Special Events Contingency
Planning
Job Aids Manual
March 2005
FEMA
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements.....................................................................................1
Introduction
Preface ....................................................................................................... 1
Background ................................................................................................. 2
Scope ......................................................................................................... 3
Synopsis ..................................................................................................... 4
Chapter Overviews........................................................................................ 4
Chapter 1: Pre-Event Planning
Introduction.............................................................................................. 1-1
Definition of Special Event and Mass Gathering .............................................. 1-1
Planning Meetings for Special Events/Mass Gatherings .................................... 1-2
The Planning Process.................................................................................. 1-3
State and Federal Roles in Terrorism Incident Prevention ................................ 1-4
Crowd Types............................................................................................. 1-9
Crowd Composition .................................................................................. 1-10
Crowd Catalysts ...................................................................................... 1-11
Critical Crowd Densities ............................................................................ 1-11
Crowd Throughput Capacities .................................................................... 1-12
Chapter 2: Event Operational Considerations
Introduction.............................................................................................. 2-1
Hazard Analysis......................................................................................... 2-1
Contingency Plans ..................................................................................... 2-4
Structural Matters...................................................................................... 2-5
High-Profile/Controversial Events................................................................. 2-9
Spectator Management and Crowd Control .................................................. 2-10
Traffic and Transportation......................................................................... 2-16
Public Health........................................................................................... 2-21
Medical Care ........................................................................................... 2-34
Guide to the Provision of Medical Aid .......................................................... 2-40
Environmental Concerns ........................................................................... 2-44
Aircraft................................................................................................... 2-46
Camping ................................................................................................ 2-46
Hazardous Materials (HazMat) ................................................................... 2-47
Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear, Explosive (CBRNE)....................... 2-48
Chemical ................................................................................................ 2-49
Biological................................................................................................ 2-50
Radiological ............................................................................................ 2-50
Nuclear .................................................................................................. 2-50
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
Chapter 2: Event Operational Considerations (Continued)
Explosives .............................................................................................. 2-51
Electrical Utility Coordination Requirements................................................. 2-54
Fire Safety.............................................................................................. 2-54
Communications Systems ......................................................................... 2-55
Rumor Control......................................................................................... 2-57
Occupational Health and Safety ................................................................. 2-57
Alcohol, Drugs, and Weapons .................................................................... 2-58
Security ................................................................................................. 2-59
Lost-Child and “Meet Me” Locations............................................................ 2-62
Information Center .................................................................................. 2-63
Plan for “Murphy’s Law”............................................................................ 2-63
Chapter 3: Incident Command and Control
Introduction.............................................................................................. 3-1
Incident Command System (ICS)................................................................. 3-1
Roles and Expectation ................................................................................ 3-4
Incidents Occurring During a Special Event ................................................... 3-9
Transfer of Command............................................................................... 3-10
Unified Command .................................................................................... 3-11
Unified Command Organization.................................................................. 3-12
Multi-agency Coordination Systems............................................................ 3-13
Public Information Systems....................................................................... 3-16
Federal and State Resources ..................................................................... 3-23
Chapter 4: Additional Planning Considerations for Specific Events
Introduction.............................................................................................. 4-1
Power Boat Races and Similar Aquatic Events ................................................ 4-1
Automobile and Similar Races...................................................................... 4-2
Air Shows and Displays .............................................................................. 4-5
Fireworks and Pyrotechnics ......................................................................... 4-6
Laser Displays........................................................................................... 4-7
Spontaneous Events................................................................................... 4-7
Events Involving Pre-Teen and Early Teen Audiences ...................................... 4-8
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
Chapter 5: Post-Event Actions
Introduction.............................................................................................. 5-1
Demobilization .......................................................................................... 5-1
Post-Event Analysis Meeting........................................................................ 5-1
After-Action Report .................................................................................... 5-2
Appendix A: Job Aids
Appendix B: References and Bibliography
Appendix C: Glossary of Terms
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The following agencies are gratefully acknowledged for their input to this manual:
Federal Emergency Management Agency
FEMA National Fire Academy
Virginia Department of Health
New York State Police
City of Keene Police Department, New Hampshire
Sarasota Fire Department, Florida
Washington, DC Fire and EMS Department
Miami-Dade Office of Emergency Management, Fire-Rescue Department, Florida
Cabin John Park Volunteer Fire Department, Maryland
Marion County Emergency Management, Indiana
Massachusetts Emergency Management Agency
Weber County Emergency Management, Utah
Washington D.C. Office of Emergency Preparedness
Utah Division of Comprehensive Emergency Management
Columbia South Carolina Public Works
American Public Works Association
Acknowledgement is also made of the manual, Safe and Healthy Mass Gatherings: A
Health, Medical and Safety Planning Manual for Public Events, prepared by Emergency
Management Australia, and of the paper, Emergency Preparedness Guidelines for Mass,
Crowd-Intensive Events, prepared for Emergency Preparedness Canada by James A.
Hanna, M. SC.
I
NTRODUCTION
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PREFACE
The purpose of this manual is the prevention of injury, suffering, or death that may occur as
a result of poor planning or preventable incidents at public events.
This manual is intended to provide guidance for the management of risks associated with
conducting events that involve mass gatherings of people and assist planners and
organizers in making such events safe and successful.
Details of the development of the manual and other related matters are noted in the
Background section of the Introduction. The manual was sponsored, edited, and published
by the Department of Homeland Security (DHS)/Federal Emergency Management Agency
(FEMA).
FEMA has prepared this manual for use by anyone planning or conducting a special event or
mass gathering. This manual is intended to enable its users to ensure that adequate
measures and systems are in place to prevent, reduce, and provide care for injuries, illness,
and suffering that may occur.
Many people, in addition to health personnel, contribute significantly to the success of a
public event. Therefore, FEMA anticipates that this manual will be distributed to event
promoters, managers, public and private organizations, emergency service personnel,
government bodies, and any individual or organization that contributes to the planning of
events. Wide distribution is encouraged, providing that individuals understand that the
detailed contents of the manual are directed principally at managing the health and safety
aspects of the event for all participants, officials, and spectators.
The manual is not intended to override any existing legislation or local emergency
management procedures. Further, it does not seek to address the preparation of
emergency response plans, but rather identifies the elements that should be considered by
those responsible for planning and conducting events that attract large numbers of people.
Local governments and emergency services should be approached for more detailed advice
on other aspects of planning and for the necessary permits and licenses required.
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BACKGROUND
Throughout the United States, at any given time of year, there are festivals, concerts, fairs,
sporting events, and many other large and small events that gather or have the potential to
gather large crowds. Under normal conditions, these events go on with few or no problems.
When something goes wrong, however, either as a result of a natural hazard or a man-
made hazard, then local emergency management becomes involved. These mass
gatherings are also potential targets for terrorists.
Multiple deaths and injuries at large public events have occurred consistently and over a
wide spectrum of countries and types of events. Certain highly competitive sports events,
particularly soccer, and rock concerts and festivals tend to produce spectator-generated
incidents, while air shows and auto races tend to produce more participant-generated
occurrences.
In some instances, advanced assessment of, and planning for, these events failed to occur,
or when they did, they failed to identify the potential for disaster, or mitigating or coping
strategies for a major incident.
With this in mind, FEMA conducted a focus group workshop during which participants
discussed real pre-event planning problems for an upcoming event. The workshop focused
on a number of major areas, which, either singularly or collectively, have intensified the
problems inherent in mass crowd-intensive events. These issues included such aspects as
physical layouts, spectator management, public safety, public health, and medical care.
The workshop was not geared toward large, often national events (i.e., Incidents of National
Significance, National Special Security Events, though the planning principles still apply),
but toward the more “routine” special events that communities host, such as parades, fairs,
concerts, and air shows.
The participants focused on the impact that an event, a non-routine activity, would have on
a community’s resources. They placed emphasis not on the total number of people
attending, but rather on the community’s ability to respond to the exceptional demands that
the activity would place on response services.
The purpose of having a pre-event plan in place is to reduce response times and better
enable agencies to improvise because they have discussed contingencies beforehand. A
pre-event plan defines roles and responsibilities in advance and creates ownership of
potential problems for agencies that are involved in the process.
On February 28, 2003, the President issued Homeland Security Presidential Directive
(HSPD)–5, Management of Domestic Incidents, which directs the Secretary of Homeland
Security to develop and administer a National Incident Management System (NIMS). This
system provides a consistent nationwide template to enable Federal, State, local, and tribal
governments and private-sector and non-governmental organizations to work together
effectively and efficiently to prepare for, prevent, respond to, and recover from domestic
incidents, regardless of cause, size, or complexity, including acts of catastrophic terrorism.
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BACKGROUND (CONTINUED)
The NIMS provides a set of standardized organizational structures—such as the Incident
Command System (ICS), multi-agency coordination systems, and public information
systems—as well as requirements for processes, procedures, and systems designed to
improve interoperability among jurisdictions and disciplines in various areas, to include:
training; resource management; personnel qualification and certification; equipment
certification; communications and information management; technology support; and
continuous system improvement. ICS should be used in responding to an incident during a
special event.
This manual is designed for a wide audience, encompassing the range of personnel with a
role to play in the development of a special event plan. Participants include those who have
a general awareness of their own roles but do not have a previous detailed or extensive
knowledge of special event planning. For example, the audience might include relatively
new emergency managers, personnel from emergency operations organizations such as
police, fire, medical services, and public works, and representatives from other community
organizations—both public and private—for whom special event planning is not a regular
responsibility.
SCOPE
The suggested guidelines in this manual have been developed from a number of sources,
and most are applicable to a wide range of mass public gatherings. These sources focused
on youth audiences attending large rock concerts and competitive sporting events because
of the difficulties and major incidents historically associated with such events. Many of the
guidelines derived from such experiences are applicable to a broad range of other events
that present their own challenges.
Certain types of events have an inherent capacity for special management problems. While
the general guidance given in this document remains applicable to these events, additional
guidance is given for high-risk events in Chapter 4: Additional Planning Considerations for
Specific Events.
In certain situations, such as visits by high-profile political figures or controversial activists,
intensive security arrangements are necessary. Such procedures are outside the scope of
this manual, and it would be inappropriate and counterproductive to provide details herein,
given the wide and unrestricted distribution of this document. When such events occur,
event planners must create liaison between emergency service personnel, health
professionals, and appropriate security personnel to ensure that they address health, safety
and security issues for the event.
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SYNOPSIS
This manual covers a number of major areas, which either singularly of collectively, have
historically exacerbated the problems inherent in mass crowd-intensive events. These areas
include such aspects as physical layouts (including site, structures, and access), spectator
management (including crowd organization, flow, and ingress/egress control), and public
safety (including security, public health, and medical care).
Historically, advance assessment of and planning for an event failed to occur, or when they
did, they failed to identify the potential for disaster or mitigating or coping strategies in the
event of a major incident.
Experience has proven that certain high-risk events, such as auto races and air shows,
require particular planning in addition to the more generally applicable guidelines. This
manual provides guidance for the particular planning of these high-risk events, as well as
guidance to plan for terrorist and criminal activities.
FEMA recognizes that no two events or situations are identical. While this document
provides an approach to planning for and coping with special events, it does not provide
guidelines that are universally applicable or without need of modification to the specifics of a
particular event.
CHAPTER OVERVIEWS
Chapter 1 contains information concerning selection of the planning team, ordinances,
regulations, and laws, and information concerning selecting a site for the event.
Chapter 2 concerns the event’s operational considerations.
Chapter 3 gives a basic overview of the NIMS Incident Command System and how to use
ICS both in the planning stage and when an incident occurs.
Chapter 4 discusses some of the considerations when hosting a specialty event that may be
high risk.
Chapter 5 explains the demobilization process and the importance of an After-Action Report.
Appendix A contains job aids to assist in the planning process.
Appendix B contains references and a bibliography.
Appendix C contains a glossary of terms.
C
HAPTER 1: PRE-EVENT PLANNING
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INTRODUCTION
Planning any event is difficult. Planning for the potential risks and hazards associated with
an event is even more difficult but essential to the event’s success. If you want those who
attend an event to have positive memories of it, you need to keep several things in mind.
This chapter covers the issues that you should address in the very early stages of planning
or even when you are discussing promoting or sponsoring such an event. Before you
schedule the event, you should consider the scope of the event or mass gathering, the risks
to spectators and participants, community impact, and the emergency support required
(personnel and logistics). You should also identify the lead agency and members of the
planning team.
DEFINITION OF SPECIAL EVENT AND MASS GATHERING
What does or does not constitute a special event or mass gathering is difficult to determine.
Instead, guidelines may be used to define it.
A focus group discussing special events and mass gatherings has identified a special event
as:
a non-routine activity within a community that brings together a large
number of people. Emphasis is not placed on the total number of people
attending but rather the impact on the community’s ability to respond to a
large-scale emergency or disaster or the exceptional demands that the
activity places on response services. A community’s special event requires
additional planning, preparedness, and mitigation efforts of local
emergency response and public safety agencies.
The focus group then defined a mass gathering as a subset of a special event. Mass
gatherings are usually found at special events that attract large numbers of spectators or
participants. Both special events and mass gatherings require the kind of additional
planning identified in the previous quote. For example, an amusement park that attracts a
large number of people is not considered a special event because large crowds are
expected. A mass gathering does not imply that the event is a special event. Failure to
prepare for all contingencies can lead to disastrous consequences.
This manual is not intended to offer preparation planning for large national events, but for
the more traditional community events, such as parades, fairs, concerts, air shows, and
festivals. Both types of events require the same kind of careful planning, however.
The title of this manual is Special Events Contingency Planning
. What do we mean by
contingency planning and where do we start? What distinguishes this level of planning from
traditional public safety planning?
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DEFINITION OF SPECIAL EVENT AND MASS GATHERING (CONTINUED)
The first concern with contingency planning is to identify times when the event may place
strains on the existing public safety agencies. Even in the earliest stages of planning, you
should begin also to make contingency plans. These plans should consider licensing and
regulations, emergency response issues, identifying persons responsible for particular types
of hazards and risks, resources and expenses, and jurisdictions. Planning ahead reduces
stress for organizers and promoters during the event, if an incident occurs that requires
public agencies to work together.
During the initial planning stages, each agency should review resources to ensure that all
necessary equipment is available. If the agencies determine that any additional equipment
is needed, then they may acquire the equipment or supplies and be ready for the event.
One way for communities to acquire equipment is to work together or pool equipment.
One way in which agencies work together is by adopting a program known as local mutual
aid. This program allows neighboring communities to pool resources and share liability for
damages or loss of equipment. If one community needs a particular piece of equipment, it
may borrow it from a neighboring community. The equipment will become an asset of the
borrowing community and will be covered under their insurance until it is released and
returns to its home organization. It is important that those involved in planning the event
know the agreements established between neighboring communities and the assets that are
available to assist in responding to any unforeseen incidents. These agreements may all
already be established and included as a part of the local emergency operations plan.
PLANNING MEETINGS FOR SPECIAL EVENTS/MASS GATHERINGS
PLANNING TEAM IDENTIFICATION
In general, planning a special event or mass gathering should begin well in advance of the
event. One of the first steps in planning an event is to bring together those who are hosting
the event with those who are responsible for the public safety within the community. A
multidisciplinary planning team or committee should be composed of the promoter or
sponsor and any agency that holds a functional stake in the event (e.g., emergency
management, law enforcement, fire and rescue, public works/utilities, public health, etc.).
With all of these agencies present, there is an obvious risk of confusion in matters of
leadership. The nature of this risk is discussed in Chapter 3: Incident Command and
Control. Thus, the lead agency should be identified early in the planning process. In some
communities, the lead agency for public safety planning is the emergency management
agency. Consequently, the emergency management agency should typically lead the way in
coordinating the event planning effort.
Some communities already have planning protocols or systems in place. If your community
has an existing plan that has already proved successful, do not start from scratch; simply
change or modify the plan where needed. The ICS is a management system that is
frequently used to manage large events effectively. As such, event planners should
consider using ICS throughout the planning process. It seems logical that the Incident
Commander should be a representative of the lead agency. It also seems logical that this
representative should lead the planning team or committee.
