International Journal of
Environmental Research
and Public Health
Article
Physiological Profile, Metabolic Response and Temporal
Structure in Elite Individual Table Tennis: Differences
According to Gender
Francisco Pradas
1
, Ana de la Torre
1
, Carlos Castellar
1
and Víctor Toro-Román
2,
*
Citation: Pradas, F.; de la Torre, A.;
Castellar, C.; Toro-Román, V.
Physiological Profile, Metabolic
Response and Temporal Structure in
Elite Individual Table Tennis:
Differences According to Gender. Int.
J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18,
11898. https://doi.org/10.3390/
ijerph182211898
Academic Editor: Javier Yanci
Received: 7 October 2021
Accepted: 11 November 2021
Published: 12 November 2021
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
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4.0/).
1
ENFYRED Research Group, Faculty of Health and Sports Sciences, University of Zaragoza,
22001 Huesca, Spain; franprad@unizar.es (F.P.); 678853@unizar.es (A.d.l.T.); castella@unizar.es (C.C.)
2
School of Sport Sciences, University of Extremadura, 10003 Cáceres, Spain
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +34-927-257-460 (ext. 57833)
Abstract:
No research that has analyzed the structural characteristics, physiological profile, and
energy demands in the game of table tennis as played by women is available. The present study
aimed to evaluate the physiological, metabolic, and temporal variables of table tennis players and to
observe gender differences. Forty-eight elite table tennis players participated in this study: 24 men
(25.3
±
4.07 years) and 24 women (22.3
±
3.8 years). During simulated competition, temporal struc-
ture, heart rate (HR), and lactate (LA) were evaluated. The maximum ergospirometric evaluations
were performed in a laboratory. The total table tennis (TT) time and the total resting time (TRT) were
longer for men (p < 0.05), but game density was higher for women (p < 0.05). During rallies, the
real playing time (RPT) was longer for women, while the TRT was longer for men (p < 0.05). The
maximum HR, minimum HR, and maximum LA concentrations were higher for men (p < 0.05). The
obtained data reveal gender differences in the physiological, metabolic, structural, and temporal
variables in table tennis players. The analysis of the studied variables could allow training sessions
to be planned and organized according to table tennis players’ gender.
Keywords: game density; cardiac response; oxygen consumption; lactate; racket sport
1. Introduction
Table tennis is one of the most well-known and widely played racket sports in the
world with more than 300 million who practice this sport, of whom at least 40 million are
federated players [
1
,
2
]. In the last two decades, this sport has considerably changed with
relevant modifications made to its regulations and game characteristics, such as including
plastic balls to replace celluloid ones, increased ball diameter and weight, a concise points
system that has gone from 21 to 11 points, time-outs being introduced, harmful substances
used to stick rackets’ rubber coatings being forbidden, or even a key basic technical aspect
in this sport like its service being reformed [
3
]. These modifications have brought about
changes in various fundamental table tennis aspects, and considerably differ from those
disputed some years ago insofar as physiological and metabolic demands are concerned,
in the game’s structure, or even physical demands [
4
]. Hence, this game may evolve
differently when played by one gender or another.
Yet despite table tennis being extremely popular, its long-standing history and major
modifications to its regulations and game, very few scientific studies have investigated this
sport and both genders. Research on this topic is very heterogeneous and decontextualized,
and does not contemplate the female gender. On the one hand, lack of studies is a direct
consequence of the sport’s complex nature because it is not easy for scientists to provide
measures and to collect the necessary data to present them to trainers and players [
4
].
On the other hand, to this day, scientific interest in addressing this sport in general, and
women’s table tennis in particular, has been scarce.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11898. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182211898 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11898 2 of 11
In order to more accurately know the physiological and metabolic demands involved
in playing table tennis, it is necessary to learn the game’s dynamics. Thus, describing
game parameters like temporal structure by considering this sport’s playing times and total
resting times (TRT), as well as games’ effort times and resting times, are very interesting
study variables and also determining factors to know the organic impact of playing table
tennis, as well as the possible differences between men and women’s table tennis games [
5
].
The research works conducted to deal with total match duration have examined the
duration of masculine competition, and found that it ranges from 8 to 38 min, and female
competition between 9 and 41 min [
5
–
8
], and some of the world’s top players can even
play for a maximum time of 45 min [
3
]. The average rally time ranges between 3.1 and 4.6 s
in men [9], but no data were found about this temporal game variable for women.
