125
As stated in the Introduction, this section is broken down into two broader
subsections: (1) pleading a conspiracy after Twombly based on direct evidence; and (2)
pleading a conspiracy after Twombly based on circumstantial evidence. The difference is
critical. Indeed, the Court began its analysis in Twombly by drawing this very distinction:
“the complaint leaves no doubt that the plaintiffs rest their § 1 claim on descriptions of
parallel conduct and not on any independent allegation of actual agreement.”
47
In this section,
we first address what the standard is for the fortunate plaintiff who is able to plead a
conspiracy based on an “independent allegation of actual agreement.” We then survey
the circuit courts of appeal to discuss what a plaintiff in each circuit must allege to render
a claim based on circumstantial evidence “plausible” under Twombly. As will be explored
in depth, this varies—sometimes significantly—by circuit.
A. Direct Evidence
At the outset, “direct evidence” must be defined: “Direct evidence in a Section 1
conspiracy must be evidence that is explicit and requires no inferences to establish the
proposition or conclusion being asserted.”
48
Stated differently, direct evidence must “show
an explicit understanding between the [alleged conspirators] to collude.”
49
Some courts
have gone so far as to say that if there is any ambiguity in the evidence, the evidence is not
“direct”; rather, true direct evidence is “‘tantamount to an acknowledgment of guilt.’”
50
Perhaps most simply put, direct evidence is essentially a “smoking gun.”
51
Examples of
such evidence may come in the form of documents, meetings, and participant testimony.
52
Given this narrow definition and the sophistication of modern businesses, it is not
controversial to state that true direct evidence is a rarity.
53
Given the paucity of cases turning on direct evidence of conspiracy, there has not
been much occasion for courts to consider the pleading standard for such cases under
Twombly. Nevertheless, a few courts have opined on the issue. The Third Circuit led
the pack, holding that “[i]f a complaint includes non-conclusory allegations of direct
evidence of an agreement, a court need go no further on the question whether an
agreement has been adequately pled.”
54
But it is not enough to merely plead that the
47 550 U.S. at 564 (emphasis added).
48 In re Baby Food Antitrust Litig., 166 F.3d 112, 118 (3d Cir. 1999).
49 Golden Bridge Tech., Inc. v. Motorola Inc., 547 F.3d 266, 272 (5th Cir. 2008).
50 Hyland v. HomeServices of Am., Inc., 771 F.3d 310, 318 (6th Cir. 2014) (quoting In re High Fructose
Corn Syrup Antitrust Litig., 295 F.3d 651, 662 (7th Cir. 2002) (Posner, J.)).
51 Todd, 275 F.3d at 198.
52 6 Phillip E. Areeda & Herbert Hovenkamp, Antitrust Law ¶ 1410a, at 69 (3d ed. 2010); see also In re Ins. Brokerage
Antitrust Litig., 618 F.3d 300 n.23 (3d Cir. 2010) (providing as an example of direct evidence of agreement “a
document or conversation explicitly manifesting the existence of the agreement in question”).
53 In re Coordinated Pretrial Proceedings in Petroleum Prods. Antitrust Litig., 906 F.2d 432, 439 (9th Cir.
1990) (noting that “direct evidence will rarely be available”); Milgram v. Loew’s, Inc., 192 F.2d 579,
583 (3d Cir. 1951) (“[I]t is rare indeed for a conspiracy to be proved by direct evidence.”); Battle v.
Lubrizol Corp., 673 F.2d 984, 992 (8th Cir. 1982) (“However, we think that it is most unlikely that
antitrust plaintis, like any other plaintis alleging conspiracy, will have direct evidence.”).
54 W. Penn. Allegheny Health Sys., Inc. v. UPMC, 627 F.3d 85, 99-100 (3d Cir. 2010); accord In re Ins.
Brokerage Antitrust Litig., 618 F.3d at 323-24 (“Allegations of direct evidence of an agreement, if
suciently detailed, are independently adequate.”).