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PLANNING TEAM IDENTIFICATION (CONTINUED)
All involved agencies need to participate on this planning team from the outset to ensure a
successful and safe event. At its initial meeting, the planning team should develop its
mission and objectives, and determine the necessary components of the public safety plan.
For example, what elements are within the realm of the promoter and what are within the
realm of the public safety agencies? The planning team should also develop its structure
using ICS as a model (that is, Sections, Branches, Divisions, and Groups, as needed).
Chapter 3 will discuss ICS in greater detail. Additionally, the planning team should consider
the promoter’s or sponsoring organization’s purpose and experience, potential event-related
risks (including crowd control, staffing, food and shelter, parking, transportation, medical
facilities), previous event concerns, relevant local concerns, weather, and community
impact.
THE PLANNING PROCESS
TEAM APPROACH
Special event contingency plan development should be the joint effort of a planning team—a
group of people who represent a cross-section of the organizations that are involved in the
emergency response effort. Although each jurisdiction’s team will vary somewhat, the
Emergency Manager usually serves as the team’s planning coordinator. Team members
may include representatives of the groups listed below:
Office of the Chief Executive.
Promoter/Sponsor.
Emergency services agencies (law enforcement, fire/rescue, emergency medical
services, public health and safety, and others).
Planning agencies and individuals (for example, community development, city planning
commissions, and hazard mitigation planner).
Local Emergency Planning Committees (LEPCs), for hazardous materials information.
Public works agencies and utility companies.
Social service agencies and volunteer organizations (including the American Red Cross
and Salvation Army).
Medical community representatives (for example, area hospitals, EMS agencies, medical
examiner, coroner, mortician).
Key education personnel (including administrators).
Communications representatives (Public Information Officer (PIO), local media, radio/CB
groups, and others).
Aviation and coastal authorities (including State aviation authority, other air support
representatives, port authorities, U.S. Coast Guard station).
Chief Financial Officer (CFO), auditor, and heads of any centralized procurement and
resource support agencies.
The jurisdiction’s legal counsel.
Industrial and military installations in the area.
Labor and professional organizations.
Animal care and control organizations.
Emergency Managers and agency representatives from neighboring jurisdictions, to
coordinate mutual aid needs.
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TEAM APPROACH (CONTINUED)
State and/or Federal representatives, as appropriate.
Representatives of private-sector organizations, as necessary.
A team approach to planning offers many advantages, including:
A Sense of Ownership – The plan is more likely to be used and followed if the tasked
organizations have a sense that the plan is “theirs.”
Greater Resources – More knowledge and expertise are brought to bear on the planning
effort when more people are involved.
Cooperative Relationships – Closer professional relationships that are developed during
the planning process should translate into better cooperation and coordination in
emergencies.
STATE AND FEDERAL ROLES IN TERRORISM INCIDENT PREVENTION
An integrated approach among the local, State, and Federal Government provides for a
logical clearinghouse for intelligence on the movement and activities of terrorist groups and
the collection, interpretation, and dissemination of that information to the proper
enforcement agencies. Effective planning and intelligence gathering can lessen the
likelihood of a surprise emergency incident, which, improperly handled, can make or break a
department and its administrators at all levels of government. Descriptive intelligence with
predictive interpretation that forecasts the probability of the threat and the target can
enhance operational readiness in training, equipping, and practicing to respond to
emergency incidents. In gathering intelligence, law enforcement agencies must consider
threat assessment, as a minimum measure. Planners must have appropriate contacts and
phone numbers at hand before the event.
State law enforcement agencies should take the lead in pre-incident threat forecasting and
planning. Roles and responsibilities of the various stakeholding agencies for the event need
to be determined and an incident chain of command put in place, so that, if a terrorist
threat materializes, confusion and duplication of response can be diminished.
PRE-EVENT PLANNING MATRIX
At subsequent meetings, the planning team should identify all of the major functions and
responsibilities required by the event and assign appropriate agencies to manage each
function or responsibility. Because responsibilities vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, it is
most effective to assign responsibilities consistently to avoid duplication and promote
efficient response to problems that may arise. The Pre-Event Planning Matrix is designed to
help you choose the risks, hazards, or functions that are likely to be required by an event,
and assign each to a primary agency (P) or a secondary or support agency (S). The
functions and responsibility assignments must be discussed and decided in the planning
stages, not when an incident occurs. This Pre-Event Planning Matrix is included on pages
A-1 through A-3 of Appendix A: Job Aids. A Special Event Planning Checklist is included on
pages A-4 through A-8 of Appendix A: Job Aids.
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PROMOTER/SPONSOR(S)
The promoter or sponsor must be involved in all of the planning phases to ensure a
successful event. Often, the promoter is interested in monetary gain more than he or she is
interested in public safety. If this appears to be his or her primary goal, local agency
participation is essential. You may encourage the promoter to cooperate by linking
attendance at planning meetings with the permit process and issuance. For example, the
permit to host the event may require the promoter’s presence at the initial planning
meeting. Teamwork promotes successful events.
One way to ensure public safety at an event is to follow the relevant laws or regulations of
the community. Following these laws and regulations ensures that the promoter will keep
the public’s safety at the forefront of all plans. Some communities or States have public
agency regulatory oversight of the promoter built into the permit process. For example, the
community may have a requirement for the promoter to have adequate contingency plans
in place before approving an event.
A Promoter/Sponsor Checklist is included on pages A-9 through A-21 of Appendix A: Job
Aids.
RELEVANT LAWS OR REGULATIONS
Event promoters must usually gain approval from local, and sometimes even State,
authorities to hold public events. The following information should be available to the
promoters before beginning the permit-approval process:
Identity of the approving authority and any other authorities actively involved in the
approval process.
Relevant statutes, ordinances, codes, and standards (i.e., life safety codes) existing for
mass gatherings.
Documentation required to support their application.
Insurance, bond, liability issues.
Relevant deadlines for the filing of applications.
Some communities offer a “One Stop Shopping” concept for permitting. The person
requesting a permit for an event completes applications at one place and the information is
forwarded to the appropriate agencies for their approval. The person requesting the permit
does not have to track down the appropriate agencies to make a request. This concept also
ensures that all required agencies are notified and considerations are made before the
permit is issued.
Promoters should be aware of the approving authority’s timetable for approving events and
issuing permits and should include any potential delay in the event planning schedule.
As a condition for receiving approval, promoters may be required to provide feedback on the
approval process and submit an evaluation before, during, and after the event, as needed.
Promoters may be required to give feedback in the form of a debrief or a report to relevant
authorities.
An Approving Authority Checklist is included on pages A-22 through A-32 of Appendix A:
Job Aids.
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LEGAL ISSUES
Some form of legislation usually governs or restricts public events or aspects of them.
Some events, particularly extremely large or high-impact events, require special State or
local legislation. Local ordinances provide health and medical guidelines.
Promoters should consider obtaining legal advice early in the planning stage. Items that
warrant consideration include:
Liability for injuries.
Liability for acts or omissions.
Liability for financial obligations incurred in responding to major emergencies occasioned
by the event.
Potential liability for the resultant effects of the event on normal emergency operations.
Permits may be required for parades, the sale and consumption of alcohol, pyrotechnics,
and the sale of food items. Fire safety inspections should be required. Permission may also
be required if it will be necessary to close certain adjacent or peripheral roads or streets. A
permit may be required for the mass gathering itself.
Most public sector agencies have adopted a “User Pays” policy for services provided at
sporting and entertainment events. The purpose of this policy is to improve the allocation
of statute resources in the general community by providing a means of charging for services
deployed to plan for, and respond to, sporting and entertainment events. Event promoters
should consult local and State authorities to determine relevant fee structures and charges
for services provided, including payment of overtime costs for personnel.
Promoters may be required to post a bond or provide liability insurance to cover the costs of
response to emergencies, subsequent venue cleanup, traffic and crowd control, and other
policing functions.
The head of the planning team must monitor the progress that is made in satisfying all legal
requirements throughout the planning stage of the event.
In addition, research should be done in advance to determine statutory authority and
emergency powers (i.e., isolation/quarantine, emergency evacuation, etc.) of the various
parties involved.
POLITICAL ISSUES
Often communities have to deal with local political considerations when they plan events.
No specific advice can be given to the promoter except to warn him or her that political
considerations are always important to the local community. Often a way to encourage
elected political officials to support an event is to show the monetary or quality-of-life
impact that a successful event would have on their communities or careers. Explaining the
positive impact encourages officials to support the public safety coordinators by providing
adequate local resources and funding.
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POLITICAL ISSUES (CONTINUED)
Any event has the potential to become an incident of national significance as that term is
described in the National Response Plan (NRP). Recent revisions to Federal guidance
documents indicate that any number of factors could escalate a local incident to an incident
of national significance. Local planners must also be prepared to deal with a rapid transition
of their incident to an incident of national significance.
ECONOMIC ISSUES
Special events often bring attention and significant economic benefits and opportunities to
local communities. These could include an influx of revenue into the local community, such
as the hotel and restaurant industry.
Local event planners must not sacrifice public safety for the sake of economic benefit.
Certain businesses in a community may be adversely affected by certain requirements of
the special event, such as closing streets in a commercial area or increased traffic in
residential areas. Additional staffing may be required to ensure that service calls by local
emergency services agencies are not hampered.
ATTENDEE/CROWD ISSUES
1. Crowds are complex social structures.
Crowd roles:
Active Core: carry out action of crowd.
Cheerleaders: provide oral support for leaders.
Observers: follow actions but rarely take part.
Significance of crowds:
Increase the probability of a dangerous occurrence.
Increase the potential number of victims.
Make communication slower and more difficult.
Make changes in action slower and more difficult.
Diffuse responsibility (someone else will do it).
2. Panics and Crazes
Panic in a group is the flight from a real or perceived threat from which escape appears
to be the only effective response. What appears to be panic is usually the result of poor
inputs (especially communications or the lack of) and previous knowledge and
experience.
Craze in a group is the temporary, short-lived competitive rush by a group toward some
attractive object. A craze tends to occur on entering an event, and may be exacerbated
by the lack of information.
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ATTENDEE/CROWD ISSUES (CONTINUED)
3. Deindividualization
Deindividualization is defined as a loss of self-awareness and evaluation apprehension in
group situations that foster anonymity. Behavior may include:
Mild lessening of restraint (e.g., screaming during a concert).
Impulsive self-gratification (e.g., theft, vandalism, molestation).
Destructive social explosions (e.g., group violence, rioting and torturing).
4. Defusing
The tedium that may be created by waiting and/or by the perception that other gates
are being opened first, or later arrivals are being admitted first can create problems.
Such things as appropriate music, the use of humor, food and beverage services moving
through the group, cheerful security staff moving through the group, and good
communication that includes a public address system, can help defuse the situation.
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CROWD TYPES
CROWD TYPE
1
COMMENT
AMBULATORY Walking, usually calm
DISABILITY/LIMITED
MOVEMENT
Crowd has limited or restricted movement; requires
additional planning
COHESIVE/SPECTATOR Watching specific activity
EXPRESSIVE/REVELOUS Emotional release, for example, cheering movement in
unison
PARTICIPATORY Involved in actual event, for example, community fun runs
AGGRESSIVE/HOSTILE Initially verbal, open to lawlessness
DEMONSTRATOR Organized to some degree, for example, pickets, marches
ESCAPE/TRAMPLING Danger may be real or imaginary
DENSE/SUFFOCATING Reduction of individual physical movement
RUSHING/LOOTING Attempt to acquire/obtain/steal something, for example,
tickets
VIOLENT Attacking/terrorizing
One crowd may exhibit all or part of the above types; therefore, you must consider each
category, or at the least the most likely categories, in your plan.
1
Table modified from Berlonghi, Alexander E. “Understanding and Planning for Different Spectator
Crowds.” Engineering for Crowd Safety. Ed. R.A. Smith and J.F. Dickie. Elsevier Science
Publications B.V., 1993.
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CROWD COMPOSITION
ASSESSMENT
2
COMMENT
HOW ORGANIZED For example, walking to venue versus demonstrators
LEADERSHIP Normal crowd has no leadership; they are spontaneous.
COHESIVENESS Degree of bonding
UNITY OF PURPOSE Some may be focused; others have own agenda, for
example, moshing or slam dancing.
COMMON MOTIVE FOR
ACTION
Note distinction between performing same action (for
example, cheering) versus motive for same action (for
example, leaving the venue).
PSYCHOLOGICAL UNITY Crowds at benefits are psychologically united for good;
however, demonstrators could pose problems if
antagonized.
EMOTIONAL INTENSITY Much of this depends on the event and or special effects
taking place.
VOLATILITY To what degree has crowd reached an explosive point?
INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR How much individual control and responsibility are being
exercised? The more this is evident, the more restrained
the crowd.
GROUP BEHAVIOR To what degree are individuals dominated by the group?
The more this is evident, the closer to “mob mentality.”
DEGREE OF
LAWLESSNESS
How much criminal behavior is taking place?
LEVEL OF VIOLENCE Can be assessed historically and/or by current observations
LEVEL OF PROPERTY
DAMAGE
How much is likely to occur and where, for example,
parking area, toilets, walkways, etc.? Assessment is
historical for venue, event, and crowd, plus current
assessment.
LIKELIHOOD OF INJURY
OR DEATH
Certain places at certain times, for example, major
sporting event; and certain events, for example, motor
races
NEED FOR CROWD
CONTROL
How important is a detailed plan? Must be discussed with
experts and experienced persons because the more
detailed and complex the plan, the more expensive and
resource-intense the commitment.
When you understand what you are dealing with, then brief ALL personnel on what to look
for and how they should respond while they are performing their duties.
2
Ibid.
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CROWD CATALYSTS
CATALYST
3
EXAMPLE
OPERATIONAL
Parking, no-show performers, cancellations
EVENT ACTIVITIES
Smoke, fire, lasers, noise
PERFORMER(S) ACTIONS
Sexual/violent gestures, challenges/song lyrics
SPECTATOR FACTORS
Drugs, alcohol, rush for seats
SECURITY FACTORS
Excessive or unreasonable force, abuse of authority
SOCIAL FACTORS
Racial tensions, team rivalries
WEATHER
Heat, humidity, rain, lack of ventilation
NATURAL DISASTER
Earthquake, deluge of rain, flash flood
MAN-MADE DISASTER
Structural failure, toxic substance
CRITICAL CROWD DENSITIES
The objective should be to prevent the build-up of large accumulations of patrons,
particularly within short time periods, in confined spaces—especially if they are frustrated by
the inability to see what is happening.
A study by Fruin (1981) identifies critical crowd densities as a common characteristic of
crowd disasters. Critical crowd densities are approached when the floor space per standing
person is reduced to about 5.38 square feet.
3
Ibid.
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CRITICAL CROWD DENSITIES (CONTINUED)
Considering the various movements or the positions that spectators will occupy,
approximate minimal mobility requirements have been empirically identified by Fruin (1981)
as follows:
Pedestrians moving in a stream require average areas of 24.73 square feet per person
to attain normal walking speed, and to pass and avoid others.
At 10 square feet per person, walking becomes significantly restricted, and speeds
noticeably reduced.
At 4.95 square feet per person, the maximum capacity of a corridor or walkway is
attained with movement at a shuffling gait and movement possible only as a group.
This would be characteristic of a group exiting a stadium or theater.
At less than 4.95 square feet per person average, individual pedestrian mobility
becomes increasingly restricted.
At approximately 3 square feet per person, involuntary contact and brushing against
others occurs. This is a behavioral threshold generally avoided by the public, except in
crowded elevators and buses.
Below 2 square feet per person, potentially dangerous crowd forces and psychological
pressures begin to develop.
Fruin (1981) contends that "the combined pressure of massed pedestrians and shock-wave
effects that run through crowds at critical density levels produce forces which are impossible
for individuals, even small groups of individuals, to resist."
The above information shows that you may need to provide a monitoring system, such as
closed circuit television monitoring of crowd movements, that will provide warning to event
personnel that they must take necessary action to prevent a major incident.
CROWD THROUGHPUT CAPACITIES
In his writings on crowd disasters, Fruin (1981) identifies several areas regarding spectator
throughput in entry to a performance. For planning purposes, he suggests:
1. Ticket Collectors
Ticket collectors must be in a staff uniform or otherwise identifiable. Ticket collectors
faced with a constant line can throughput a maximum of:
One patron per second per portal in a simple pass-through situation.