In physiological terms, heart rate (HR) and its different manifestations—such as
maximum (HR
max
), mean (HR
mean
), and minimum (HR
min
)—are generally studied pa-
rameters for forming one of the few direct physiological indices applied during compe-
tition without altering its essence. Those studies that have analyzed HR
mean
to deter-
mine the intensity of table tennis obtained mean values of 135–163 beats
·
min
−1
[
7
] or
136–147 beats
·
min
−1
[
10
]. Moreover, HR
max
values have been reported to fall within
the ranges of 177–183 beats
·
min
−1
[
7
,
8
] or 159–173 beats
·
min
−1
[
10
]. Therefore, efforts
are made in table tennis with wide cardiac variability where submaximum-type efforts
predominate, but at a high HR (from 68% to 92% of HR
máx
) [
8
]. As an indirect method,
%HR
max
is another option to determine the percentage of cardiovascular effort made while
playing table tennis.
Maximal oxygen uptake (VO
2
) is employed in its maximal aerobic capacity expression
(VO
2max
) and its use as a percentage (%VO
2max
), and is another valid indicator to know
the effort. Kondriˇc et al. [
11
] indicate that VO
2max
is one of the most widely used physi-
ological parameters that researchers apply to determine the energy demands needed to
play table tennis. Table tennis players’ maximum physiological responses are normally
analyzed in laboratories by testing [
7
,
10
,
12
,
13
]. These studies reveal that top table tennis
players present VO
2max
values of 41–63.1 mL
·
kg
·
min
−1
[
7
], 42.8–48.2 mL
·
kg
·
min
−1
[
10
] or
40.3–45.7 mL
·
kg
·
min
−1
[
12
]. These values indicate the intervention and the importance as
a percentage of the aerobic system in this sport.
Knowledge and evaluations of the involved metabolism are another extremely im-
portant matter to know the physiological and physical demands of table tennis. Zagatto
et al. [
12
] offer information about the contribution of each metabolic profile while playing
a table tennis match. These researchers found that 96.5% of energy came from oxida-
tive metabolism, 2.5% from phosphagen metabolism (ATP-PCr), and 1.0% from glucose
metabolism. Oxidative and glucose energy demands are closely related to rally duration.
Moreover, blood lactate (LA) concentration can be taken as a suitable marker to establish
the degree at which the different energy systems involved in table tennis are demanded.
Recent research studies performed in top players indicate that the LA response in table
tennis is between 1.6 and 2.9 mmol
·
L
−1
, with averages of 1.7 mmol
·
L
−1
, and maximum
peaks of 2.1 mmol·L
−1
[7,8,14].
Most of the research works that have analyzed this sport’s structural characteristics,
and its physiological profile and energy demands, have done so only in men, and these top-
ics studied in women are practically nonexistent. Likewise, studies that have investigated
this matter have been performed with only a few players [
12
,
14
]. Gender differences in
reaction time and lateral movements have been previously observed [
15
]. We believe that
these differences may influence the temporal structure, physiology, and metabolic response
of the players. For these reasons, the objective of the present study was to evaluate the
most relevant physiological, metabolic, and temporal variables associated with individual
top table tennis players’ performance according to gender.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11898 3 of 11
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
Forty-eight top table tennis players voluntarily participated in this study: 24 men
(25.3
±
4.07 years) and 24 women (22.3
±
3.8 years). These table tennis players were
recruited from sport clubs and had to meet the following criteria: (i) be older than
18 years old; (ii) participate in the top category of the Spanish league; (iii) play in in-
ternational competitions; and (iv) not have any injuries or illness during the investigation
or at least 6 months before the study. After receiving both comprehensive verbal and writ-
ten explanations of the study, written informed consent was obtained from parents or legal
tutors. The Ethics Committee of the University of Zaragoza (ID:19/2010) reviewed and
approved the study. All athletes participated voluntarily in the research, were informed
about the aim of the study, and gave their written informed consent. A code was assigned
to each participant to collect and process data to maintain their anonymity. The specific
table tennis training volume and the complementary training volume (strength, mobility,
and flexibility) were determined.
2.2. Anthropometric Evaluation
Body mass (kg) and height (m) were collected using a scale (Seca 769, Seca, Hamburg,
Germany) and a measuring rod (Seca 220, Seca, Hamburg, Germany) with an accuracy
of
±
0.001 kg and 0.001 m under nude barefoot conditions. Body mass index (BMI) was
calculated from the body mass and stature ratio.
