

Elements of the

Discussion section, 2.08

Statistics

in text, 4.44

Capitalize effects

or variables when

they appear with

multiplication

signs, 4.20

Spacing, alignment,

and punctuation of

mathematical copy, 4.46

Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)

sixth edition

SAMPLE PAPERS

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 13

emotional detection than young adults, or older adults could show a greater facilitation than

young adults only for the detection of positive information. The results lent some support to the

first two alternatives, but no evidence was found to support the third alternative.

In line with the first alternative, no effects of age were found when the influence of

valence and arousal on target detection times was examined; both age groups showed only an

arousal effect. This result is consistent with prior studies that indicated that arousing information

can be detected rapidly and automatically by young adults (Anderson, Christoff, Panitz, De

Rosa, & Gabrieli, 2003; Ohman & Mineka, 2001) and that older adults, like younger adults,

continue to display a threat detection advantage when searching for negative facial targets in

arrays of positive and neutral distractors (Hahn et al., 2006; Mather & Knight, 2006). Given the

relative preservation of automatic processing with aging (Fleischman, Wilson, Gabrieli, Bienias,

& Bennett, 2004; Jennings & Jacoby, 1993), it makes sense that older adults would remain able

to take advantage of these automatic alerting systems for detecting high arousal information.

However, despite the similarity in arousal-mediated effects on detection between the two

age groups, the present study did provide some evidence for age-related change (specifically,

age-related enhancement) in the detection of emotional information. When examining RTs for

the five categories of emotional targets, younger adults were more efficient in detecting positive

high-arousal images (as presented in Table 2), whereas older adults displayed an overall

advantage for detecting all emotional images compared with neutral images. This pattern

suggests a broader influence of emotion on older adults’ detection of stimuli, providing support

for the hypothesis that as individuals age, emotional information becomes more salient.

It is interesting that this second set of findings is clearly inconsistent with the hypothesis

that the positivity effect in older adults operates at relatively automatic stages of information

neutra

stractors

(

;

Mat

200

Given the

automat

c process

ng w

ng (F

man

Wil

son

li,

nings

Jacoby

199

it makes sense that older adults would remain ab

ese automat

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ng systems

etect

arousa

ormat

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n arousa

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en exam

emot

ona

targets, younger a

ts were more e

ffi

ent

etect

ng pos

s (as presented in Table

), whereas older adults displayed an overall

emot

ona

es compare

neutra

es. T

s pattern

nfl

uence o

emot

on on o

er a

’

etect

on o

, prov

idi

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at as

s age, emot

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ecomes more sa

ent

that this second set of findin

s is clearl

inconsistent with the

hyp

othesis

ect

n o

er a

ts operates at re

automat

c sta

orm

ati

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 14

processing, given that no effects of valence were observed in older adults’ detection speed. In the

present study, older adults were equally fast to detect positive and negative information,

consistent with prior research that indicated that older adults often attend equally to positive and

negative stimuli (Rosler et al., 2005). Although the pattern of results for the young adults has

differed across studies—in the present study and in some past research, young adults have shown

facilitated detection of positive information (e.g., Anderson, 2005; Calvo & Lang, 2004; Carretie

et al., 2004; Juth et al., 2005; Nummenmaa et al., 2006), whereas in other studies, young adults

have shown an advantage for negative information (e.g., Armony & Dolan, 2002; Hansen &

Hansen, 1988; Mogg, Bradley, de Bono, & Painter, 1997; Pratto & John, 1991; Reimann &

McNally, 1995; Williams, Mathews, & MacLeod, 1996)—what is important to note is that the

older adults detected both positive and negative stimuli at equal rates. This equivalent detection

of positive and negative information provides evidence that older adults display an advantage for

the detection of emotional information that is not valence-specific.