Two seconds per patron if the ticket must be torn and stub handed to the patron.
More complicated ticketing procedures (and/or answering the occasional question) will
protract time per patron.
2. Doorways
A free-swinging door, open portal, or gate can accommodate up to one person per
second with a constant queue.
Revolving doors and turnstiles would allow half this rate of throughput, or less.
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CROWD THROUGHPUT CAPACITIES (CONTINUED)
3. Corridors, Walkways, Ramps
Have a maximum pedestrian traffic capacity of approximately 25 persons per minute per
1 foot of clear width, in dense crowds.
4. Stairs
Have a maximum practical traffic capacity of approximately 16 persons per minute in
the upward direction. Narrow stairs (less than 5 feet) will lower the maximum flow.
5. Escalators and Moving Walkways
A standard 3.94-ft. wide escalator or moving walkway, operating at 118 feet per minute
can carry 100 persons per minute under a constant queue.
EVENT CANCELLATION OR POSTPONEMENT
From time to time, an event may need to be canceled, postponed, or interrupted. If a
crowd has already gathered, these actions have the potential to create dangerous crowd
reactions. Have plans in place to manage an angry crowd appropriately and to address the
possible readmission of patrons to the venue.
One major aspect to consider is authority to cancel or postpone an event. During the
planning phase, the promoter and the planning team must discuss who has the authority to
cancel or postpone an event as well as when and under what conditions the event can be
postponed or canceled. These decisions must be made before the event begins, and
everyone must know who has the authority. ICS is an excellent tool to ensure chain of
command, communications, and proper approving authority.
Venue/Site
You may need to consider a number of alternative venues for an event. Emergency
managers may be able to recommend appropriate venues based on health and safety
considerations.
Finding a suitable venue or set of venues can be difficult. Answering the following questions
during the planning stage can aid in the selection of an appropriate event site:
Will staging the event require multiple venues?
Is this kind of event normally conducted at a fixed facility?
Will a fixed facility be used in ways that may not be considered normal for that facility?
Is the event regularly conducted at a temporary venue?
Is the event a “one-of-a-kind” project at a temporary venue?
What services and utilities are available at the venue?
What additional services and utilities will be required at the venue?
Is there a need for backup services or utilities (i.e., redundant systems)?
A universal map/grid referencing system for the entire event footprint should be developed
in advance for all attendees and event staff (including public safety personnel) to allow for
the rapid identification of event-specific facilities and other locations in an emergency.
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Venue/Site (Continued)
What shelter facilities are available at the following locations:
Transport pick-up and drop-off areas?
Spectator and official viewing areas?
Seated eating areas?
Pedestrian thoroughfares?
First aid and medical centers?
Competitors’ and officials’ marshaling areas?
• What is the duration of the event, and will it continue during the hours of darkness?
Have you provided for the needs of people with disabilities?
Does the date of the event conflict with other events to be conducted in the area?
Will seasonal weather require any special contingency planning?
Have you surveyed the proposed site (particularly outdoor sites) for inherent hazards
associated with the location, and have any been identified? Do utility lines that could be
brought down by a severe storm traverse the site? Is the site adjacent to a waterway
prone to flooding?
Is the site layout such that, in the event of a mass casualty incident, space is available
for an onsite triage area to permit stabilizing medical treatment before critical patients
are transported to local health care facilities? Is such an area accessible to ambulances
to eliminate the need for carrying patients long distances?
Does the site allow for mass decontamination considerations?
Have site emergency evacuation considerations been addressed?
Does the site allow for adequate crowd regulation by means of, for example, existing
regimented seating areas or flow barriers?
Are spectator overflow areas available to prevent crowd crush if spectator turnout
significantly exceeds expectations, a common phenomenon at rock concerts?
In an urban setting, as is characteristic of a stadium venue, could the adjacent streets
on all sides be closed to other than emergency service, and resident vehicles, creating a
perimeter for access as well as a buffer zone?
Is a staging area for protestors necessary? Is it required?
Criminal and Terrorist Risks
Special events and mass gatherings are a perfect target because of the large number of
people, media coverage, and the high-profile impact if a terrorist strikes. Small
communities and their events may actually be attractive sites for terrorists because the
residents may believe they are not at risk and so do not prepare themselves. However,
event planners can take steps to prepare for the same risks that all communities face.
Prepare public safety personnel to protect themselves. Ensure that your community’s public
safety personnel are adequately trained and equipped with personal protective equipment
(PPE) as dictated by their response role to protect themselves as they help others.
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Criminal and Terrorist Risks (Continued)
Some events may appeal to terrorists for a number of reasons, including an anniversary
date, religious holiday, a particular location, the nature of the event, or those who will be
included among the participants. Communities can identify terrorist organizations that may
be attracted to their event for any number of reasons and can prepare accordingly.
Knowledge is an advantage. Know the possible risks that the event poses and the audience
that the event will attract. Ensure that your public safety teams are prepared and have
practiced their response to both terrorism and suspected terrorism, and that they
understand how to mitigate any potential terrorist incidents.
Every jurisdiction in the country has conducted a jurisdiction threat and vulnerability
assessment, which was required by the Federal Government as part of the national
homeland security preparedness effort. When event planners formulate contingency plans
for special events, they should work together with State and Federal partners and ensure
that State and local data from these Federally mandated assessments are reviewed. Local
law enforcement professionals should consult the FBI and State law enforcement
intelligence specialists on current threat and vulnerability data as part of the event planning
process. The current Homeland Security Advisory System threat level should be considered,
and event planners should prepare for contingencies if the Federal threat level changes
during the event.
THREAT ASSESSMENT
Planning and intelligence gathering are necessary activities for law enforcement personnel
during event planning. The level of commitment to these anti-terrorist activities influences
the level of response capabilities that should be maintained.
Two terms that event planners should understand are anti-terrorism
and counter-terrorism:
Anti-terrorism is a term used to define actions taken to mitigate potential effects of
terrorist activity.
Counter-terrorism is best defined as operational actions taken or activities planned to
prevent a terrorist activity or event.
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TARGETS
Most targets singled out by terrorist groups fall into one of eleven critical infrastructure
areas or five key asset areas:
Critical Infrastructure
Agriculture/food supplies
Water
Public health systems
Emergency services (police, fire, EMS)
Military targets/defense industry
Cyber-terrorism and information
Energy infrastructure
Transportation infrastructure
Banking/Finance
Chemical and hazardous materials
Postal/shipping facilities
Key Assets
Monuments or public icons
Nuclear power plants
Dams
Government facilities
Other commercial key assets
MOTIVES
The motives of extremist groups can generally be identified as:
Political
Religious
Racial
Environmental
Special interest
WEAKNESSES IN MEASURING THREAT
Terrorist threats are often difficult to measure because they are:
Dynamic
Mobile
Difficult to recognize (lone offenders, splinter groups)
Dependent upon the ease and availability of creating a WMD device
Difficult to quantify, or subjective (open to interpretation, with a tendency toward
inflating results)
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WEAKNESSES IN MEASURING THREAT (CONTINUED)
The dangers of information sharing (outside of those who have a “need to know”) also make
it difficult to measure the extent of the threat because unauthorized disclosure of
information may:
Lead to the violation of operational security.
Create unnecessary panic.
Produce unintended media attention.
CONTEMPORARY TERRORISM
In the past, we wanted to believe that terrorism was something that happened outside of
the United States. Unfortunately, this is no longer the case. The FBI has determined that
contemporary terrorists have generally:
Been politically motivated.
Sought and used publicity to gain recognition and public sentiment.
Most often viewed, trained, and equipped themselves as an army at war.
Sought to cross jurisdictional lines to further confound law enforcement detection and
apprehension.
Had the support and funding of national governments from outside of the United States.
Invited public scrutiny to put law enforcement on trial by the effective use of the media.
C
HAPTER 2: EVENT OPERATIONAL
CONSIDERATIONS
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INTRODUCTION
While planning an event, it is important to consider every possible risk and hazard that may
occur. This chapter covers most of the basic risks that may be encountered at an event.
The responsibilities for dealing with these risks vary with each jurisdiction, and every
community needs to have a plan listing who or what organization will respond to the
anticipated risks or hazards. Knowing the risks ahead of time and planning for those risks
are essential to successful planning. Planning for the worst may help reduce the chance of
a “worst-case scenario” happening. If the responding agency knows the risks ahead of time
and is alert, it can reduce its response time, ensuring the safety and security of those in
attendance. Risks vary depending upon the type of event; therefore, event organizers must
tailor the planning for each risk to the specific event.
The promoter is one source of information on potential risks that may be faced at the event.
The promoter should be aware of the support services that are needed to respond to any
incident and the availability of those services in the community. If event organizers know
the possible risks that an event poses and the nature of the audience that is likely to attend
the event, they can analyze the hazards and take the necessary steps to plan a safe event.
HAZARD ANALYSIS
Hazard analysis provides planners with information about the kinds of emergencies that
may occur and their potential consequences. Analysis assists planners in deciding what
steps to take to prevent the possible emergencies and how to respond if an incident occurs.
The best way to begin a hazard analysis is to list the possible risks present at the event.
Every community’s list will differ based on topographical and geographical features, weather
patterns, and other factors. (Tsunami, for example, would not be identified as a hazard in
an area that is far from a coastline.) Identifying hazards also includes considering the
possibility of a secondary hazard (for example, a tornado may lead to power failure, loss of
water, and other hazards).
The following table includes some of the more obvious risks and possible hazards that may
exist. Being prepared for the worst allows planners to have responders and supplies on
hand if an emergency does occur.
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HAZARD ANALYSIS (CONTINUED)
Typical List of Risks and Hazards
Abandoned vehicles Hurricane
Airplane crash Intentional chemical release
Airspace encroachment Kidnapping
Assault Landslide
Avalanche Loss of utilities (water, sewer, telephone)
Biological incidents Lost child
Bomb threat/suspicious package Lost and found
Building inspection Media relations
Cancellation of event Motorcades
Civil disturbance with demonstrations Mudslides
Communications Parking
Credentials Permitting
Crowd control Power failure (sustained)
Cyber attacks Radiological release
Dam failure Security
Demonstrations Structural collapse
Dignitary protection Subsidence
Drought Terrorism
Earthquake Ticketing
Epidemic or other public health concern Tornado
Evacuation of area Traffic control
Explosive materials Train derailment
Fire Tsunami
First aid matters Urban conflagration
Flood Volcanic eruption
Food handling violations Wildfire
Food waste disposal problems Winter storm
Hazardous Materials release
Hostage without terrorism
Human waste disposal problems
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HAZARD ANALYSIS (CONTINUED)
Event planners must identify characteristics of each possible hazard to determine the risk
and consequences. Characteristics to identify are:
Frequency of occurrence—the frequency of occurrence (both historical and predicted) for
each hazard in the particular jurisdiction.
Magnitude and intensity—the projected severity of the hazard’s occurrence.
Location—the location of the hazard, if the hazard is associated with a facility or
landscape feature.
Spatial extent—the geographic area that may be expected to suffer the impact of the
hazard (either around the known location of a hazard or as an estimate for non-localized
hazards such as tornadoes).
Duration—the length of time that the hazard may be expected to last.
Seasonal pattern—times of the year when the hazard threat exists (based on month-by-
month historical occurrence).
Speed of onset and availability of warning—the amount of time projected between first
warning (if any) and actual occurrence.
POTENTIAL CONSEQUENCES
To determine the potential consequences of a hazard, estimate the lives, property, and
services at risk. Evaluate the extent of the hazard by closely examining your community in
terms of:
People (deaths, injuries, and displacement).
Critical facilities (days of service loss, repair time).
Community functions (disruption).
Property (damage, destruction, cost of replacement or repair).
Potential secondary hazards (dams, chemical processing plants).
Loss of revenue.
Negative public image of jurisdiction.
When evaluating hazards, remember that hazards may occur in multiples and that one
hazard may cause a secondary hazard.
1. Identify the Hazards
Determine what kinds of emergencies have occurred or could occur in the jurisdiction.
2. Weigh and Compare the Risks
Determine the relative threat posed by the identified hazards, using qualitative and
quantitative ratings. This information enables planners to decide which hazards merit
special attention in planning and other emergency management efforts.
3. Profile Hazards and Their Potential Consequences
Compile historical and predictive information on each of the hazards and overlay this
information on community data to estimate the hazard’s potential impact on the
community.
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POTENTIAL CONSEQUENCES (CONTINUED)
4. Create and Apply Scenarios
For the top-ranked hazards (or those that rate above a certain threshold), develop
scenarios that raise the hazard’s development to the level of an emergency. This is a
brainstorming activity that tracks the hazard from initial warning (if any) to its impact on
a specific part of the jurisdiction and its generation of specific consequences.
Brainstorming provides information about what actions and resources might be required
for response.
The Job Aid, Hazard Vulnerability Assessment on pages A-55 through A-58 of Appendix A:
Job Aids, provides a worksheet for the planning team to use as a starting point to identify
specific hazards and risks for the event. This is a vital process to bring stakeholders
together to brainstorm potential hazards and begin developing comprehensive planning
strategies. There are other, more comprehensive, planning tools that are available to
address specific needs that the planning team may identify from the Job Aid worksheet.
Consult your local/State emergency management agencies for other planning tools.
CONTINGENCY PLANS
Unfortunately, not every event runs smoothly. Often, incidents occur that are beyond the
control of the planning team. Therefore, contingency plans for every event should be in
place.
An emergency response plan requires a comprehensive hazard and vulnerability analysis.
Consultation among all parties who may respond to an emergency situation during the
event is essential.
Some important questions related to ICS planning include:
What weather conditions may require cancellation of the event?
What weather conditions will postpone the event?
How will storm warnings be monitored?
What plans are in place for sudden, severe weather conditions, such as tornadoes? Will
shelters be available?
Who has the authority to make these decisions, and at what point does he or she
exercise that authority?
How is notification made of a cancellation or postponement?
Are additional security personnel, including police, on standby or on call if an immediate
increase in these services is required?
Have you advised ambulance services and local hospitals of the nature of the event,
provided an expected spectator profile, and estimated potential medical problems?
Have you notified fire and rescue services of the nature of the event and identified the
services that might be required?
Has the jurisdiction considered how to respond to a Chemical, Biological, Radiological,
Nuclear, Explosive (CBRNE) type of man-made, intentional event?
Has the need for mass decontamination been considered?
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CONTINGENCY PLANS (CONTINUED)
Have any “target hardening” considerations been explored to increase the deterrence
factor against man-made intentionally caused events?
Have you identified the types of heavy equipment that could be required in a
catastrophe (for example, a grandstand collapse)? Have you made plans to obtain that
equipment at any time, including off-business hours?
Have you advised counseling services of the nature of the event and identified the
services that might be required?
If the event is particularly dangerous, and deaths are a real possibility (for example, at
automobile or power boat races or air shows), have you formulated plans to support any
required coroner’s investigation?
To permit responders to precisely identify the location of an emergency quickly, address
the following questions:
Will a grid-type venue plan be available, which is common to all emergency services,
including access roads, pathways, major landmarks, spectator, performer and vendor
areas?
Will vendor locations or booths be numbered and be included on the venue plan?
STRUCTURAL MATTERS
An area of great concern is the physical setup of the event. Planners need to consider what
performance facilities are needed, what special structures are needed for indoor or outdoor
events, and whether temporary structures can be used. These are just a few primary
concerns.
STAGES, PLATFORMS, AND OTHER PERFORMANCE FACILITIES
When setting up an event, stages, platforms, and the other performance facilities are an
area of major safety consideration. The type of event and its site affect the choice of
performance equipment and its stability requirements. Qualified inspectors should perform
some type of inspection to ensure that the structure is appropriate for the event and that
the structure is safe.
The expected behavior of the crowd is one of the principal factors determining stage
configuration. While classical music and ballet performances usually attract a mature and
orderly audience, teenage and pre-teen fans at rock concerts have been known to storm the
stage to touch their idols. Such incidents, apart from being disruptive, have caused injuries.
Therefore, event planners should understand the emotional and physical character of the
audience that a particular performance will attract.