2.3. Laboratory Measurements
A maximum progressive test was run in the laboratory on a treadmill (Pulsar HP,
Cosmos, Nussdorf, Germany) to determine physiological parameters HR
max
and VO
2max
and the metabolic performance values of LA. This test was performed at a 1% slope starting
at a speed of 8 km
·
h
−1
and incorporating 1 km
·
h
−1
increments every min. Before testing
began, the participants warmed up on a treadmill at the speed of 7 km
·
h
−1
for 7 min.
Gases were analyzed by an Oxycon Pro analyzer (Jaegger, Germany). A pulsometer (Polar
Team System, Kempele, Finland) was used to evaluate HR
max
. The LA concentration was
evaluated when testing ended by a photoenzymatic analysis (Dr. Lange LP-20, Berlin,
Germany) after the same researcher had taken 20
µ
L capillary blood samples from ear lobes
following the guidelines of Feliu et al. [16].
2.4. Competition
Given the difficulties of analyzing acute metabolic and physiological parameters
during table tennis matches, a simulated competition (SC) was designed. The SC consisted
of organizing a table tennis match for reproducing a competition like official ones and
in accordance with International Table Tennis Federation (ITTF) rules. All matches were
played to the best of seven sets. Before each match, players did a standardized 15-min
warm-up divided into a 5-min movement and a general warm-up session and a 10-min
specific technical warm-up on the court. Total time (TT; full match time, from the beginning
to the end, considering game and rest periods), TRT (sum of the periods during which the
ball was not played), and real playing time (RPT; total time, less the TRT) were measured (s)
during each match. Apart from these variables, game density (playing/resting times) was
also analyzed. Moreover, players’ HR was continuously recorded during the competition
(Polar Team System, Kempele, Finland) as average values over 5 s.
During the SC, blood samples were taken to evaluate the LA concentration before
a match started, when each set finished and at minutes 1, 3, and 5 after matches ended.
Table tennis matches were held with environmental relative humidity and a temperature
of 48 ± 2.6% and 22 ± 0.8
◦
C, respectively.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11898 4 of 11
2.5. Temporal Structure
SCs were recorded using Sony HDR-CX300E video cameras (Sony, Tokio, Japan),
which were set up on telescopic supports (Manfrotto 007U, Cassola, Italy) on the sides
of table tennis tables at a minimum distance of 3 m and a height of 2.5 m. Matches were
recorded at a shutter speed of 1/500 s. Each video camera recorded half a table (Figure 1),
and two recordings were obtained, which included how each player played.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 11
2.5. Temporal Structure
SCs were recorded using Sony HDR-CX300E video cameras (Sony, Tokio, Japan),
which were set up on telescopic supports (Manfrotto 007U, Cassola, Italy) on the sides of
table tennis tables at a minimum distance of 3 m and a height of 2.5 m. Matches were
recorded at a shutter speed of 1/500 s. Each video camera recorded half a table (Figure 1),
and two recordings were obtained, which included how each player played.
Figure 1. Video-recording protocol.
Following these recordings, both cameras underwent a synchronization process in
the laboratory. Agreements were analyzed by an observation tool validated for table ten-
nis [17] using Match Vision Studio© , v. 3.0, which was run by a notational ad hoc system
that allowed effort times and pause times to be studied. Two observers with physical ac-
tivity and sports degrees, who were qualified expert trainers in top-level table tennis, an-
alyzed the table tennis matches. The temporal data-agreement analysis gave a Kappa In-
dex value above 0.80 for all the studied variables, which is considered to be a very high
level of agreement [18].
2.6. Statistical Analysis
Means, standard deviations (SD), and range (min–max) were described. The statisti-
cal analysis was run with Version 22 of IBM
®
SPSS
®
Statistics (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY,
USA). The Shapiro–Wilks test was used to determine the normal distribution of the vari-
ables. Homogeneity of variances was examined by the Levene test. A Student’s t-test was
performed with the unrelated samples to observe any gender differences. A two-way
analysis of variances (ANOVA) was applied to analyze any differences in the LA values
that took place during the SC (gender x time). A p-value of ≤ 0.05 was considered to be
statistically significant.
3. Results
Table 1 shows players’ maximum values obtained in maximal incremental test per-
formed in the laboratory. In the studied variables gender differences were found for all
the variables, except HRmax (p < 0.05).
Figure 1. Video-recording protocol.