Thus, although younger and older adults exhibited somewhat divergent patterns of

emotional detection on a task reliant on early, relatively automatic stages of processing, we

found no evidence of an age-related positivity effect. The lack of a positivity focus in the older

adults is in keeping with the proposal (e.g., Mather & Knight, 2006) that the positivity effect

does not arise through automatic attentional influences. Rather, when this effect is observed in

older adults, it is likely due to age-related changes in emotion regulation goals that operate at

later stages of processing (i.e., during consciously controlled processing), once information has

been attended to and once the emotional nature of the stimulus has been discerned.

Although we cannot conclusively say that the current task relies strictly on automatic

processes, there are two lines of evidence suggesting that the construct examined in the current

Clear statement of support or

nonsupport of hypotheses,

Discussion, 2.08

Use of an em dash to

indicate an interruption

in the continuity of a

sentence, 4.06;

Description of an

em dash, 4.13

Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)

sixth edition

MANUSCRIPT STRUCTURE AND CONTENT

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 15

research examines relatively automatic processing. First, in their previous work, Ohman et al.

(2001) compared RTs with both 2 × 2 and 3 × 3 arrays. No significant RT differences based on

the number of images presented in the arrays were found. Second, in both Ohman et al.’s (2001)

study and the present study, analyses were performed to examine the influence of target location

on RT. Across both studies, and across both age groups in the current work, emotional targets

were detected more quickly than were neutral targets, regardless of their location. Together,

these findings suggest that task performance is dependent on relatively automatic detection

processes rather than on controlled search processes.

Although further work is required to gain a more complete understanding of the age-

related changes in the early processing of emotional information, our findings indicate that

young and older adults are similar in their early detection of emotional images. The current

study provides further evidence that mechanisms associated with relatively automatic processing

of emotional images are well maintained throughout the latter portion of the life span

(Fleischman et al., 2004; Jennings & Jacoby, 1993; Leclerc & Hess, 2005). It is critical that,

although there is evidence for a positive focus in older adults’ controlled processing of emotional

information (e.g., Carstensen & Mikels, 2005; Charles et al., 2003; Mather & Knight, 2005), the

present results suggest that the tendency to focus on the positive does not always arise when

tasks require relatively automatic and rapid detection of information in the environment.

e early processing of emotional information, our findings indicate that

lts are similar in their earl

detection of emotional ima

es.

er evidence that mechanisms associated with relatively automatic processing

are well maintained throu

hout the latter portion of the lif

spa

200

;

Jennin

Jacob

1993

;

ess

2005

)

. It is critical that,

dence for

ositiv

ocus

adu

’

controlled processin

of emotional

arstense

Mikels

;

Charle

al.

2003

;

Mathe

Knight

), the

st that the tendenc

to focus on the positive does not alwa

s arise when

ly automatic and rapid detection of information in the environment.

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 16

Anderson, A. K., Christoff, K., Panitz, D., De Rosa, E., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2003). Neural

correlates of the automatic processing of threat facial signals. Journal of Neuroscience,

23, 5627– 5633.

Armony, J. L., & Dolan , R. J. (2002). Modulation of spatial attention by fear-conditioned

stimuli: An event-related fMRI study. Neuropsychologia, 40, 817–826.

doi:10.1016/S0028-3932%2801%2900178-6

Beck, A. T., Epstein, N., Brown, G., & Steer, R. A. (1988). An inventory for measuring clinical

anxiety: Psychometric properties. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56,

893– 897. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.56.6.893

Calvo, M. G., & Lang, P. J. (2004). Gaze patterns when looking at emotional pictures:

Motivationally biased attention. Motivation and Emotion, 28, 221–243. doi:

10.1023/B%3AMOEM.0000040153.26156.ed

Carretie, L., Hinojosa, J. A., Martin-Loeches, M., Mecado, F., & Tapia, M. (2004). Automatic

attention to emotional stimuli: Neural correlates. Human Brain Mapping , 22, 290–299.

doi:10.1002/hbm.20037

Carstensen, L. L. (1992). Social and emotional patterns in adulthood: Support for socioemotional

selectivity theory. Psychology and Aging, 7, 331–338. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.7.3.331

Carstensen, L. L., Fung, H., & Charles, S. (2003). Socioemotional selectivity theory and the

regulation of emotion in the second half of life. Motivation and Emotion, 27, 103–123.