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STAGES, PLATFORMS, AND OTHER PERFORMANCE FACILITIES (CONTINUED)
There are three principal ways to gather information about the anticipated crowd:
Review press reports and contact local public safety officials who were present at
previous performances.
Speak with spectators who have attended adolescent entertainment events such as rock
concerts. In the past, spectators have provided valuable insights into what behavior
authorities might expect from audiences for different entertainers.
Check with the promoter to determine audience behavior at past events and the type of
crowd and the behavior that can be expected.
Stages are usually elevated to provide the audience a better view of the performance,
especially for spectators who are farther back. This elevation is itself a barrier to those who
would rush the stage in an attempt to touch a performer. In addition, this increased height
can create an area free of spectators at the base of the stage because the audience
members will position themselves back from the stage so that their line of sight is not
impeded.
At some venues first aid personnel are located under the stage to accept injuries occasioned
at the front of the spectator area. A stage or a platform alone is usually insufficient to deter
determined and agile spectators, however, and an additional physical barrier is needed in
front of the stage.
INDOOR EVENTS
During concerts held indoors, an effective practice is to erect a “V” shaped barrier in front of
the stage to deflect patrons away from the stage area if any surge comes from behind. The
“V” shape also provides an additional barrier to prevent spectators from reaching the stage.
Security staff can position themselves in this spectator-free zone or should be able to gain
access to it quickly from either end of the stage.
Barrier posts must be securely anchored to the floor, not merely mounted to freestanding
bases. They should also have some padded protection. Such a fence construction is usually
engineered to provide a certain amount of “give” upon impact, thus reducing the potential
for crush injuries as occasioned in the 2000 Denmark, Pearl Jam concert tragedy.
OUTDOOR EVENTS
Board fences similar to the “V” shaped barrier described for indoor concerts can be used in
an outdoor setting. Board fences have the added benefit of providing a walk space on the
spectator side of the fence as well as behind it. Because most outdoor concerts do not
provide seating, spectators in the front rows seated on the ground have to take a position
several yards back from the fence to permit them to see the stage over the top of the fence.
This area permits emergency access to the front rows of spectators.
Any stage protection barrier must be designed to sustain a certain amount of flex in order to
prevent the crushing of spectators in the front by a crowd surge from behind. At the same
time, it must be sufficiently solid so that it will not collapse and cause injuries. Fences
installed as stage barriers often fail to meet this two-fold requirement.
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BREAK-AWAY STAGE SKIRTS
The front skirt around the base of a stage can be constructed to break away under the
pressure of a crowd surge, thus allowing spectators to be pushed under the stage rather
than be crushed against its base. This idea is not practical where there is less than six feet
clearance beneath the stage, however, because of the potential for head injuries if a
spectator collides with the leading edge of the stage.
It should be stressed that use of a breakaway stage skirt does not remove the requirement
for a barrier in front of the stage and should be considered only as additional security if
barriers fail.
EMERGENCY EVACUATION
There are physical structures designed for use in areas of egress that, in the event of an
emergency where evacuation is required, collapse to allow for the maximum passthrough.
TEMPORARY STRUCTURES
Because of their transitory nature, many events require easily constructed temporary
structures. These include the stage platform itself, as well as towers to house speakers and
floodlights, temporary seating such as bleachers, dance platforms, roofs, towers and masts,
viewing platforms, marquees and large tents, and decorative items such as archways,
overhead signs, and even sideshows.
All such temporary structures must be designed and erected to include a margin
for safety and a view to potential hazards. A local government building-codes
inspector should supervise the erection of temporary structures and ensure that
they conform to local government building or engineering specifications.
Temporary structures are often hurriedly erected because access to the venue may be
permitted only a short time before the event opens and they are usually designed for rapid
removal at the conclusion of the event. In addition, these temporary structures are
frequently neither designed nor erected to withstand stresses other than from intended use
and are therefore not engineered to incorporate safety features. High winds or spectators
climbing for a better vantage point can overstress these structures.
Personnel should inspect temporary structures periodically during events of long duration.
They should post warnings on, or close, a temporary structure whose intended purpose is
being violated.
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LOAD CAPACITY
All structures have load capacities, and precautions should be in place to prevent misuse
through overloading. These precautions apply to any viewing platform or vantage point,
such as building walkways or balconies, which can cause a major incident if the number of
spectators upon these structures is not properly controlled.
The bases of temporary structures must be protected from damage by vehicular traffic
through the use of designated buffer zones.
SEATING
Ideally, all seating should be reserved; however, this ideal situation may be difficult to
achieve at outdoor events.
If most of the spectators are in their teenage years, provide seating to control surges and
crushing at the front of the stage. A security presence to ensure that audience members do
not stand on seats is also recommended. Seating should be adequately anchored to
prevent its movement.
Another area of concern is the spacing of the seats, and local life-safety codes may define
acceptable practices in this area. The seating should be spaced far enough apart to allow
emergency crews access to patients. Often, grouping the seats and providing large
walkways between the groups is a way to provide this access.
TEMPORARY SEATING AND ANCHORAGE
Seating in a community center, arena, or similar indoor location often combines fixed
perimeter seating with additional foldable or stackable seating on the central floor.
Temporary seats are often not secured to the floor or to one another. While this may not
present any problems with certain audiences, more enthusiastic spectators may pose the
following problems:
Persons standing on the seats for a better view are prone to injury because they may
lose their balance or become jostled. In such instances, they can adversely affect other
spectators, sometimes causing a “domino effect” in closely spaced chairs. The potential
for a significant number of injuries exists.
If an audience becomes hostile, portable chairs can be used as dangerous missiles. It is
not uncommon for hostile fans to become aggressive and throw items. Seats that are
not anchored become dangerous projectiles.
Portable, folding, or stacking chairs should be secured to the floor. Where this is not
possible, attach the legs of each row of chairs to two long planks, one running under the
front pairs of legs and one running under the back, as an alternative solution.
A Building Department Venue Assessment Checklist is included on pages A-44 through A-46
of Appendix A: Job Aids.
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HIGH-PROFILE/CONTROVERSIAL EVENTS
Because of the nature of the event, the crowd composition, or for other reasons, certain
events cause more controversy and create greater risks than others do. For example,
events involving groups that hold controversial beliefs present a greater risk for criminal or
terrorist behavior. Events involving high-level officials are also at a greater risk for terrorist
activity because of the significance of the official and the high-profile visibility of the
participants and those in attendance. On some occasions, if the date of the event coincides
with the anniversary of another terrorist event, the date of the event itself may be
considered controversial. Planners must consider every reason why an event may promote
controversy or attract special attention.
Conflicts will exist between public safety, recovery, and criminal investigation agencies
during terrorist incidents. Rescue and recovery issues and actions must be separated from
criminal investigation issues and actions before the event occurs, and non-law enforcement
workers should be given training on matters of evidence. Evidence teams should be created
to practice and train with local emergency responders and epidemiologic investigators to
promote mutual understanding of one another’s roles.
PROTESTORS
If organizers anticipate that a mass gathering or special event will attract the attention of
organized protest groups, they should meet, if possible, with the leaders of those groups in
advance. The organizers and group leaders can discuss ground rules of acceptable
behaviors and the anticipated public safety response to criminal or disruptive behavior by
local law enforcement agencies. Building rapport by gaining a mutual understanding of
what to expect can decrease the likelihood of disruptive behavior, or at least ensure that
everyone knows what will and will not be tolerated. Many jurisdictions have a permitting
process that is required for this type of activity.
Protestors who arrive spontaneously should also be planned for, and in many cases may
become a law enforcement issue if the permit process has been violated. Many times, these
groups hold extremist views or specific concerns about a particular issue that may be tied to
the event.
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SPECTATOR MANAGEMENT AND CROWD CONTROL
This chapter has discussed the hazards associated with structural design and integrity, but
what about the dangers that may be created by the participants themselves? The aim of
spectator management and crowd control is to maintain order, prevent deviation from
desired behavior, and re-establish order if it breaks down, thereby ensuring maximum
enjoyment for the assembled gathering. Event organizers are responsible for spectator
management and crowd control; however, this function passes to local authorities, such as
police, fire, and emergency medical services, when the situation is beyond the resources
and capability of the organizers. Knowing what to expect from a given audience can lessen
risks and hazards from the crowd itself. Event organizers should research lessons learned
from previous events and have appropriate response plans in place before the event takes
place.
Spectator management refers to planning and preparation issues, such as ticket sales and
collection, admittance and inspection, ushering, seating, parking, public announcements,
toilets, and washrooms.
Crowd control refers to mechanisms that are used to reinstate order, such as limited access
control, admission control, and arrests.
A crowd is defined as any number of people coming together in any place for any reason.
Crowds gather daily in shopping centers, airports, and stadiums, and occasionally in places
that are not designed specifically for large numbers of people.
In the planning process for a forthcoming event, organizers must have an understanding of
both individual and crowd dynamics and how these elements interrelate. While this is a
preliminary guide to crowd control problems that organizers most frequently encounter,
planners need to expand upon the particular issues for each crowd and venue. You may
find additional information on crowd control in other literature and press reports; from the
promoter; private security organizations; police, fire, and emergency medical authorities;
and, for visiting dignitaries, from personal security services and government agencies. All
of this information will assist in predicting potential problems that you can then address in
the planning process.
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GENERAL ISSUES FOR CONSIDERATION
Major crowd issues you should address include:
Size–Maximum numbers permitted are often established by regulation for safety
reasons.
Demographics–Consider the composition of the audience, including the age and gender
mix. If you identify in advance that young children will constitute a high proportion of
the audience, consider additional facilities, such as childcare, family bathrooms, and
rental strollers. Audiences made up of young children or elderly people tend to require
additional medical facilities, and children and the elderly are more susceptible to crush
injury than teens or adults.
Different kinds of events may attract certain types of spectators that require special
attention. Consider the following:
Rock concerts, in contrast to other types of concerts, may experience a higher
incidence of problems with drug and alcohol abuse, underage drinking, and
possession of weapons.
Religious and “faith healing” events may attract a significant number of ill and infirm
people, which may increase the need for onsite medical care.
Events for senior citizens may also require higher levels of health services.
Certain sports events may attract over-reactive and violent supporters.
Cultural events may require special arrangements, including the provision of
interpreter services, special food services, and multilingual signposting, brochures,
and announcements.
Outdoor Concerts–additional considerations:
Control and distribution of spectators in the field.
Suggested minimum space allocation of 4 to 5 square feet per person on grounds
with no seats.
Some form of sectoring and barrier management by security is important.
ENTRANCES AND EXITS
Important considerations for the entry and exit of spectators include:
Entrances
The primary function of entrances is to provide:
For supervision, marshaling and directing crowds.
Access for emergency services.
Egress and evacuation routes.
Initial surveillance and inspection of attendees (i.e., magnetometers).
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ENTRANCES AND EXITS (CONTINUED)
Entrances should also:
Be clearly signposted.
Be in working order.
Be compliant with the Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA); and
Provide for separation of pedestrian and vehicular traffic.
Entrance Management
—Event organizers should:
Permit flexible opening and closing times. (Advertised times are recommended,
however.)
Stagger entry times by providing supporting activities.
Keep entrances clear of all other activities.
Keep lines away from entrances.
Ensure there are sufficient numbers of suitable barriers, fences, gates, and turnstiles.
Locate ticket sales and pick-up points in line with, but separate from entrances.
Arrange to have a public address system or alternative communications system to
provide information and entertainment to the crowd waiting at the entrance.
Consider the potential need for medical and security personnel presence.
Provide sufficient numbers of personnel who are appropriately trained.
Ensure that control points for searches to detect prohibited items, such as alcohol, social
drugs, glass, metal containers, and weapons, are in place and do not affect movement.
Provide a secure area for the storage of confiscated goods.
Provide toilets, if lines are expected to be long.
Apply metering techniques as appropriate.
Exit Management
—Event organizers should:
Ensure that exit doors are not locked. If personnel are concerned about illegal entry,
then doors could be fitted with alarms.
Ensure that exit doors open in the direction of escape and are confirmed as operational.
Check the placement, function, and signposting of exits.
Ensure that doors that do not lead to an exit are so marked, preventing “dead end”
entrapment and the potential for panic.
Ensure that all exit corridors are free of all impediments to crowd movement.
Ensure that turnstiles are freewheeling or can operate in reverse.
Ensure that cords, which can create trip hazards, do not cross exit corridors. (If this
precaution is unavoidable, the cord should be marked, insulated, and secured to the
floor to prevent damage and potential electrical risks.)
Escalator Management
—Event organizers should provide for:
Staff control at the top and bottom, including an emergency stop button.
Metering of the flow at both ends.
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ENTRANCES AND EXITS (CONTINUED)
Stairway/Corridor Management
—Event organizers should provide for:
Control of both ends if the crowd is large.
Metering that may be required for safety.
CREDENTIALING
The mission of special events credentialing is to design and produce badge identification to
ensure the greatest possible level of security for personnel and property, and to enhance
the ability of law enforcement personnel to control access to secure areas, facilities, and
events.
A credential identifies specific individuals who require access to a venue(s) to perform an
operational role or function, whereas a ticket is issued to spectators or other members of
the general public who do not perform an operational role or function.
In essence, a credential is equivalent to an “Incident Badge.” A “ticket” is NOT a
“credential.”
Credentialing provides sufficient information to verify the identity of the bearer and his or
her level of access, and should include security features to prevent counterfeiting and assist
in credential verification.
Event planners tasked with credentialing may wish to consider the following:
Who will be credentialed?
Will credentialed personnel require police record checks?
Who will conduct the record checks?
What criteria will be used for various levels of access?
Who will have the final decision on who will or will not be credentialed?
Who will be responsible for credential production?
Who will authorize credential production?
What is the format for the receipt of the information necessary to produce the credential
(e.g., electronic, paper)?
Will a photograph be needed?
Where will the credentialing center be located? (The credentialing center should be
located outside of the secure zone and accessible to those requiring credentials.)
Who will secure this location and provide security for personnel and equipment?
How will the security of the credentialing database be maintained?
How, and to whom, will credentials be distributed?
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TICKETING
Ticketing is the first means of achieving crowd control. Essential matters to address include
the following:
If advance ticketing is possible, it is preferred because it allows organizers to anticipate
audience numbers and plan accordingly. It also enables them to pass on information
about needed services (for example, parking, traffic patterns, first aid, water sources,
toilets, and personal needs) to ticket-holders before the event.
When multiple entrances to the venue are provided, directing spectators to arrive via
specific entrances can reduce congestion.
If it is feasible, stagger crowd arrival by specifying entry times. Again, this plan reduces
congestion at entrances.
BARRIERS
Effective use of barriers can prevent many problems, including congestion in thoroughfares
and walkways. Questions that you should consider in the planning phase include the
following:
What types of barriers are required? Is a solid physical barrier required, or would a
psychological barrier, such as barrier tape, suffice? The use of psychological barriers is
suitable only for orderly crowds. Any physical barrier must be able to withstand crowd
surges.
How will personnel respond if the barrier is breached?
Can barriers be used to section the crowd and create passages for emergency personnel
to evacuate ill or injured spectators?
Will barriers be used to create a “pit” between the crowd and the stage, which can be
used to facilitate the evacuation of injured spectators?
Can barriers be easily dismantled by the crowd and used for other purposes?
There are physical structures designed for use in areas of egress that, in the event of an
emergency where evacuation is required, collapse to allow for the maximum passthrough.
A Public Works Department Checklist is included on pages A-42 and A-43 of Appendix A:
Job Aids.
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DEFUSING CROWD TENSION
The tedium that is created by an extended wait in line for tickets or admission can be a
precursor for crowd control problems. Such boredom can create or magnify tempers,
particularly if, with little distraction, those in line perceive other doors being opened first or
other patrons getting in at the head of the line.
The following means of defusing anger have been used with success in different venues:
Up-tempo music (of a type consistent with the age group of the crowd) played over the
public address system.
Humorous, animal-costumed individual, such as a mascot, walking up and down the line
giving handshakes, pats, and waves.
Large inflated beach ball, which is lobbed back and forth over, and by, the spectators;
Food and beverage sellers moving through the group.
Cheerful security staff, passing up and down the line, talking to people.
Introducing some of these same distractions inside the event can calm a potentially agitated
crowd.