Following these recordings, both cameras underwent a synchronization process in the
laboratory. Agreements were analyzed by an observation tool validated for table tennis [
17
]
using Match Vision Studio
©
, v. 3.0, which was run by a notational ad hoc system that
allowed effort times and pause times to be studied. Two observers with physical activity
and sports degrees, who were qualified expert trainers in top-level table tennis, analyzed
the table tennis matches. The temporal data-agreement analysis gave a Kappa Index
value above 0.80 for all the studied variables, which is considered to be a very high level
of agreement [18].
2.6. Statistical Analysis
Means, standard deviations (SD), and range (min–max) were described. The statistical
analysis was run with Version 22 of IBM
®
SPSS
®
Statistics (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA).
The Shapiro–Wilks test was used to determine the normal distribution of the variables.
Homogeneity of variances was examined by the Levene test. A Student’s t-test was
performed with the unrelated samples to observe any gender differences. A two-way
analysis of variances (ANOVA) was applied to analyze any differences in the LA values
that took place during the SC (gender x time). A p-value of
≤
0.05 was considered to be
statistically significant.
3. Results
Table 1 shows players’ maximum values obtained in maximal incremental test per-
formed in the laboratory. In the studied variables gender differences were found for all the
variables, except HR
max
(p < 0.05).
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11898 5 of 11
Table 1. Table tennis players’ characteristics.
Variable
Men Women
p
M ± SD Range M ± SD Range
Age (y) 25.3 ± 4.07 19–38 22.3 ± 3.8 18–31 0.007
Height (m) 1.75 ± 0.06 1.62–1.68 1.65 ± 0.06 1.52–1.75 <0.001
Weight (kg) 69.9 ± 9.2 50.8–89.6 57.6 ± 6.2 48.3–69.8 <0.001
BMI (kg·m
−2
)
22.6 ± 2.3 18.8–27.2 20.9 ± 1.6 18.3–24.4 0.006
HR
max
(beats·min
−1
)
194.6 ± 6.3 176–207 195.5 ± 4.6 184–200 0.574
VO
2max
(ml·kg·min
−1
)
53 ± 6.03 41–63 44.2 ± 5.6 32–54 <0.001
V
max
(km·h
−1
)
17.8 ± 1.4 14–20 13.8 ± 0.5 13–15 <0.001
LA
max
(mmol·L
−1
)
13 ± 2.2 9.7–18.6 11.1 ± 2.0 9–15 <0.001
Experience (y) 16.04 ± 4.1 10–30 13.2 ± 3.8 10–22 0.011
Table tennis training
volume (h/week)
17.38 ± 2.92 12–22 17.92 ± 2.69 14–22 0.894
Complementary
training (h/week)
2.79 ± 1.32 1–5 2.83 ± 1.34 1–5 0.975
BMI: body mass index; LA: lactate; V: velocity; HR: heart rate.
Table 2 show the game structure analysis results. It is highlighted in the male category
that 16.67% of the played matches included five sets, 66.17% had six sets and 16.67%
included seven sets. For the female category, 58.33% of the matches included five sets,
33.33% had six sets and 8.33% included seven sets. The temporal structure analysis
indicated that both TT and TRT were significantly longer in the male competition than
in the female one (p < 0.05). Nevertheless, women’s game density was higher (p < 0.01).
Significant gender differences appeared for both RPT and TRT for rallies (p < 0.05).
Figure 2 illustrates the rally duration frequency for both sexes, where we can see that
frequencies are higher for the rally durations between 2 and 4 s for both sexes.
Table 2. Game temporal structure analysis.
Variable
Men Women
Match
M ± SD Range M ± SD Range p
TT (s) 2256.05 ± 979.7 993.6–3507.7 1469.4 ± 544.2 783.1–2379.1 0.024
RPT (s) 395.06 ± 149.3 217.6–651.2 360.4 ± 131.4 194.08–693.6 0.553
TRT (s) 1860.9 ± 838.2 775.9–2896.4 1104.4 ± 459.1 589.1–1954.8 0.012
GD (s) 0.27 ± 0.05 0.20–0.38 0.41 ± 0.13 0.25–0.57 0.006
Rally
RPT (s) 3.6 ± 0.3 3.01–4.2 4.3 ± 1.07 3.08–6.4 0.035
TRT (s) 13.6 ± 2.7 9.1–19.3 11.2 ± 2.7 6.9–16.5 0.042
TT: total time; RPT: real playing time; TRT: total resting time; GD: game density.