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3445.134.2.258

Use of parallel construction

with coordinating conjunctions

used in pairs, 3.23

Discussion section ending

with comments on

importance of findings, 2.08

Construction of an accurate and

complete reference list, 6.22;

General desciption of references, 2.11

Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)

sixth edition

SAMPLE PAPERS

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 17

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Dav

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, 13

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34.

ola

& V

the Ne

Eastwoo

ttent

on a

Fleischma

itudi

, 617

–

Goo

C. D.

John

S. J

001

)

alen

oi:

ill

l s

sru

)

Hah

son

nge

ron

. D. (200

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contro

attent

ona

as to t

reat

aces.

cta Ps

ica

123

, 312

–

. doi:

/j.actpsy.200

.01.008

ansen

. H.,

ansen

(1988)

. F

ng t

ace

n t

e crow

: An anger super

ect.

ourna

of Persona

ity an

Socia

Psyc

ogy

, 917

–

24.

: 10.1037/0022

14.

4.6.

Hed

Gabrieli

. D. E.

(2004)

. Ins

nto t

e age

ng m

: A v

rom cogn

neurosc

ence

ature Re

s Neuroscienc

, 87

–

. doi:10.1038/nrn1323

Isaacow

dli

nge

ore

(2006). Selective preference

isual fixation away from negativ

images in old age? An eye

tracking study. Ps

chol

Agin

, 40

–

48. doi:10.1037/0882

74.21.1.4

Jenn

ngs

J. M.,

Jaco

L. L

(1993). Automatic versus intentional uses of memory: Aging,

ttent

on, an

contro

, 283

–

/088

283

Lund

vist

sson

hma

(200

). Looking for foes and friends:

Perceptua

emot

ona

actors w

ng a

ace

n t

e crow

otio

, 3

–

doi:10.1037/1

42.

.4.379

Kenne

athe

& Carstensen

(2004). The role of motivation in the age

elate

n auto

ograp

memory. Ps

ica

Scienc

, 208

–

214

doi:10.1111/j.0

956

976.2004.01

03011.x

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Example of reference to a

book chapter, print verison,

no DOI, 7.02, Example 25

Digital object identifier as

article identifier, 6.31;

Example of reference to a

periodical, 7.01

134. doi:

Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)

sixth edition

MANUSCRIPT STRUCTURE AND CONTENT

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 20

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Williams, J. M., Mathews, A., & MacLeod, C., (1996). The emotional Stroop task and

psychopathology. Psychological Bulletin, 120, 3– 24. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.120.1.3

Wilson, B. A., Alderman, N., Burgess, P. W., Emslie, H. C., & Evans, J. J. (1996). The

Behavioural Assessment of the Dysexecutive Syndrome. Flempton, Bury St. Edmunds,

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ati

ation

orsuc

Lushene

)

anual for the Stat

–

t Inventor

A: Consu

ng Psyc

sts Press.

)

Wechsl

Memor

y S

cale

—

Revise

San Anton

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ych

)

. Tec

nica

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for t

e Wec

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t Inte

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Memory Sca

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e Psyc

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rtex function theor

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nitive a

etin

120

, 2

–

292

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oi:

.10

37/

003

290

9.1

20.

2.2

thews

acLeod

(199

). The emotional Stroop task and

. Ps

cholo

ical Bulleti

, 3

–

4. doi: 10.1037/0033

.120.1.

rma

Bur

ess

Emslie

. C.

van

. J.

(

199

Assessment of the Dysexecutive Syndrom

Flem

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Test Compan

Footnotes

covariance were conducted with these covariates, with no resulting

influences of these variables on the pattern or magnitude of the results.

These data were also analyzed with a 2 × 5 ANOVA to examine the effect of target

category when presented only in arrays containing neutral images, with the results remaining

qualitatively the same. More broadly, the effects of emotion on target detection were not

qualitatively impacted by the distractor category.