In addition, a mascot conducting a spectator sing-along to up-tempo music or a ticket or
program number draw on the field for the last ball used at a sporting event can alleviate
tension in a crowd.
Whenever possible, spectators should be informed before an event of any special conditions
or arrangements for the event, such as parking, clothing, food and drink, sunscreen,
shelter, and alcohol restrictions. Notice of special conditions or arrangements may be
distributed via advertisements or in leaflets accompanying tickets.
Outdoor events, sometimes spread over large areas, require further considerations, such
as:
Toilet facilities located outside gates and between disembarkation points and the venue.
Shelter.
Telephone facilities.
The venue should allow adequate regulation of crowd movement, such as adequate exiting
from ticketed seating areas and sectoring and flow barriers, including barriers to separate
vehicles from pedestrians.
Spectator overflow areas should be available to prevent crushing. Contingency plans are
required in case spectator turnout significantly exceeds expectations. This phenomenon is
common at rock concerts. This may be more of an issue for outside venues, as life safety
codes for inside venues may help address maximum crowd attendance.
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RESTRICTED VIEWING LOCATIONS
Clear lines of vision for spectators are important to reduce the likelihood that crowds will
move to get a better view of the stage. Also, a wide angle of view helps to reduce crowd
densities in front of the stage. If restricted viewing is unavoidable, tickets for spectators in
those sections should note this fact.
VIDEO SCREENS
Video or projection screens aid in crowd management because they can provide:
Entertainment before and between acts.
Information concerning facilities and important messages including public safety and
traffic messages for both inside and outside the venue.
Close-up vision of on-stage action for spectators as a means of reducing crowd
movement toward the stage.
TRAFFIC AND TRANSPORTATION
Transportation presents one of the first impressions that attendees will have about an
event’s organization, command, and control. Sitting in a line of cars for hours on the
highway to gain access to an event will undoubtedly create a negative impression. The
traffic from the event may not merely affect the local traffic but the traffic in the entire
region. Planners should ensure that the surrounding communities are aware of the event
and the potential impact on traffic in their area.
Depending on the scope and size of the event, traffic may be a routine issue. For example,
many sports stadiums hire professional traffic planners to provide guidance on the most
efficient ways to facilitate access and egress to various parking lots, and have procedures in
place that adequately handle traffic flow on a regular basis.
The promoter is responsible for any traffic disruption that is associated with the event and
should be held accountable by the permitting authority. The permitting authority can
require the promoter to work with local public safety and traffic service providers to create
contingency plans to minimize negative traffic impacts on the community at large.
At a minimum, local law enforcement, departments of transportation and public works, the
local media, any existing public transportation authorities, and the promoter should
comprise a traffic management group who must begin traffic planning well in advance of the
event. The group should use the local media to inform residents in advance of the expected
impact that the event will have on their mobility.
Being straightforward with the local community about anticipated problems or congestion
areas will minimize the negative impact on local traffic service agencies. Many residents,
when advised in advance to do so, will avoid certain areas or take alternate routes so that
their movement is not impeded or prolonged.
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TRAFFIC AND TRANSPORTATION (CONTINUED)
Traffic and transportation concerns that traffic management must address include:
Does the site have adequate access and staging areas for large numbers of emergency
vehicles in the event of a major incident?
What impact will weather conditions have on transportation?
What type of road leads to the event? Paved? Gravel? Dirt?
Is access to, and the road network within, the site adequate to prevent emergency
responders from having to walk significant distances to the principal spectator areas(s)?
Is there sufficient room on the site (that is, for staging, manoeuvring) to permit
repositioning or redeployment of emergency vehicles as dictated by the incident?
Because of the nature of road access, would early arriving vehicles, such as ambulances,
be prevented from leaving by gridlock produced by subsequently arriving equipment?
Is the site served by an access road or street that could be closed to the public and used
only for expeditious emergency and service vehicle ingress and egress?
If access roads are unpaved, would emergency vehicles become bogged down if heavy
rains occurred during, or just prior to, the event?
Is the surrounding road network able to handle the anticipated spectator vehicular
traffic?
If spectator-parking areas are filled, will the road network allow continued vehicle flow,
thus preventing gridlock?
Is signposting, including gate numbering, clearly established inside and outside the
venue?
Are communications systems inside and outside the venue capable of providing public
announcements, marshaling instructions, and evacuation orders?
Is a system in place to monitor crowd flow (as through the use of spotters or aviation
resources)?
Does the organization have additional towing vehicles available?
Where there may be health and safety implications, efficient management of crowd
movement includes:
Awareness of public transport congestion at road, rail, and water interchanges and, in
some cases, at airports.
Use of coaches and buses to reduce private vehicle traffic and any potential problems
that large vehicles may present (for example access difficulties, parking requirements,
potential road blockages).
Alterations to normal traffic and road use.
Traffic control.
Adequacy of the surrounding road network to handle the anticipated spectator vehicular
traffic before, during, and after the event.
Communication between traffic management groups and other services, including the
local media.
Access and egress routes including:
Arrangements for people with disabilities.
Pedestrian access, including considerations of distance, terrain, surface, and lighting.
Designated pick-up and set-down points.
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VEHICLE ACCESS AND EGRESS ROUTES
Consider the environmental hazards that may result if access and egress routes are not
established for:
Portable toilet pump-out.
Garbage removal.
Water tankers.
Car parking.
Ambulances.
Law enforcement vehicles.
Fire vehicles.
EMS vehicles.
Public works and utility vehicles.
Other essential service vehicles.
SIGNAGE AND USE OF THE MEDIA
If organizers anticipate that event traffic will have a major impact on community surface
streets, they should consider requiring the promoter to hire a professional traffic planner to
work in conjunction with law enforcement and public works personnel to create alternate
routing or special signage to and from the event. Strategically placed, variable-message
signs on the highway that allow text messages to be changed by remote control are very
useful devices to inform the motoring public. Temporary fixed signage can also be
considered. The additional signs must adhere to the current industry standard and be easily
understood by the public.
Additionally, using a local AM radio station or a specially designated frequency to broadcast
travel information and instructions from the Public Safety Incident Command Post to
arriving or departing patrons on the day of the event can help to lower their frustration.
Broadcasting is also a means for event command and control staff to provide patrons with
useful guidance and safety messages prior to their arrival. Much useful information, such as
traffic routing and identification of the AM radio station channel that will carry event traffic
information, can be included in advance ticket-sales packets so that spectators are informed
before they even leave their homes.
TRAFFIC MONITORING
Traffic monitoring should be carried out by periodic radio contact with ground personnel in
the field of the event footprint and by surveillance from aerial observation platforms. Fixed-
wing aircraft can stay airborne for extended periods of time to obtain the full view of traffic
flow. Helicopters can be used to view both the full area and specific problem areas that
may warrant closer attention than can be provided by fixed-wing aircraft. Stationary,
closed-circuit TV cameras can also be considered for use in areas prone to congestion.
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PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION
If public transportation is to be used by patrons for access to the event, a separate ticketing
and admitting area can be established to permit smooth drop-off and pick-up. If available,
public transportation should be encouraged by event organizers because it tends to lessen
the negative impact on local community street traffic. It also decreases the number of
parking attendants required at the event site. Another facet of public transportation for
consideration is event-only transportation. At many large-scale events that require off-
venue parking, promoters lease school or private buses to provide transportation from
specific pick-up sites within the community and from remote event-specific parking areas.
If public transportation is offered, planners must coordinate with law enforcement and
public works personnel for assistance. Public works and law enforcement agencies may
choose to close lanes or streets for use only by the public transportation vehicles.
TOWING AND DISABLED VEHICLES
Promoters should be required to hire towing companies to facilitate the removal of disabled
or illegally parked vehicles. Tow trucks should be available and readily observable as
private vehicles arrive at venue parking lots. The mere presence and active use of tow
trucks can act as a deterrent for those motorists who may consider parking illegally. As a
general rule, one tow truck for every 2,500 anticipated vehicles can be considered adequate
for planning purposes. The size, type, and location of the event may change the needs.
Abandoned vehicles should be towed immediately, because these could be an indicator of a
vehicle-borne improvised explosive device (VBIED), a current common tactic of terrorists.
Towing companies should establish a standard procedure for impounding and owner
retrieval and should set maximum fees per impounded/towed vehicle in advance of the
event. Also, a mechanism (database) for tracking where vehicles from certain areas have
been towed and a mechanism for informing motorists of how to find their cars should be in
place. (For example, establish a toll-free telephone number). This information should be
shared with the appropriate authority and the command post, in case owners of towed
vehicles arrive there to ask about their vehicles.
A consideration is for the promoter to be held accountable for any costs associated with
towing that are not covered by towing fees. Public safety agencies should handle the
regulation and oversight of any towing arrangements that are made during the planning
process.
EVENT VEHICLE PRE-SCREENING
Some jurisdictions now screen vehicles at an event site days or weeks in advance of the
event. For instance, it is common practice now for some State Fair venues to screen
vendors and carnival vehicles upon their arrival.
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PARKING
With the crowd and the traffic risks also come the inevitable parking problems. A basic
formula for estimating parking requirements is to anticipate one vehicle for every three
persons in attendance. Areas of specific concern are:
Public parking arrangements—Have you made arrangements for overflow parking,
signposting, and segregation of pedestrian and vehicular traffic? If spectator-parking
areas overflow, will congestion on surrounding roads result?
Parking control—If anticipated spectator parking areas become full, are there nearby
areas for overflow parking? Are shuttle buses desirable, feasible, or necessary?
Towing—Are towing policies established to determine where stalled or disabled vehicles
will be towed, or how the owners can find their vehicles, and who bears the cost of
towing and storage?
If parking is allowed adjacent to, or inside, the facility itself, vehicle screening should also
be considered. Pre-event parking bans should also be considered to ensure the integrity of
the footprint surrounding the event site. Sufficient posting of no-parking signs should be
done in advance of the event and strictly enforced.
AUXILIARY PARKING LOTS/SHUTTLES
If the event venue does not have established parking lots available, then temporary,
auxiliary lots need to be established. Considerations for these lots include:
Lighting for hours of darkness
Compliance with the ADA
Publication of the location of the parking lots and the shuttles
Provision of toilet facilities
Use of public transportation (shuttle busses) to and from the event site
Assigning specific buses to specific lots helps the attendees as they go to and from the
event. These lots should be clearly distinguished from one another and adequately marked.
(Color-coding is one effective method of distinguishing buses. For example, Red Line buses,
marked with a red dot in the window, go only to and from the red lot.) The location, of
these lots need to be determined well in advance so that traffic management can evaluate
them in relation to the overall incident traffic management plan. If the lots need to be
rented or leased, the promoter should be held accountable by the permitting authority for
any costs associated with their establishment.
Parking attendants in charge of the auxiliary lots are required to direct event spectators to
park their cars in the configuration recommended by the traffic planner. If event spectators
park their own cars, they may park in such a way that greatly diminishes the capacity of the
parking lot, and control of traffic in and out of the lot can be lost. Parking attendants may
be trained volunteers, paid promoter staff, or public safety personnel. A consideration is for
the promoter to be held accountable for any costs associated with providing parking
attendants.
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PUBLIC HEALTH
Public health interventions are designed to prevent or minimize injury or ill health. Mass
gatherings present particular challenges for preventing or at least minimizing, harm to
participants, spectators, and event staff, especially when the event is held at a temporary
venue. Familiarity of the financial stakeholders of the event with each other’s roles and
responsibilities, and knowledge of the potential and actual public health issues, present a
common challenge.
This section provides guidance on the primary public health issues likely to arise during the
planning phase of a mass gathering event. If State or local legislation is in place, that
legislation takes precedence over advice contained in this manual.
PRE-EVENT PUBLIC HEALTH SURVEY
Event organizers should conduct a pre-event public health assessment for any venue
intended for a mass spectator event. A Public Health Department Venue Assessment
Checklist is included on pages A-47 and A-48 of Appendix A: Job Aids.
Organizers should consult appropriate health authorities to ascertain the availability of:
Running water (particularly for hand washing by food service and medical personnel).
Sufficient public toilets and hand washing stations in or adjacent to toilets (with
provision for pump-out of portables and servicing as necessary during the event).
Adequate refrigeration for perishable foodstuffs.
Recognized, approved vendors of bulk food items delivered to the site’s food providers.
Sufficient number of covered containers for the storage of food and solid waste,
including removal during the event.
Appropriate storage and removal of liquid waste.
Public health inspectors should be available onsite during the event to monitor public health
compliance.
Public health authorities onsite should have legislated authority to enforce “cease operation”
orders on onsite food providers who are in contravention of standards or are otherwise
operating contrary to the public interest.
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PUBLIC HEALTH CONTINGENCY ARRANGEMENTS
The arrangements outlined in this chapter are designed to prevent an adverse event or
minimize the risk that an adverse event will occur. However, unforeseen circumstances that
may create a public health risk always exist. Some thought must be given to making
contingency arrangements and documenting these arrangements in the public health
emergency management plan. The plan should include the following details, as a minimum:
Contact details, including after-hour information, for principal event personnel (for
example, event organizers, environmental health officers, trades persons, and
emergency service personnel, including health services personnel).
Contact details for additional staff.
Details for 24-hour contact of the food proprietors.
Arrangements for alternative suppliers of equipment and utilities in the event of a failure
or loss of water or power.
Arrangements to replace food handlers who become ill.
Arrangements in case of product recall.
Epidemiological tracking procedures.
Procedures for handling complaints.
A debriefing procedure.
MONITORING HEALTH RISKS
First aid posts and security personnel can provide information to help assess health and
safety risks. First aid posts can provide data by collecting gastrointestinal illness
surveillance information. A Gastrointestinal Illness Questionnaire is included on pages A-60
and A-61 of Appendix A: Job Aids. First aid posts can also maintain records of injuries,
incidents involving watercourses, and alcohol and drug issues. Security agencies can
provide information on safety hazards and alcohol and drug issues.
FOOD SAFETY
Food safety is a vital element of public health planning for public events. Unless personnel
apply proper sanitary practices to food storage, preparation, and distribution at mass
gatherings, food may become contaminated and present a danger to public health. Special
one-of-a-kind outdoor events that are held during warm weather pose additional risks
because they tend to have less than ideal facilities for food handling, transport, and storage.
To ensure that adequate food safety standards are met and maintained, an environmental
health officer should initially assess food service proposals, including the authorization of
vendors, as part of the pre-event planning outlined in Chapter 1. The health officer should
base any assessment on current local and State food hygiene legislation and food safety
codes. The officer should follow this assessment with a pre-event audit as well as periodic
monitoring of food safety throughout the event.
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FOOD SAFETY (CONTINUED)
This assessment should form part of a comprehensive food safety plan for the event,
including:
Licensing/permit procedures and authorization of vendors
Quantities and types of food
Lines of supply
Premises where food is stored
Preparation techniques
Disposal of foods
Means of distribution
Food safety documentation, approved approaches, and surveillance
Food vendors must meet appropriate licensing and registration requirements of the
responsible health authority, including an off-premises food-catering license, as appropriate.
During the event, onsite environmental health officers must have the authority to close
down any vendor who is contravening food hygiene legislation and public health
requirements. In some cases, this action may necessitate passing particular local laws or
ordinances.
Appendix A includes a Food Vendor Information Sheet on pages A-33 through A-35. A
Catering Inspection Checklist for Food Vendors is included on pages A-36 through A-39.
FOOD PREMISES
Setup and construction of the food premises must be in accordance with State and local
regulations and codes of practice. The premises or areas to be used for food storage,
preparation, and service must be easily cleaned and promote neither the harboring of
rodents and insects nor the buildup of dirt and food particles.
EQUIPMENT
Equipment used in food preparation, distribution, and storage must be in safe working order
and easily cleaned. Ensure that an appropriate number of the correct kind/type of fire
extinguishers (e.g., effective for use with deep fryers, propane tanks, etc.) is available at
food provider sites.
PERSONAL SAFETY
The safety of both staff and the public is always an important consideration, and you must
meet occupational health and safety standards. Some of the hazards to avoid include loose
power leads, trip hazards, inadequate refuse disposal, inappropriate positioning of
equipment (especially hot equipment), poor ventilation and extreme temperatures in the
work environment, badly stacked supplies, and unguarded equipment.