Table 3 presents the results corresponding to the analysis of the physiological and
metabolic responses during the SC. All the HR-related variables were higher in the male
competition. The mean and the maximum HR cardiac responses were similar for both men
and women.
In metabolic terms, the maximum LA levels were significantly higher in the male
competition (p < 0.001), with maximum LA peaks during matches of 2.5 mmol
·
L
−1
for
male players and 1.9 mmol
·
L
−1
for female players. Significant gender differences were
observed in LA evolution throughout both the SC (Figure 3) (p < 0.001).
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11898 6 of 11
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 11
<1
1 <2
2 <3
3 <4
4 <5
5 <6
6 <7
7 <8
8 <9
9 <10
10 <11
11 <12
>12
0
100
200
300
400
500
Length of rally
seconds
Frequency
Men
Women
Figure 2. Rally duration distribution per gender.
Table 3. Physiological and metabolic analysis: cardiac and LA responses during the SC
Variable
Men
Women
M ± SD
Range
M ± SD
Range
p
HRmax (beats·min
−1
)
163.9 ± 8.7
147–177
155.4 ± 8.01
139–167
<0.001
HRmin (beats·min
−1
)
111.3 ± 12.7
92–138
104.5 ± 7.5
93–118
0.029
HRmean (beats·min
−1
)
138.7 ± 12.08
114–159
137.2 ± 6.03
127–148
0.572
HRmean (%HRmax)
71.43 ± 7.08
57.29–82.39
70.25 ± 4.15
65.15–80.43
0.485
LAbasal (mmol·L
−1
)
1.01 ± 0.15
0.75–1.30
1.00 ± 1.14
0.73–1.24
0.780
LAmax (mmol·L
−1
)
1.8 ± 0.2
1.4–2.5
1.5 ± 0.2
1.1–1.9
<0.001
HR: heart rate; LA: lactate.
Basal
Set 1
Set 2
Set 3
Set 4
Set 5
Set 6
Set 7
Recovery 1'
Recovery 3'
Recovery 5'
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
mmol.L
-1
Men
Women
Gender effects p < 0.001
Time effects p < 0.001
Gender x time p = 0.378
**
++
**
++^^
**
++^^
**
++
**
+
**
++^
**
++
**
++^^
**
++
Figure 3. LA evolution during SC in men and women; ** p < 0.01 Basal vs. other measurements; + p
< 0.05 Recovery 5′ vs. other measurements; ++ p < 0.01 Recovery 5′ vs. other measurements; ^ p < 0.05
Recovery 3′ vs. other measurements; ^^ p < 0.01 Recovery 3′ vs. other measurements.
Figure 2. Rally duration distribution per gender.
Table 3. Physiological and metabolic analysis: cardiac and LA responses during the SC.
Variable
Men Women
M ± SD Range M ± SD Range p
HR
max
(beats·min
−1
)
163.9 ± 8.7 147–177
155.4
±
8.01
139–167 <0.001
HR
min
(beats·min
−1
)
111.3 ± 12.7 92–138 104.5 ± 7.5 93–118 0.029
HR
mean
(beats·min
−1
)
138.7 ± 12.08 114–159
137.2
±
6.03
127–148 0.572
HR
mean
(%HRmax) 71.43 ± 7.08 57.29–82.39
70.25
±
4.15
65.15–80.43 0.485
LA
basal
(mmol·L
−1
)
1.01 ± 0.15 0.75–1.30 1.00 ± 1.14 0.73–1.24 0.780
LA
max
(mmol·L
−1
)
1.8 ± 0.2 1.4–2.5 1.5 ± 0.2 1.1–1.9 <0.001
HR: heart rate; LA: lactate.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 11
<1
1 <2
2 <3
3 <4
4 <5
5 <6
6 <7
7 <8
8 <9
9 <10
10 <11
11 <12
>12
0
100
200
300
400
500
Length of rally
seconds
Frequency
Men
Women
Figure 2. Rally duration distribution per gender.
Table 3. Physiological and metabolic analysis: cardiac and LA responses during the SC
Variable
Men
Women
M ± SD
Range
M ± SD
Range
p
HRmax (beats·min
−1
)
163.9 ± 8.7
147–177
155.4 ± 8.01
139–167
<0.001
HRmin (beats·min
−1
)
111.3 ± 12.7
92–138
104.5 ± 7.5
93–118
0.029
HRmean (beats·min
−1
)
138.7 ± 12.08
114–159
137.2 ± 6.03
127–148
0.572
HRmean (%HRmax)
71.43 ± 7.08
57.29–82.39
70.25 ± 4.15
65.15–80.43
0.485
LAbasal (mmol·L
−1
)
1.01 ± 0.15
0.75–1.30
1.00 ± 1.14
0.73–1.24
0.780
LAmax (mmol·L
−1
)
1.8 ± 0.2
1.4–2.5
1.5 ± 0.2
1.1–1.9
<0.001
HR: heart rate; LA: lactate.