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION

Analyses of

Article with more than

seven authors, 7.01,

Example 2

Placement and format

of footnotes, 2.12

Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)

sixth edition

SAMPLE PAPERS

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION

Note. Values represent median response times, collapsing across array type and excluding arrays

of the same category as targets (i.e., positive high arousal represents the median RT to respond to

positive high arousal targets, collapsing across positive low arousal, neutral, negative high

arousal, and negative low arousal array categories). The median response time values were

recorded in milliseconds.

Table 2

Raw Response Time (RT) Scores for Young and Older Adults

Category Young group Older group

Positive high arousal 825 1,580

Positive low arousal 899 1,636

Neutral 912 1,797

Negative high arousal 885 1,578

Negative low arousal 896 1,625

F A

N DETE

F EM

alues represent median response times, collapsing across array type and excluding arrays

ame category as targets (i.e., positive high arousal represents the median RT to respond to

high arousal targets, collapsing across positive low arousal, neutral, negative high

, an

negat

ow arousa

array categor

es). T

e me

an response t

me va

ues were

d in milliseconds

sponse Time (RT) Scores

or Young an

er A

Youn

rou

Older

arousa

1,58

arousa

1,63

912

high

arousa

885

1,57

ve low arousa

23EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION

Note. The Beck Anxiety Inventory is from Beck et al. (1988); the Behavioral Assessment of the

Dysexecutive Syndrome—Dysexecutive Questionnaire (BADS–DEX) is from Wilson et al.

(1996); the State–Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) measures are from Spielberger et al. (1970);

and the Digit Symbol Substitution, Digit Span–Backward, and Arithmetic Wechsler Adult

Intelligence Scale—III and Wechsler Memory Scale—III measures are from Wechsler (1997).

Generative naming scores represent the total number of words produced in 60 s each for letter

F, A, and S. The Vocabulary measure is from Shipley (1986); the Mental Control measure is

from Wechsler (1987); the Self-Ordered Pointing measure was adapted from Petrides and Milner

(1982); and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST) measure is from Nelson (1976).

Table 1

Participant Characteristics

Younger group Older group

Measure M SD M SD F(1, 46) p

Years of education 13.92 1.28 16.33 2.43 18.62 <.001

Beck Anxiety Inventory 9.39 5.34 6.25 6.06 3.54 .066

BADS–DEX 20.79 7.58 13.38 8.29 10.46 .002

STAI–State 45.79 4.44 47.08 3.48 1.07 .306

STAI–Trait 45.64 4.50 45.58 3.15 0.02 .963

Digit Symbol Substitution 49.62 7.18 31.58 6.56 77.52 <.001

Generative naming 46.95 9.70 47.17 12.98 .004 .951

Vocabulary 33.00 3.52 35.25 3.70 4.33 .043

Digit Span–Backward 8.81 2.09 8.25 2.15 0.78 .383

Arithmetic 16.14 2.75 14.96 3.11 1.84 .182

Mental Control 32.32 3.82 23.75 5.13 40.60 <.001

Self-Ordered Pointing 1.73 2.53 9.25 9.40 13.18 .001

WCST perseverative errors 0.36 0.66 1.83 3.23 4.39 .042

All values represent raw, nonstandardized scores.

Selecting effective

presentation, 4.41;

Logical and effective

table layout, 5.08

Elements of

table notes, 5.16

Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)

sixth edition

MANUSCRIPT STRUCTURE AND CONTENT

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 25

Figure 1. Mean difference values (ms) representing detection speed for each target category

subtracted from the mean detection speed for neutral targets. No age differences were found in the

arousal-mediated effects on detection speed. Standard errors are represented in the figure by the

error bars attached to each column.

Figure legends

and captions, 5.23

Principles of figure use and

construction; types of figures;

standards, planning, and

preparation of figures, 5.20–5.25

Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)

sixth edition