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WASTE DISPOSAL
An effective disposal system should be put into place. Improper disposal of perishable
goods, in particular, can cause problems arising from odor, insects or rodents, or other
animals. Adequate disposal facilities must be easily accessible to food handlers and removal
contractors.
Organize a separate refuse collection for food premises and continually monitor it to ensure
that the frequency of collection is appropriate.
Where possible, encourage the separation of refuse into dry, wet, and hazardous disposal
units. For more information on refuse disposal, refer to the discussion under Waste
Management on page 2-31 of this chapter.
WATER SUPPLY
Provision of a supply of potable water for sinks is essential. Those operators who use water
that is stored in their own tanks must have access to facilities to refill diminished supplies.
Ensure that this access is established before the event. If possible, at outdoor concerts in
extreme heat conditions, all potable water supply lines should be buried to avoid breakage
and contamination by concert attendees. Having a NO GLASS policy is wise to prevent
hazards caused by broken glass. For more specific details on water supply, refer to the
section on Water on page 2-28 of this chapter.
HAND WASHING
Hand-washing facilities must be provided for the exclusive use of food handlers. Potable,
running water must be used for hand washing, and, where possible, hot water should be
available. Soap and disposable hand towels should be provided in the hand-washing area.
SINKS
Potable water must be supplied to all sink areas. Hot water should be used where possible.
An appropriate detergent and sanitizer should be used to clean all sinks adequately.
FOOD SUPPLIES
Food should come only from registered outlets and should not be prepared in domestic
kitchens. Food proprietors must ensure that food supplies have been prepared and
transported in accordance with relevant standards.
TRANSPORTING FOOD
The time required for food transportation should be kept to a minimum. Temperature
requirements should be maintained, and the food should be protected from contamination
at all times.
Food transport vehicles should be clearly identified and subject to surveillance and
monitoring.
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FOOD HANDLING
Essential matters to address include the following:
Cross-Contamination—The following points apply:
Every effort should be made to minimize the risk of cross-contamination during the
food-handling process. Utensils and surfaces that are used for the preparation of either
raw or ready-to-eat food should be clearly distinguished. In cramped circumstances,
this distinction becomes more difficult to observe. Adequate cleaning and sanitizing of
food utensils and surfaces between use plays an important role in reducing problems
arising from cross-contamination.
Disposable plastic gloves should be worn and changed frequently. The temptation to
continue to wear the same gloves exists, even after the work being undertaken has
changed. Encourage frequent hand washing.
Appropriate food storage is critical to ensure that there is no contamination between raw
and cooked or ready-to-eat foods. Raw foods should be stored separately if possible, or
at a minimum, stored below cooked or ready-to-eat foods.
Equipment must be adequately cleaned and sanitized after each separate process. This
is particularly critical where equipment is used for preparing different types of food.
Thawing, Cooking, Heating, and Cooling—The goal in monitoring temperature control is to
minimize the length of time during which potentially hazardous foods are held in
temperatures between 41
o
F and 140
o
F. This is the temperature range in which most
foodborne microorganisms can grow. This range is referred to as the danger zone. Key
points to remember include:
Thaw food under refrigeration or in cold, running water.
Cook food thoroughly to applicable standards.
Minimize the reheating of food. When reheating is required, heat the food thoroughly
and store it appropriately.
Cool food quickly under refrigeration.
Apportion food into appropriately sized trays.
Cleaning and Sanitizing—The following points apply:
Regardless of the type of facility in which the food is prepared, regularly clean and
sanitize all food contact surfaces, using an appropriate sanitizer.
Clean all other surfaces to minimize the risk of contamination of food products. Also be
aware of pest infestation and occupational hazards, such as slippery floor surfaces.
Adequate signage should be posted in these areas.
Consider the provision of a designated wash-up area for food outlets to reduce sullage
waste storage and pump out at each food outlet.
Chemical Storage—Store chemicals in areas separate from foods and clearly mark the
contents on chemical storage containers. Never use food containers to store
chemicals.
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Food Storage
Essential matters to address include:
Storage Facilities—Provide facilities of adequate size and appropriateness for the
purpose.
All foodstuffs must be stored off the floor or ground using shelving or pallets in
accordance with State and local health regulations.
Temperature Control—The following points apply:
Refrigerated or heated storage areas require a continuous power supply. You must
store potentially hazardous food at appropriate temperatures at all times.
Refrigeration can pose a problem particularly in hot weather when refrigeration units
struggle to cope. In case of refrigeration failure, all proprietors should indicate
alternative refrigeration suppliers, or the organizer or authority could identify
alternative suppliers in the public health emergency management plan.
Cross-Contamination—The following problems must be overcome:
The less-than-ideal conditions that confront food handlers working in temporary
facilities may lead to compromising appropriate food handling practices.
Space is often a major problem. Ensure that, at a minimum, raw and cooked or
ready-to-eat-foods are stored appropriately. Food handling staff must be aware of
the requirements for strict hand-washing procedures and for the cleaning and
sanitizing of equipment between handling raw and ready-to-eat foods.
Dry Goods—Appropriate and sufficient storage conditions should be available to ensure
adequate protection of food from the elements and pests.
Food Protection—Protect exposed food available on display from insect pests, dust, and
human contact.
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Food Handling Staff Considerations
Important matters to address include:
Training—Encourage proprietors to select staff with food handler training to work in
temporary facilities.
Personal Hygiene—Selection of staff should include factors such as high personal
hygiene standards. Food proprietors should ensure that a non-smoking policy is
implemented in the workplace if permitted by local code.
Communications—Proprietors should be able to demonstrate that they have an efficient
reporting and communication system so that staff can identify public health problems
and deal with them promptly.
Supervision—Encourage proprietors to provide appropriate supervision to ensure a team
approach to the provision of a safe food supply.
Dress—Food handlers’ dress should be appropriate to the tasks that they are performing
and include some form of hair covering.
Infectious Diseases—
Proprietors should be reminded that food handlers must not work while they are in
an acute stage of any gastrointestinal illness or the common cold.
Proprietors should remind food handlers who have open wounds to dress all wounds
with a waterproof dressing and to change the dressing regularly.
Provide segregated toilet facilities exclusively for food handlers.
Monitor these facilities for any signs of pest or rodent infestation.
Proprietors should keep a register of any complaints that they may receive from food
purchasers.
HEALTH PROMOTION
Consider the opportunities to promote health messages at public events and to encourage
event organizers and service providers, such as food vendors, to participate. Examples
include:
Sunsmart
—Encourage the provision and use of shade areas. Encourage the use of
sunscreen creams and hats, and make them available for purchase by spectators.
Organizers should consider advising spectators that alcohol consumption in the sun greatly
increases the risk of dehydration. Additionally, organizers may want to consider providing
“misting tents” which are used by attendees to reduce core body temperatures in excessive
heat environments.
No Smoking
—Encourage the provision of non-smoking areas and ban the sale of cigarettes
at the event.
Alcohol
—Consider the designation of alcohol-free areas or restrictions on the sale of alcohol.
Also consider glass-free policies. Alcohol-free events will minimize aggressive behavior of
spectators and also minimize the use of restrooms and water supply needs.
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WATER
An adequate supply of safe drinking water must be available. One guideline suggests
making available 21 quarts of potable water per person per day, of which 5 quarts comprise
the drinking water component. Consider event duration and location and the anticipated
ambient temperature in determining the quantity of potable water required.
All water provided must be tested to ensure its potability. In areas where non-reticulated
water is the only source for personal use, then consider the clarification and disinfecting of
the water supply to achieve a level greater than 1 ppm residual chlorine.
Some consideration must be made to ensure that the water is safe from deliberate
contamination. Placing the water supply in a secure area or having someone guard the
water supply are two options available.
Appropriate access to drinking water must be available for spectators in a field or outdoor
venue or at events such as “raves,” where the activity produces an extreme-heat
environment.
Water pressure must be adequate to provide for all normal use and for use during peak
demands. Any use of fire-suppression water systems (i.e., fire hydrants) should be
discouraged, or alternate water supplies must be made available in case existing supplies
fail to meet demand or if the supply is rendered unsafe or unusable.
TOILETS
Where existing toilet facilities are judged inadequate, you must make available additional
portable units.
Toilet locations should be:
Well marked.
Near hand-washing stations.
Well lit (including the surrounding area) if night use is anticipated.
Serviced (including pump-out of portables) on a 24-hour schedule during the event
(Vehicle access is obviously necessary).
Located away from food storage and food service areas.
Secured to prevent tipping.
The following considerations will determine the number of toilets to be provided for
particular events:
Duration of the event
Type of crowd
Weather conditions
Whether the event is pre-ticketed with the numbers of attendees known, or unticketed
Whether finishing times are staggered if the event has multi-functions
Whether alcohol will be consumed
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TOILETS (CONTINUED)
Calculating the number of toilets required for an event can be a particular challenge. Where
local laws or regulations do not exist, the following guidelines can be applied. Better
management of events can be achieved by providing additional facilities. Assume a 50/50
male/female split unless otherwise advised. The following tables should be used only as a
guide.
Toilet facilities for events where alcohol is not available
Males Females
Patrons Toilets Urinals Sinks Toilets Sinks
<500 1 2 2 6 2
<1,000 2 4 4 9 4
<2,000 4 8 6 12 6
<3,000 6 15 10 18 10
<5,000 8 25 17 30 17
Toilet facilities for events where alcohol is available
Males Females
Patrons Toilets Urinals Sinks Toilets Sinks
<500 3 8 2 13 2
<1,000 5 10 4 16 4
<2,000 9 15 7 18 7
<3,000 10 20 14 22 14
<5,000 12 30 20 40 20
These figures may be reduced for shorter duration events as follows:
Duration of event Quantity required
More than 8 hours 100%
6-8 hours 80%
4-6 hours 75%
Less than 4 hours 70%
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Toilets for the Disabled
At least one unisex toilet for the disabled is required. Check with your local ADA office for
further guidance.
Food Vendors’ Toilets
Separate toilet and hand-washing facilities should be made available for food handlers.
General Considerations
In an outdoor setting, it is a relatively simple matter to provide additional toilets by
contracting for temporary portable toilets. This solution may not be suitable for indoor
settings, for which provision of additional toilets may be more difficult. One possible
solution is to convert some men's washrooms to women's facilities for events where you
anticipate a predominantly female audience, or vice versa.
To avoid long lines, particularly at female toilets, organizers may identify some toilet
facilities as unisex toilets.
The maintenance and cleaning schedule for toilets and sinks should ensure:
An adequate supply of toilet paper and soap.
Clean toilets throughout the duration of the event.
Provision for disposal and removal of sanitary napkins.
Availability of a plumber or appropriate maintenance person to repair or remove
blockages.
Organizers should ensure that adequate cleaning supplies are available for use by the
cleaning staff.
SHOWERS
At an extended event, promoters and planners may decide to provide showers. If they do
provide showers, they must consider the additional demands for potable water and
drainage. If municipal water supplies and wastewater treatment plants cannot service the
shower facilities, providing shower facilities could prove to be a very costly and formidable
task. Vendors are available that will contract to provide self-contained shower units.
Ensure that showers are located on high ground so that muddy areas are not created.
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SOLID AND LIQUID WASTE MANAGEMENT
Major considerations are as follows:
FOOD WASTE
Deposit food waste in covered containers placed strategically around the venue. Covers
are essential, especially in outdoor settings or if high temperatures are expected.
Spectator density may prohibit access by garbage removal vehicles. To prevent
containers from overflowing, empty containers regularly and move waste to a
temporary, properly prepared holding area until bulk removal can be accomplished at
designated times or after the event. Removing food waste often and in a timely manner
prevents disease and pests.
EMPTY CONTAINERS
Make arrangements for the appropriate storage or disposal of empty containers, such as
cardboard boxes.
HAZARDOUS WASTES
Special arrangements must be established for the collection and disposal of various forms of
hazardous waste, including waste from food preparation areas, medical sharps, and other
hazardous materials.
CLINICAL WASTE
Ensure there is provision for the storage, collection, and disposal of clinical waste generated
from onsite medical and first aid facilities.
S
EWAGE AND SULLAGE
Provide and maintain adequate facilities for the ongoing storage and disposal of sewage and
sullage. As with all other wastes, these must be removed in a timely manner and on a
frequent basis.
RECYCLING
Where possible, consider providing specific containers for recyclable materials. Vendors
should be encouraged to use recyclable packaging of foodstuffs. A sufficient number of
dedicated containers should be placed near the vendor area to further encourage recycling.
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ANIMALS, RODENTS, AND VEGETATION
In outdoor settings, the control of rodents, spiders, mosquitoes, and insects of significance
to public health must be addressed. Venue sites should also be inspected for pests, snakes,
gopher holes, etc., in advance. If particular hazardous species are known to inhabit the
area, or if carriers of particular diseases are prevalent in the area, alert the attending first
aid and medical personnel.
Alert medical and first aid personnel to the presence of potentially poisonous and noxious
plants and trees in the area.
If domestic animals are permitted into the venue, establish rules for the control of animals
and their waste. Check with your local animal control agency or shelter for more guidance
concerning animal regulations.
Also consider the potential effect of the event on nearby domestic or farm animals and
native fauna.
SWIMMING AND WATER SAFETY
Purpose-built swimming areas must comply with State requirements for water quality and
meet other local requirements, such as fencing. Assess the suitability of other watercourses
in the vicinity of the venue if spectators may use those watercourses for water recreation or
washing. If these watercourses do not meet requirements, fence them off and erect
warning signs against their use.
Address water quality in both designated swimming areas and areas that could be used for
swimming in hot weather. Experience has shown that where audiences attend an outdoor
concert in hot weather, particularly in overnight events without adequate or convenient
washing facilities, they will employ any nearby water area as a makeshift swimming,
bathing, or washing area.
Consider making available some form of trained supervision for:
Families with small children.
Spectator groups for which alcohol consumption, with subsequent judgment impairment,
is anticipated.
Areas of water that pose additional hazards such as steep, slippery sides; submerged
snags; or unusually variable depths.
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INFECTION CONTROL AND PERSONAL HYGIENE CONCERNS
Infectious disease transmission through unsafe sexual practices or drug use may be a
health risk at some events, particularly for those at which spectators are camping at the
venue overnight. To reduce these risks, consider providing or making available condoms
and a properly licensed needle exchange/disposal mechanism. While these are sensitive
and controversial issues, and political issues in some areas, they are nevertheless important
public health concerns in contemporary society, and you should address them.
At events where the duration extends overnight or longer, provide hygienic washing
facilities. Suggested minimum requirements for facilities at campgrounds, based on two to
three nights’ camping, are as follows:
Sex Toilets Urinal Sinks Shower
M 1 per 50 1 per 100 1 per 75 1 per 100
F 1 per 25 N/A 1 per 75 1 per 100
TATTOOING AND BODY PIERCING
With a return in popularity of tattoos, body piercing, and branding, mobile operators have
begun to appear at certain types of public gatherings, such as carnivals, motorcycle races,
and auto swap meets. Where this activity is likely to occur, check the need for proper
licensing or registration of such service providers and their compliance with any health
legislation.
Because of the potential of cross-infection, particularly of blood-borne diseases, inspect any
such operations to ensure, as a minimum, the use of:
Disposable, single-use skin penetration items.
Proper sterilization equipment and techniques.
Clinical sharps containers for used needle disposal.
Sharps containers safely located away from children.
Safe disposal of used sharps containers.
If the service providers do not use these minimum infection control procedures, do not allow
them to perform any skin penetration procedures.
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POST-EVENT PUBLIC HEALTH SURVEY
Conduct a post-event survey to ensure that personnel have conducted a proper cleanup,
particularly from a public health perspective. For example, check that all scrap foodstuffs
and discarded needles are properly disposed of. All involved in planning the event should
return the venue to its pre-event condition.
As an additional precaution, retain appropriate records of all service providers at the event
so that they may be traced if a subsequent outbreak of a reportable disease occurs or if a
claim is made for an injury or illness.
Health personnel should also be conscious of the need to introduce a monitoring or
surveillance system if they subsequently become aware of any particular health problem
arising from an event.
A formal public health debriefing should follow the event, and a public health representative
should participate in all agency debriefings.