Basal
Set 1
Set 2
Set 3
Set 4
Set 5
Set 6
Set 7
Recovery 1'
Recovery 3'
Recovery 5'
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
mmol.L
-1
Men
Women
Gender effects p < 0.001
Time effects p < 0.001
Gender x time p = 0.378
**
++
**
++^^
**
++^^
**
++
**
+
**
++^
**
++
**
++^^
**
++
Figure 3. LA evolution during SC in men and women; ** p < 0.01 Basal vs. other measurements; + p
< 0.05 Recovery 5′ vs. other measurements; ++ p < 0.01 Recovery 5′ vs. other measurements; ^ p < 0.05
Recovery 3′ vs. other measurements; ^^ p < 0.01 Recovery 3′ vs. other measurements.
Figure 3.
LA evolution during SC in men and women; ** p < 0.01 Basal vs. other measurements; + p < 0.05
Recovery 5
0
vs. other measurements; ++ p < 0.01 Recovery 5
0
vs. other measurements; ˆ p < 0.05 Recovery
3
0
vs. other measurements; ˆˆ p < 0.01 Recovery 3
0
vs. other measurements.
4. Discussion
This study aimed to evaluate the physiological, metabolic, and temporal variables
associated with sport performance in individual top tennis table players according to
gender. As far as we know, this is one of the first research works to systematically analyze
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11898 7 of 11
the impact of modern table tennis on female players. Due to the differences in age and
experience between the two groups (Table 1), we decided to conduct an additional statistical
analysis to check the influence of these variables on the results. However, after conducting
the analysis, these variables did not significantly affect the results.
In order to accurately know the physiological and metabolic demands that playing
table tennis involves, it is necessary to previously know its game dynamics. Therefore,
describing game parameters like temporal structure is very interesting and a determin-
ing factor to know both the impact of playing table tennis and any possible existing
gender differences.
Research that has studied TPT in regional, national, and Olympic competitions reports
how masculine competition times last between 8 and 38 min, and last from 9 to 41 min for
women [
5
–
8
]. Authors like Kasai et al. [
19
] reported that Japanese men’s TPT is around
30 min, which can even last up to 45 min with top world players [
3
]. The results obtained
in the present study are in agree with the reviewed studies that respectively place feminine
competition and male competition in approximately 24 min and 37 min.
Thus, the temporal rally duration range is large. These variations in the temporal
structure of matches can be due to the different parameters that impact the temporal
variable, such as a (local, regional, national, or international) competition’s level of demand,
competition category (played to the best of five or seven games), the competition phase
players are in (preliminary rounds, rounds of 16, quarterfinals, semifinals, final), the studied
players’ level (amateurs, university students, professionals), and even the more or less
defensive game type that predominates in competitions [3,8,13].
Another important variable to analyze the temporal structure, and one that allows the
physical demand related to the efforts made when playing table tennis to be quantified,
is rally duration. Katsikadelis et al. [
6
] found that the playing times per game in the 2004
Athens Olympic Games were 4.18
±
0.75 s for men and 5.04
±
0.81 s for women. Similar
results were obtained for the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, where rally durations were
5.0–7.3 s in the female competition and 4.5–5.3 s in the male competition [
20
]. The special-
ized literature indicates some results showing longer rally duration in female competition,
as the present work does, but the results are lower rally duration was 4.03
±
1.0 s for
women and 3.6
±
0.3 s for men [
7
,
21
]. These differences can be explained by the studied
players’ high level, the style played given a higher diversity of mixed and defensive games,
and also by the studied competition type, namely Olympic and World table tennis matches,
considered to be the best ones internationally and the competitions in which the world’s
top players participate.
After analyzing the data obtained in the games, the temporal records obtained in the
present study indicate a higher effort density in individual women’s matches (0.41
±
0.1)
than for men (0.27
±
0.05). The results analyzed in this research fall in line with those
described for male table tennis [
3
,
8
,
12
]. Nevertheless, it is worth highlighting once more
that game density can also be affected by players’ game level, game style, and the competi-
tion level/phase, which are extremely variable densities ranging from 0.12 to 0.5 [
9
]. No
research works describing the game densities of female table tennis are available.