MEDICAL CARE
Spectators and participants at mass gatherings may require medical attention in the event
of illness or injury. The incidence of illness will be greater at an event for spectators than
that expected to occur naturally in a population of comparable size.
The number of spectators who require, or avail themselves of, onsite medical care, and the
types of problems that they present, will vary significantly depending on the nature of the
event. Generally, between 0.3 percent to 1.3 percent
4
of event attendees will require some
form of medical assistance, regardless of the character, locale, physical layout, and size of
the event.
Alcohol and drug use is common at most festivals and is the primary diagnosis in more than
10 per cent of the persons seeking medical care. Other common complaints include
lacerations, fractures and sprains, burns, sunburn, heat stroke, seizures, asthma, and
exposure.
MEDICAL CARE PROVISION
Planning for the provision of medical care for both spectators and participants is essential,
for both humanitarian and legal reasons. The permitting process should ensure that
medical care at the venue is equal to or greater than the standard of care currently provided
in the community. In addition, providing onsite first aid or medical care will significantly
reduce the demand on EMS and the emergency departments at local hospitals in the area of
the event.
4
Leonard, Ralph B., PhD, MD, FACEP & Moreland, Kimberly M., MD, “EMS for the Masses, Preplanning
Your EMS Response To a Major Event,” EMS, January 2001.
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MEDICAL CARE PROVISION (CONTINUED)
Event organizers may choose to contract with a health service provider, who may not be
associated with the usual local service provider. Check to ensure that the service provider
is appropriately licensed and regulated. The provider must coordinate with the local health
and emergency services to plan a response to any emergency or significant medical
problems requiring further assistance. Notify local health authorities of the details of the
event and provide them with emergency plans for a major incident. Additionally, local
hospitals should be notified of the event in writing at least 30 days in advance and given the
estimated number of attendees.
MAIN CONCERNS IN PLANNING MEDICAL CARE
Main issues to address in medical care planning include:
LOGISTICS
Some medical logistics questions to consider in planning an event include:
How many medical stations will be required onsite?
Will medical personnel operate in a facility to which the injured must make their way, or
will clearly identified medical teams patrol spectator areas?
How will spectators identify medical personnel on the site (uniforms, vests, etc.)?
Will vehicles be available to transport spectators to the medical facility?
Will medical vehicles be appropriate to the terrain? Four-wheel-drive vehicles may be
required for off-road areas and golf carts or similar vehicles required for high-density
spectator areas.
Where an ambulance is not required, will a “chauffeur system” be provided to transport
persons from the onsite medical facility to their own transport vehicle?
How will medical personnel be notified of, or summoned to, spectators requiring
assistance in vast spectator areas?
What means of communication will be available to permit attending medical personnel to
communicate with offsite medical personnel, event organizers, security, and other
support personnel?
Are there any sponsorship conflicts between the event sponsor and any medical service
operators?
What level of onsite medical care, if any, do you expect to be required, given the nature
of the event?
What mix of medical personnel (first aid providers, paramedics, nurses, doctors) will you
require onsite?
Who will provide the personnel? How will the cost for their services be funded?
Are the health service providers from the local area? If not, how will their services be
integrated with the local services?
How will security concerns for health care personnel onsite be addressed?
Are the selected personnel appropriately skilled to respond to anticipated medical
problems at the event? They may require additional training.
Will medical personnel or vehicles need special credentials to allow them access to all
parts of the venue, especially to any restricted areas?
Are medical personnel assigned for public safety workers at the event?
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LOGISTICS (CONTINUED)
Are aero-medical services and landing zones available?
Where is the closest trauma center?
Have primary and secondary receiving hospitals been identified?
Does the area hospital have adequate bed and personnel capacity to respond to the
emergency requirements of an event of the size that is being planned?
Management and Planning
Determine which other organizations will be involved. Who will be the lead agency?
Conduct planning meetings involving health personnel, emergency services personnel,
and event organizers.
Determine what is expected of each organization involved in the provision of medical
care.
Determine likely levels of care that will be required.
Determine any local laws, rules, or regulations governing emergency first aid.
Determine the budget for the provision of medical care services.
Establish liaison with other emergency services (police, fire, and security).
Identify the equipment required and potential suppliers. Will the equipment be
purchased, hired, or borrowed?
Will volunteers be used? What accreditation will they be required to possess? What
benefits will they be offered?
Ensure the security of medical stations and the safety of the staff.
Establish a patient information management system for patients who are treated,
including patient care reporting, etc.
Determine in advance the disposition of patient records after the event.
An Emergency Medical Services Venue Assessment Checklist is included on pages A-53 and
A-54 of Appendix A: Job Aids.
PLANNING INFORMATION
Obtain background information to assist with medical care planning that may be available
from:
Reports from previous similar events (medical and other specialist literature).
Lay literature (press).
Medical literature that has information on the risks and types of injury that were
sustained at similar events in the past.
Consider the effects of weather conditions on the spectators, such as hypothermia and heat
stroke.
Consult medical literature for information on the numbers of casualties from similar events
in the past. See the table below for anticipated percentages of patients against triage
categories. Consider variables that affect numbers (for example, alcohol consumption,
psychosocial behavior, and type of event).
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PLANNING INFORMATION (CONTINUED)
Expected percentages of patients in triage categories
Categories
1
Description Vital Signs Mental State Percentage
2
1 Critical Unstable Abnormal 0.02
2 Serious Potentially Potentially 1.1
Unstable Abnormal
3 Moderate Usually Normal 12
Stable
4 Minor Stable Normal 87
Notes:
1
Categories modified from disaster triage guidelines.
2
Percentages aggregated from events listed in the references.
CASUALTIES
Experience from other events has shown that most casualties are from:
Heat stroke, dehydration.
Cuts from broken glass and drink can ring pulls.
Injuries from missiles, usually bottles and cans.
Fainting and exhaustion from a combination of hysteria, heat and alcohol. At concerts,
this often occurs at or near the stage barrier.
Trampling or crushing from crowd pressure.
Crowd “surfing” and stage diving.
Illicit drug and alcohol abuse.
Respiratory problems (asthma and emphysema).
Epilepsy attacks brought about from strobe lighting.
Age-related illness.
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MEDICAL ACCESS TO VENUE
Consider the risks associated with venue (for example, water in the vicinity).
Agreements must be reached among medical service providers on the following:
Medical teams must be able to locate individuals in need of attention easily. You should
agree on the use of a common reference map or grid system.
How will medical teams reach or rescue individuals in distress for example, in crowded
areas or through fixed seating)?
How will patients be transported onsite?
Will you provide a dedicated access route, or emergency service lane, to allow rapid
access to and from the venue for ambulances and other emergency vehicles?
Will the event itself pose a barrier to medical teams (for example, community runs or a
parade)?
Will you need aero-medical services/landing zones, and if so, what are the associated
regulations regarding their operation?
MEDICAL REQUIREMENTS
Prepare for the most critical injury or illness foreseeable, such as cardiac arrest.
Is there a need for a mobile team? This team may require pre-packed medical kits.
Determine who will provide care for the audience, any VIPs, and performers.
Define boundaries of care (for example, inside the venue and in the parking areas).
LEVEL OF CARE
Levels of care can be categorized as follows:
Basic—first aid.
Intermediate—first aid plus IV therapy and oxygen.
Advanced—Care and life support and early management of severe trauma.
Site Hospital—full monitoring, ventilation, and resuscitation capability.
Other level-of-care concerns include:
Consulting medical personnel with experience in similar events to determine the
appropriate levels of care to provide.
Considering the distance to, and accessibility of, the nearest hospital and its capability.
Pre-establishing the coordination between venue medical services and those of the local
community emergency medical service responders (that is, establish how they will
provide mutual aid if required).
Preparing to treat patients after a release of a chemical, biological, radiological or other
CBRNE material.
Further guidance on the establishment of medical care facilities and their equipment
requirements is available in the references and from local or regional disaster and health
plans.
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MEDICAL TEAMS
When deploying medical teams, consider the following:
What will be the size of the event?
What is the location of the venue with regard to medical infrastructure?
What is the extent of available medical resources?
How do local and State ordinances and regulations apply, including those that may
address minimum staffing levels? Average numbers of expected patients generally
range from .3 percent to 1.3 percent of the total number of patrons in attendance
5
.
Who can see, treat, and discharge patients?
Will there be peak periods or special circumstances requiring additional staff?
How will medical staff be fed, watered, rested, and protected from the elements?
Are work safety regulations established that cover occupational health and safety (for
example, protection from violence and crowd crushes)?
Have medical teams been provided with maps of the venue?
What arrangements are in place for movement of medical teams onto and off the site?
Are medical team members appropriately dressed for the conditions?
Is the dress of medical team members easily identifiable?
Are interpreters required?
Do medical teams understand the command structure and their role within it, and the
emergency activation system?
Have medical personnel been trained and equipped with PPE for use in response to a
CBRNE incident.
MOBILE TEAMS
In tightly packed areas, particularly near the stage, first aid personnel on foot, bicycles, or
golf carts may have the only access. Experience has shown that uniformed first aid
personnel on foot circulating in dense spectator areas are quite effective, and patrons will
readily summon them in an emergency, even if the person requiring care is a stranger to
them. Even if a clearly marked field hospital is visible, spectators are often unwilling to
make the sometimes long trek to request assistance (because they may lose their seating
position), particularly for a fellow spectator whom they may not know or if they fail to
appreciate the seriousness of the patient’s condition.
Identification of mobile teams, where ambulance or clinical uniforms are unsuitable, can be
successfully accomplished by special event uniforms. Mobile teams need to have
communications equipment to keep EMS supervisors and the Incident Command Post
informed at all times.
(NOTE: The Red Cross symbol is registered by the International Red Cross and its National
Societies. It should not be used as part of an event uniform.)
5
Leonard, Ralph B., PhD, MD, FACEP & Moreland, Kimberly M., MD, “EMS for the Masses, Preplanning
Your EMS Response To a Major Event,” EMS, January 2001.
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MEDICAL AID POSTS
Important considerations in the establishment of medical aid posts require that they should:
Provide easy ambulance access and egress.
Be located within 5 minutes of all sections of the crowd.
Have available a mode of transport to them.
Be clearly marked.
Have adequate signage for direction to the aid post.
Be clearly identified.
Be clearly marked on maps of the venue layout.
Be in a position known by security and other event personnel.
Be stocked and staffed for the duration of the event and for spectator arrival and
departure periods.
Provide facilities for injured or sick patients to lie down.
Ensure privacy in clinical areas.
Provide some means of communication with the primary medical control point, venue
control, and with mobile medical teams in the venue.
Be located in as quiet a place as possible.
Ensure that post security staff considerations are addressed.
Include dedicated disposal containers for ablutions, hazardous wastes, and sharps.
GUIDE TO THE PROVISION OF MEDICAL AID
The number of medical aid personnel and posts will vary with the type of event. As a guide,
use the following formulation:
Patrons
Medical Aid
Personnel
Medical Aid
Posts
500 2 1
1,000 4 1
2,000 6 1
5,000 8 2
10,000 12 2
20,000 22+ 4
The number of medical aid posts required would depend on what medical aid room facilities
are available. Every venue should have at least one climate-controlled facility with electrical
service and running potable water.
Medical aid providers are generally not required for events that are smaller than 500
patrons and are held in close proximity to central ambulance/hospital services.
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SITE HOSPITAL
Depending on the nature of the event, a site or field hospital may be needed to provide
resuscitation or care for the number of casualties anticipated. You should also make
contingency plans in case of a major incident, for which the resources of the field hospital
may not be sufficient. Failure to plan for large numbers of casualties or severely injured
patrons can result in long delays in providing medical treatment. It is important to provide
a communication link between the site hospital and local hospitals.
Site hospitals will require:
Clean water.
Electricity for medical appliances and adequate lighting in tent hospitals at night. (This
installation should, if possible, include a backup power system.)
Washroom/rest facilities for the exclusive use of staff and patients.
Provisions for patient modesty/privacy issues.
Meals for medical staff.
Tents for hospital use that have flooring as part of the structure to contain the service
and to prevent ingress of water or insects.
A landline telephone service for ordering additional staff or supplies and for notifying
hospitals of patient transfers. (Note that cellular telephones should be used as backup
devices only).
Reserved access roads for emergency vehicle use.
Dedicated disposal containers for ablutions, hazardous wastes, and sharps.
DOCUMENTATION
Documentation should facilitate:
Post-event review of medical assistance activities.
Tracking of biological, chemical, and infectious disease exposures, if they occur.
Medical and legal issues, which must be addressed prior to the preparation of any
documents, are as follows:
Who has access to records?
Who keeps the data and for how long?
Who can give consent for treatment?
Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) considerations (i.e.,
privacy).
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AMBULANCE VEHICLES
Organizers should consult ambulance services to determine ambulance requirements for the
event. Some considerations include:
Will ambulances be pre-positioned onsite or be called to the venue on an as-required
basis?
Has the security of the vehicles when parked been addressed?
Are there provisions for a mix of Advanced and Basic Life Saving ambulances at the
event?
If ambulances are onsite specifically for athletes, race car drivers, etc., are these
ambulances exclusively for taking care of their needs or emergencies, or will they be
available for injured spectators as well?
Is there a need for dedicated ambulances/medical staff for the event staff itself?
Are aero-medical services/landing zones available? Who will pay for the service? Can the
promoter be required to provide the service?
While conventional ambulances are appropriate for patient transfers to offsite medical
facilities over good roads, such vehicles may be unsuitable for off-road use. Ad hoc
roadways and cross-country terrain may require four-wheel-drive vehicles, particularly if
grounds are saturated by recent rainfall. Because four-wheel-drive ambulances are not
available in most areas, other four-wheel-drive vehicles, equipped with appropriate medical
equipment (including, but not limited to, resuscitation equipment, trauma kit, and spinal
board) can serve as ambulances over the short distances between spectator areas and
medical care facilities.
In denser spectator areas, any vehicle can have access problems. You should consider
using golf carts, either designed or modified to accommodate a litter or stretcher.
For these reasons the ambulance network may have to consist of a mix of first aid
personnel on foot, golf-carts, four-wheel-drive vehicles, ambulance buses, and conventional
ambulances, to facilitate patient transport requirements. You should provide a magnetic-
based beacon, portable radio, and appropriate marking for these vehicles.
A communications network, designed to provide a coordinated response to requests for
assistance, is essential. You may base the network on existing service networks, or event
organizers may need to provide the network.
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MEDICAL EQUIPMENT
The requirement for basic or advanced life support equipment depends on the type of event
and the assessed risk of illness or injury. While standard lists of equipment will cover most
requirements, you should review literature, previous experiences, and current practices.
Further equipment considerations include:
Mobile versus fixed requirements.
Arrangements to re-supply aid posts as required.
Compatibility of onsite equipment with equipment used by ambulance and other health
care providers (e.g., IV tubing/administration sets).
Ambulance providers may want to consider carrying extra supplies beyond their normal
supply.
Provisions for the rapid movement of reserve supplies in a mass casualty incident should
also be considered.
OTHER MEDICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Further considerations include:
Providing considerations for interviewing and treating of sexual assault victims and the
collection of evidence.
Ensuring sufficient water supplies.
Providing sprinkler systems or misting tents for crowds in hot, open areas, if they are
suitable for the event.
Providing welfare and information services (the helping and caring role).
Assisting with forgotten medications.
Providing a baby diaper-changing and caring facility.
Containing and disposing of clinical waste.
Determining how, and by whom, medical supplies will be obtained, including secure
onsite storage of drugs.
Planning for the deployment or availability of chemical antidote supplies (i.e., Mark 1
Kits, atropine, pediatric auto injectors) for a CBRNE event.
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ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
WEATHER
Weather is a variable that takes on a different significance depending on the event and its
location. For a major indoor event in a southern United States city, weather is seldom a
major concern, unless a natural disaster, such as a hurricane, is anticipated. If you were to
move that same event to a northern United States climate in February, you would be faced
with additional concerns, sometimes even for a predicted “normal” winter storm. Slow-
moving traffic patterns, snow removal in parking areas, and safe movement of spectators
from parking areas to the venue are a few concerns. Extreme high and low temperatures
must be part of the contingency planning for an event. These extremes present hazards
and risks that are not normally present but must be considered in the event that they do
occur.
For outdoor events, many additional concerns may become apparent regardless of location.
Lightning strikes, severe thunderstorms and hail, high winds, and other undesirable weather
pose threats to event patrons. The influx of patrons may have a severe negative impact on
the jurisdiction’s mass evacuation and sheltering plan for local residents. Contingency plans
drawn up for the jurisdiction may not provide for a transient population (as in the case of
some rock concerts with numbers of patrons in the hundreds of thousands) that will
negatively impact that community’s ability to protect residents and visitors.
During the planning phase, event organizers must adequately consider all potential weather
conditions. For example, if event infrastructure (i.e., stages, speaker towers, etc.) are to be
erected at the event, special consideration should be given to their composition (i.e., steel
versus wood, etc.), height, location, and protection of their surrounding areas. Electrical
professionals can be consulted regarding the impact of a lightning strike scenario to this
type of infrastructure by a swift-moving thunderstorm. Worst-case scenarios can then be
developed to consider the effect of infrastructure energized by a lightning strike. Not only
could anyone on the stage or scaffolding be prone to electrocution, but many spectators on
the ground around the infrastructure could be in danger, depending on the location of the
strike with the scaffolding, any grounding mechanisms in place, and the severity of the
storm.
Some planning considerations involving weather awareness are:
Monitoring the weather using a computer, radio, NOAA weather radio, or television.
Establishing a dedicated a phone line that is linked with the closest office of the National
Weather Service.
Ensuring that ICS team consults with the Weather Service on a regular basis and that
consultation information is included in each Operational Period’s Incident Action Plan.
Distributing weather information to the participants.
Contracting or partnering with a private-sector meteorological prediction service.
Establishing agreements with the promoter to interrupt a performance and use the
festival sound equipment as a public-address system to give information to patrons on
protective actions to take if severe weather becomes imminent.
Coordinating with the Red Cross and concert organizers to designate specific buildings as
evacuation shelters if the visiting public requires sheltering.
Leasing and installing a lightning detection system similar to those used at major golfing
events to forewarn of impending storms.
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WEATHER (CONTINUED)
Developing severe-weather contingency plans to ensure the safety of event attendees can
require a significant amount of time, equipment, planning, and multi-agency participation.
SITE HAZARDS
In selecting a site, especially for an outdoor event, the planning team should identify the
potential hazards in the area, which include:
Power lines that could be brought down by a severe storm.
Structures and equipment that could be prone to lightning strikes.
Waterways that may be prone to flooding.
Brushfires.
High winds.
Areas of high ground that require management (i.e., security from snipers, etc.).
Extremes of temperature.
Pests and large animals, including:
Rodents
Insects—ants, caterpillars, wasps, bees, mosquitoes, flies
Snakes
Spiders
Pollens and poisonous plants, including noxious weeds.
Marshes or swamps.
Quarries, pits.
Scrap piles.
Cliffs and steep inclines.
Watercourses, including their depth of water, water currents, water temperature, water
clarity.
Pollution—dust, noise (including the potential need for hearing protection).
Water quality (bacteriological), blue-green algae.
Darkness.
Hazardous chemicals or underground tanks.
Use of lasers.
Alcohol, drugs, weapons, or potential weapons (for example, broken glass).
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
Neighboring land use.
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ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT CONCERNS/MAINTAINING COMPLIANCE
To ensure compliance with public health requirements, carry out a public health audit just
prior to the commencement of the event. Also undertake subsequent periodic surveillance
during the event. These procedures are particularly important for outdoor events in hot
weather with transient food vendors who may not have sufficient sanitary or refrigeration
mechanisms available to meet established public health or safety protocols.
Environmental health officers should have access to resources to assist in early intervention
and problem correction and resolution when any problem is noted (for example, toilet
servicing, unsafe areas, fencing repairs, water testing) rather than using their authority to
stop the event or particular operation.
AIRCRAFT
If helicopter flights will be available for spectators or members of the media to view the
event from the air, the following concerns should be addressed:
Will flights be prohibited directly over the event and spectators and confined, instead, to
circular paths around the perimeter?
Will helispots be confined to the periphery of the event, to avoid flights directly above
spectators during take-offs and landings?
Do the proposed helispots comply with Federal regulations governing such use?
Which public safety agency working the event will be designated as responsible for
interacting with the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) if required?
CAMPING
If camping is permitted at the event, you should consider the following:
Providing for the safety of the campers and their belongings.
Disposing of solid and liquid waste.
Clearly marking temporary streets.
Clearly defining avenues of access for ambulances, law enforcement personnel, and
other emergency vehicles.
Controlling the building of fires.
Removing fire hazards ahead of time.
Installing a public address system to communicate emergencies to campers.
Survey proposed camping areas to ascertain their safety, paying particular attention to:
Low-lying areas subject to flooding.
Areas adjacent to creeks or rivers.
Areas near utility lines.
Trees that may drop branches, especially during a severe storm.
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HAZARDOUS MATERIALS (HAZMAT)
The nature of some events causes concerns about hazardous materials (e.g., propane gas
cylinders used for cooking, pyrotechnic lighting areas, oxygen tanks used by EMS, etc.) and
the ability of local officials to handle HazMat incidents. In most communities, the fire
department is the agency that responds to calls. The best way to plan for the handling of
hazardous materials is to inform the fire department ahead of time about potential hazards
and their locations. Providing fire officials with an event footprint grid map with a
description of the possible hazards reduces the response time and allows the responding
agency to be prepared. If the local fire company is not adequately trained or equipped to
handle the hazardous material, planners must identify in advance the closest department
that is equipped and consider staging them nearby during the event.
CYLINDER ANCHORAGE
At many public events, portable pressurized gas cylinders are used to inflate children's
balloons, to carbonate beverages, or to provide cooking fuel. Frequently, such cylinders are
not secured, or are merely fastened to two-wheeled hand trolleys designed to transport
them, which are themselves not independently secured.
If such cylinders topple and the cylinder neck or valve cracks, the uncontrolled release of
the stored pressurized gas can turn the cylinder into a deadly projectile. For this reason, all
portable gas cylinders must be secured.
Used incorrectly, propane can be deadly. Propane is a flammable material that is heavier
than air that is used for cooking at many large events. Tanks must be properly secured.
Qualified inspectors, usually from the fire service, should also make periodic inspections of
the tanks to ensure that the location is a safe distance away from heat sources or other
possible sources of danger.
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CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, RADIOLOGICAL, NUCLEAR, EXPLOSIVE (CBRNE)
The CBRNE threat of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) is currently a much-discussed
topic in this country. The Federal Government is prepared to assist communities in the
event of a terrorist attack. The local community’s first responders will be the first line of
defense, but if the attack is beyond their capability, they may seek assistance from the
State or Federal Government.
The Department of Defense has created WMD Civil Support Teams (CST) to assist the FBI
and local communities facing a terrorist attack. These teams are made up of National
Guard members who assist in the detection and identification of WMDs. Because these
teams are composed of National Guard personnel, State Governors also may deploy these
teams to assist communities.
A HazMat/CBRNE Data Collection Report is included on pages A-82 through A-84 of
Appendix A: Job Aids.
A Weapon of Mass Destruction (WMD) is defined as:
Any weapon that is designed or intended to cause death or serious bodily injury through
the release, dissemination, or impact of toxic or poisonous chemicals, or their
precursors.
Any weapons involving a disease organism.
Any weapon that is designed to release radiation or radioactivity at a level dangerous to
human life.
Other terms associated with WMDs are:
SECONDARY DEVICE
A secondary device is usually explosive and designed to injure first responders when they
arrive at an incident. Following the arrival of the first responders, a second device explodes
in the responder area. A secondary device was recently used at an abortion clinic explosion.
ANTI-PERSONNEL DEVICES
Anti-personnel devices are used to injure people and may or may not be considered
secondary devices that target responders.
SPECIFIC THREAT
A specific threat explains what will occur, for example, “A bomb will go off in one hour in the
parking garage.”
NON-SPECIFIC THREAT
A non-specific threat does not explain what may occur, for example, “Everyone in the
building is going to die.”
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CAPABILITY
Capability refers to credible information that a specific group possesses the requisite
training, skills, financial means, and access to the resources that are necessary to develop,
produce, or acquire a particular type of WMD in a quantity or potency sufficient to produce
mass casualties, combined with information substantiating the group’s ability to safely
store, test, and deliver the weapon.
CHEMICAL
Chemicals may be used as weapons or to deliver an attack. Originally, the military
designed chemical weapons to use in wartime. The results of chemicals used as weapons
were so devastating in warfare that many countries rejected their future use and created
treaties to forbid their future use and manufacture. In 1995, terrorists attacked a Tokyo
subway. Twelve persons died, 4,500 were injured, and more than 700 required extended
hospital stays. The ease of access to chemical agents and the amount of damage they
cause make chemical warfare very appealing to radical groups. Directions for the creation
and use of chemical weapons can be found on the Internet.
Chemical agents include nerve agents, blood agents, choking agents, and blister agents.
These agents create a credible threat for use by terrorists, and there is a high probability
that chemical agents are likely to be encountered by this country in the future.
Responders must be prepared to manage a terrorist attack involving a chemical agent. To
prepare, they should become knowledgeable of the range of chemical agents used by
terrorists in the recent past. Knowledge of chemicals and their effects assists in the first
stages of treatment. Each community should establish chemical weapons attack response
plans and review them regularly. There is Federal training available to train responders in
chemical agent response.
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BIOLOGICAL
Biological terrorism is not a new type of warfare. Biological agents are by far the most
dangerous of the three types of weapons of mass destruction. Agents include bacteria,
fungi, viruses, and toxins that induce disease or death in any living thing.
The difficulty in countering biological terrorism begins with identifying it. Another serious
concern arising from the use of all biological agents is the time that can elapse before their
use by terrorists is discovered. Biological attacks can be slow acting, with the symptoms
not appearing until as many as 21 days after exposure. The further contamination of
additional population by those initially exposed multiplies exponentially as the time from the
initial exposure increases. The best defense against the spread of the biological element is
accurate documentation and tracking of this kind of WMD by medical personnel to contain
the exposure.
With many countries facing economic difficulties at the end of the Cold War, experts fear
that they may have sold their biological weapons to the highest bidder. However, the lack
of an effective delivery system to deploy a biological agent currently limits the ability for
widespread impact upon the population.
RADIOLOGICAL
Radiological agents are materials that emit ionizing radiation that could be dispersed into
the environment using devices such as an explosive or other dispersal device.
A radiation threat, commonly referred to as a “dirty bomb” or “radiological dispersion device
(RDD)”, is the use of common explosives to spread radioactive materials over a targeted
area. It is not a nuclear blast. The force of the explosion and radioactive contamination will
be more localized. While the blast will be immediately obvious, the presence of radiation
will not be clearly defined until trained personnel with specialized radiation detection
equipment are on the scene. Having onsite radiological detection capability could reduce
the negative impact of radiation exposure to event attendees.
NUCLEAR
Nuclear terrorism involves the detonation or threatened detonation of a nuclear bomb or the
compromise of an existing nuclear facility, and refers to the use of nuclear materials as
weapons.
Although the use of a crude nuclear weapon makes the threat of nuclear terrorism possible,
FBI intelligence suggests that it would be difficult for a group to construct such a weapon
without weapons-grade uranium or plutonium.
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EXPLOSIVES
Explosives are defined as materials that are capable of violent decomposition. This
decomposition often takes the form of extremely rapid oxidation (burning). Explosions are
the result of a sudden and violent release of gas during the decomposition of explosive
substances. High temperature, strong shock, and a loud noise follow this release.
Explosives are classified according to the speed of their decomposition.
Because they are readily available, explosives are the most common weapons of mass
destruction. When you plan an event, find out:
Who is the local responder for possible explosives or suspicious packages?
Does your community have a bomb squad?
Do you have dogs that are trained to identify explosives?
What is the community policy on explosive devices?
Explosives seem to be the weapon of choice for terrorists. Less than 5 percent of actual or
attempted bombings are preceded by a threat. The lack of prior notification makes
casualties more likely than if a notice is given. The explosives can deliver various levels of
destruction and can provide a vehicle for the dispersal of chemical, biological, incendiary,
and nuclear agents.
The job aids, Bomb Threat Checklist and Bomb Threat Standoff, are included on pages A-85
and A-86, respectively, of Appendix A: Job Aids.
Explosives produce four effects when detonated:
Blast pressure
Fragmentation
Thermal effect
Ground shock
INCENDIARY DEVICES
As a subset of explosives, incendiary devices have been used by terrorists for many years,
because they are flexible tools capable of causing property damage, loss of life, and panic.
Incendiary devices continue to spread until fuel is gone or the device is extinguished.
Incendiary devices can be classified as:
Chemical reaction (including burning fuse)
Electronic ignition
Mechanical ignition
The type and construction is limited only to the creativity of the builder.
Incendiary devices may be stationary (placed), hand-thrown (Molotov cocktail), or self-
propelled, such as rockets or rifle grenades.
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INCENDIARY DEVICES (CONTINUED)
The components of an incendiary device are the ignition source, combustible filler material,
and housing or container.
DETECTION
To detect an incendiary device, combustible gas meters, flame ionization detectors, trained
dogs, photoionization detectors, and colorimetric tubes may be used.
The clues are similar to detection clues for arson. The clues should be a signal for the
responder to take appropriate actions to safeguard him- or herself and the public and treat
the area as a potential crime scene. The signs include:
Prior warning (phone calls)
Multiple fire locations
Signs of accelerants
Containers from flammable liquids
Splatter patterns indicating a thrown device
Fusing residue
Signs of forced entry to the area
Common appliances out of place for the environment
Incendiary devices may be made with:
Roadway flares
Gasoline and motor oil
Light bulbs
Common electrical components and devices
Matches and other household chemicals
Fireworks
Propane and butane cylinders
Plastic pipes, bottles, and cans
MITIGATING ACTIONS
Unattended Packages
At every event, people will leave some items unattended. Public safety officials must decide
beforehand how to handle these items. Who will respond? Does the community have dogs
trained to identify explosives? Will the area be evacuated? Decide these issues ahead of
time and have a written plan for all public safety personnel to follow.
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Concealment Areas
Concealment areas are areas where persons may hide or conceal packages or other
weapons. The best way to avoid problems in these areas is to map the event grounds and
identify the areas that could be used as hiding places. The venue staff could assist police in
this matter.
Security Sweeps
How often is security going to go through the event site? What are they looking for? How do
they handle incidents? Who is going to do the sweep? Venue personnel and security
personnel should work together. These are a few areas to address in advance. After a
sweep of the area has been completed, the area must be secured.
SUICIDE BOMBERS
Another terrorist tactic currently used frequently in foreign countries involves suicide
bombers who carry the explosives concealed on their persons, and detonate them in
crowded areas such as restaurants, nightclubs, public transit buses, or areas of mass
gatherings.
Because suicide bombers are unconcerned with capture, they are difficult to plan for and to
respond to. Emergency response planning should carefully consider how to deal with this
type of threat at a special event. Additionally, planners cannot discount the potential for
terrorists to employ multiple suicide bombers in which the first attack is designed to cause
casualties and draw emergency responders to the scene specifically to expose them to a
second suicide bomber attack.
RESPONSE PROCEDURES
Local WMD/CBRNE response protocols should be in place in public safety emergency
response agencies at this time. As part of the planning process, these procedures should be
reviewed, and created or modified as necessary. If a WMD/CBRNE incident occurs during
the special event, local response agency protocols should be followed.
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ELECTRICAL UTILITY COORDINATION REQUIREMENTS
Participants, spectators, and event staff are all affected by lighting, which is needed to set
up, tear down, and ensure the safety of the event. Make certain that lighting is adequate
and that the power supply to provide the lighting for the event, campgrounds, and parking
areas is adequate.
Even in venues that are darkened for performances, lighting should always be in use to
identify exits as well as the corridors and aisles leading to them. All temporary electrical
facilities should be inspected and approved by a local government inspector to ensure the
safety of all.
Install auxiliary battery power or generators to provide light and to power the public-
address system during power outage. You must be able to give information and directions
to spectators during a power failure to alleviate panic.
Because many concerts are performed with only stage lighting, event staff access to the
main lighting board or house lights console is essential in case of an emergency. Onsite