When comparing the temporal structure of table tennis to other racket or bat sports,
game times are longer in badminton with values of 6.8 s in male competition and 4.3 s in
female competition [
22
]. In tennis, points duration are longer than in table tennis, with
game times of 5.2 s for men and 7.1 s for women [
23
]. Finally in padel, duration is also
longer than table tennis with game effort values between 9.3–11.7 s in men and 9.6–13.03 s
in women [7,24].
The table tennis game density encountered in this research is lower than that found
for other racket and bat sports like tennis [
25
] or badminton, where values of 0.53–0.57
have been described for male competition and 0.47 for female competition [26,27].
Obtaining data in table tennis from a physiological point of view without influencing
competitions is complicated. In the scientific literature, the most widely analyzed physio-
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11898 8 of 11
logical and metabolic parameters in this group tend to be ventilation-type parameters like
VO
2max
[6,19,28], cardiac response [8,12,13,19], and blood LA concentration [10,14,28].
VO
2max
is considered an ideal marker for knowing a player’s physical aerobic con-
dition [
11
]. Some studies performed with top Asian and European players have revealed
VO
2max
levels of 43.9–67.9 mL
·
kg
·
min
−1
in incremental strength testing [
13
,
29
–
31
], which
are similar to those reported. These values correspond to male players and the specialized
literature does not cite any reference values for women. This study obtained VO
2max
values
of 32.6–54.3 mL·kg·min
−1
for women.
Cardiac response is another relevant and widely investigated parameter in table ten-
nis [
8
,
11
,
13
]. The analysis of this variable is very interesting to understand the physiological
demand in the physical demand terms that players are subjected to while playing. The
values recorded for the players in the present study are similar to those described by
other research works [
19
,
32
], and no reference data were found for female table tennis
players. Analyzing cardiac response is important for performance because positive re-
lations between players’ levels and response to HR during recovery periods have been
reported [30,32].
Research conducted into official competitions and SCs place HR
max
within the
160–180 beats
·
min
−1
range for male players [
19
,
32
]. These results agree with this maxi-
mum record obtained from male competition, with a maximum peak of 177 beats
·
min
−1
.
No such reference data were found in the specialized literature for female table tennis
players. This study observed that the maximum cardiac response in female competition
was 139–167 beats
·
min
−1
, with average records of 155.4
±
8 beats
·
min
−1
, and a maximum
cardiac response lower than that obtained for male players.
However, HR
max
could be different [
30
] depending on the game style played by both
gender (offensive, mixed, defensive), and also on the technical-tactical game played [
13
,
19
].
Moreover, using certain individual sport materials (wood and rubber coatings) and specific
competition situations, such as scores on scoreboards or a decisive point of the played
game [
33
], are psycho-physiological variables that can affect high cardiac reactivity and
may substantially impact HR and VO
2
[34].
Analyzing HR
mean
is another cardiac variable used to know the intensity. Many re-
search works conducted before the ITTF made changes to regulations centered on describ-
ing the HR
mean
of a match, which they reported as falling within the 137–176 beats
·
min
−1
interval in male competitions [
13
,
19
,
29
]. Once again, no reference data about female com-
petition were found in the literature. The present research obtained average cardiac records
of 138.8
±
12.1 beats
·
min
−1
for men and 137.2
±
6.03 beats
·
min
−1
for women, which are
slightly lower than those in the previously described research works. The differences found
in today’s table tennis can, once more, be due to the changes made to sport materials and
ball size, which today have a bigger diameter. All this slows down today’s tennis table
playing [
35
–
37
], which could directly influence HR
mean
, as could some other changes made
by the ITTF.
Another cardiac parameter applied to evaluate individual efforts while playing com-
petitions is %HR
max
. Allen [
29
] and Yuza et al. [
13
] respectively conducted studies with the
former regulations on top Australian and Japanese players. They indicated that %HR
max
in
a top-level match was 71–86% of HR
max
. Likewise in matches played in line with current
regulations by top-level players with international experience, Suchomel [
30
] and Zagatto
et al. [
8
] reported HR
max
values that fell within a maximum range that was slightly nar-
rower than those previously described, with %HR
max
between 78% and 81.2%. Once more,
no data for female competitions were found. The present research results indicate lower
strength values than those described for male competition, with approximately 71% of
HR
max
for men and 70% of HR
max
for women.
Finally, blood LA concentration can be used as a suitable marker to determine the
degree of metabolic demand. LA is the final product of aerobic glycolysis that depends
on the intensity and duration of effort [
8
]. In metabolic terms, research conducted on top
players indicates that lactic response in table tennis is between 1.6 and 2.9 mmol
·
L
−1
, with
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11898 9 of 11
averages of 1.7 mmol
·
L
−1
and maximum peaks of 2.1 mmol
·
L
−1
[
7
,
8
,
14
]. These results fall
within the ranges shown in the present work, where male players achieved an average
of 1.8 mmol
·
L
−1
and maximum peaks of 2.5 mmol
·
L
−1
. No publications were found that
describe the metabolic impact of playing table tennis on female players. Nonetheless,
the values obtained in female competition in the present study were lower than those
found for male competition, with average LA values of 1.5 mmol
·
L
−1
and maximums of
1.9 mmol
·
L
−1
. This demonstrates acceptable differences between the games played by men
and women.
This sport involves short rally durations and lots of pauses, which could influence LA
concentration. Low LA production could result from the ATP-PCr system (the phosphagens
system) predominating during effort periods because, as previously mentioned, the rally
duration in both genders did not exceed an average of 4.5 s, and also due to oxidative
metabolism predominating in rest/pause times. According to our results and the literature,
it can be confirmed that anaerobic glycolysis is rarely required to obtain energy while
playing table tennis [8].
The analysis of the obtained data showed differences in maximum LA concentrations
men and women. These differences could be due to the difference in each gender’s muscle
mass [
38
]. Moreover, it is known that women tend to obtain lower respiratory coefficient
values, high fat oxidation rates, and lower blood LA values [39,40].
LA values recorded during matches be interpreted with caution because LA samples
are taken after playing different sets. This could entail clearance as a result of game pauses
and the time between ending games and taking samples. Another factor to contemplate is
the game style played, because it seems to strongly influence metabolic response. Indeed,
average LA values of 4.7 mmol
·
L
−1
with maximum peaks of 6.1 mmol
·
L
−1
have been
reported during matches played with an offensive player against a defensive one [41].
The present research is not without its limitations: (i) VO
2max
was not evaluated
during the SC or by any specific test; (ii) players’ game style (defensive, mixed, offensive)
was not taken into account; (iii) no possible existing relation was analyzed between the
employed sport materials (wood/rubber coatings), which determine the played game style,
and the player’s distance from the table (close, medium, far), which is a very important
factor in table tennis given its high technical-tactical demands; (iv) the difficulty of taking
LA samples during each game because it is practically impossible, so values can fluctuate
depending on the game’s dynamics and playing action before taking samples.
5. Conclusions
The data obtained reveal gender differences for the physiological, metabolic, structural,
and temporal variables in table tennis players.
Male players’ TT and TRT are longer than they are for female players. The RPT for
rallies was shorter for male players and TRT was shorter for female players.
Regarding the physiological variables, male players obtained higher HR
max
and HR
min
values during matches than female players. The maximum LA values during matches were
higher in male players.
The variables studied in this research allowed us to better understand the temporal
structure and physiological demands needed to thoroughly plan and organize training
according to gender.
Author Contributions:
Conceptualization, F.P. and C.C.; Methodology, F.P., C.C. and A.d.l.T.;
Formal analysis, V.T.-R. and F.P.; Writing—original draft preparation, F.P., V.T.-R. and A.d.l.T.;
Writing—review and editing, V.T.-R., F.P. and C.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding:
This publication was financed by research contract 2010/0430 “Evaluation, analysis and
control of physical sport performance of the Spanish National Table Tennis Team” and with funds
from the Consejo Superior de Deportes to Research Project 10/UPB10/10 “TEMENOT. Studying the
sport performance of top table tennis players by computerized notational analysis”. This study has
been funded by the ENFYRED research group of the Government of Aragón.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11898 10 of 11
Institutional Review Board Statement:
The study was conducted according to the guidelines of
the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Institutional Ethics Committee of Zaragoza (ID:
19/2010).
Informed Consent Statement:
Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Data Availability Statement:
The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to privacy.
Acknowledgments:
We thank the players who participated in the study and coaches for their
collaboration. We also thank the Royal Spanish Table Tennis Federation and the research group
Training, Physical Activity, and Sports Performance (ENFYRED) of the University of Zaragoza for
their active collaboration in this study.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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