The Effects of Knowledge-Transforming Text on Elementary

International Journal of Instruction January 2020 ● Vol.13, No.1

e-ISSN: 1308-1470 ● www.e-iji.net p-ISSN: 1694-609X

pp. 567-586

Citation: Wuryaningrum, R., Bektiarso, S., & Suyitno, I. (2020). The Effects of Knowledge-

Transforming Text on Elementary Students’ Declarative, Procedural Knowledge, and Motivation in

Environmental Learning. International Journal of Instruction, 13(1), 567-586.

https://doi.org/10.29333/iji.2020.13137a

Received: 24/03/2019

Revision: 28/08/2019

Accepted: 02/09/2019

OnlineFirst:19/11/2019

The Effects of Knowledge-Transforming Text on Elementary Students’

Declarative, Procedural Knowledge, and Motivation in Environmental

Learning

Rusdhianti Wuryaningrum

Universitas Jember, Indonesia, rusdhiyan[email protected]

Singgih Bektiarso

Universitas Jember, Indonesia, singgih[email protected].id

Imam Suyitno

Universitas Negeri Malang, Indonesia, imam.suyitno[email protected]

In environmental learning, declarative and procedural knowledge is needed to to

improve understanding of concepts and problem solving. The text used in KTT

contains descriptions and arguments to understand declarative and procedural

knowledge. This study aimed to investigate the effect of applying knowledge-

transforming text (KTT) on declarative, procedural knowledge, and students'

presentation skill as well as their motivation towards learning with KTT applied in

environmental education material. The study applied control group design. Prior to

treatment, homogeneity tests were carried out with one way ANOVA test.

Furthermore, in the experimental class instructional strategy armed with KTT was

in place, the result of which was then analyzed by several quantitative analyses.

These analyses included (1) normality test with a non-parametric one-sample

Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test; (2) Mann-Whitney U test non-parametric statistic to

compares the means between unrelated groups on some continous, and (3)

significance tests. The results showed that KTT posed significant effect on

declarative and procedural knowledge yet it insignificantly affected student

presentation skills. The significant effects of KTT learning on declarative and

procedural knowledge was supported by content space, rhetorical space, and

corrective elements in KTT. Quantitaive descriptive analysis was carried out by

interpreting the percentage of student motivation as investigated by questionnaires

on KTT learning. Students were relatively motivated towards KTT and hoped to

learn to use KTT.

Keywords: knowledge-transforming text, declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge,

environment education, motivation, elementary students

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INTRODUCTION

In the 2013 curriculum, students in Indonesia encounter various texts and tasks to

understand the textual materials. In that case, language is functionally seen as a tool for

understanding other subjects (Kemendikbud, 2013; Suwandi 2013). In this context, text-

based learning is applied. Through text, students obtain declarative and procedural

knowledge. Therefore, what needs to be provided is learning material appropriate for

learning. Kul, Çelik, & Aksu (2018) state that students need appropriate learning

material to help them construct knowledge and initiate active thinking. Therefore, text as

a learning material has to support knowledge building and knowledge creation (Bereiter

& Scardamalia, 2014). Text needs to completely convey a concept in the apt rhetoric

and to be supported by context and made easily understood and interpreted. In this

regard, text needs to be precisely produced through knowledge-transforming. In this

study, the text is called knowledge-transforming text (KTT).

Bereiter & Scardamalia (1987), as quoted by Renkema (2004: 221), describe two types

of text production, namely knowledge-telling and knowledge-transforming. In

knowledge-telling, the text only presents information and does not involve a variety of

interesting references. In addition, it does not make any connections between sets of

information to highlight important points. Instead of knowledge- transforming, the text

is formed with various references and is presented by making connections between sets

of information to compose interesting piece of writing.

Learning process directs students to obtain declarative knowledge through knowing or

understanding, while procedural knowledge aims to enable students to carry out a series

of actions. Declarative knowledge is the knowledge that we are aware of and can

express certain intended meaning clearly (Baumard, 1999). Procedural knowledge

means real knowledge (Sahdra & Thagard, 2003). Jiamu (2001) posits that procedural

knowledge involves basic skills and domain specific strategies; declarative knowledge

and conceptual understanding of a domain. Good learning material must encourage the

acquisition of both types of knowledge. Students not only understand the concept of

knowledge but also explain the knowledge in procedural steps, while the rest can be

practiced through demonstrations.

In the material of Pendidikan Lingkungan Hidup (PLH) or Educational Environment

(EE), students in Indonesia are faced with numerous texts grounded within the 2013

curriculum. The material descriptions in textbook text are described in the following

picture.

Figure 1

Material Flow per Chapter in EE Text Book in Indonesia

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The chart shows that students need to take declarative and procedural tests. Efforts to

provide text are needed, particularly those which can accommodate students' needs

through meaningful learning to understand the declarative and procedural knowledge. In

addition, the characteristics of EE in Indonesia are scaffolding students’ ability to

convey ideas about their environment and grow the motivation to care about the

environment.

The provision of text in transforming knowledge fashion is done by providing texts

which comply with Bereiter and Scardamalia’s (1987) opinions, particularly concerned

with the use of such techniques as highlighting key points, restructuring various sections,

drawing connections between different parts of the material, and using various contexts

to support meaningful knowledge. The texts are given in specific main topic derived

from sub-chapters 1 and 2. The texts used in the learning activities have been relatively

knowledge-telling. Hereunder are the differences between the two types of tests.

Table 1

Texts Oriented to Knowledge-Telling Text and Knowledge-Transforming Text

Knowledge-Telling

Knowledge-Transforming

Family medicinal plants are functional

plants. The plants can be consumed as a

medicine, such as ginger, turmeric, betel

nut, and so on. Some examples of family

medicinal plants are turmeric, ginger,

betel nut, red galangal, and so on. These

plants can be used as traditional

medicine. For example, turmeric is used

to cure heartburn and stomachache;

ginger is consumed for curing cough; and

betel is used to treat wounds. Guava

leaves can also be used to cure diarrhea.

Family medicinal plants are very

beneficial for our health. You can plant

them in your house. If you have

medicinal plants at home, you can use

them at any time if a family member is

sick. These traditional medicines can also

be found in traditional markets and super

markets.

Indonesia is famous for herbal medicines. Our

ancestors used herbal medicine for medication.

Herbs are produced from natural herbal

ingredients such as ginger, turmeric, reeds,

betel nut, white turmeric, and so on. You can

also use these plants as medicine. For example,

to make your stomach comfortable and reduce

heat or to obtain antibiotic you can take 2

turmeric as big as an adult's thumb, peel them,

and mash them then boil them with two glasses

of water. Boil them until 1 cup of water is left

and add honey and lime. Turmeric herbs can be

consumed as medicine. It’s so easy, isn't it?

That is medicinal plants. These medicinal

plants can be found at common Indonesian

houses. Therefore, it is also called family

medicinal plants. Is there any in your house?

If not, let's start planting the medicinal plants at

your home by planting the seeds as seeds.

Shoots will grow after 1 to 2 weeks. Be sure to

water them so that they continue to flourish.

The text knowledge-telling is produced by definition, function, example, and expansion.

Thus, the text contains knowledge and efforts to convey it with information to the reader

or conative function.

In transforming-knowledge texts, texts are produced with context-examples-elaboration-

procedure exposure 1-definition-persuasion- procedure exposure 2. The text is presented

with conative-structural-rhetorical-persuasion facts. There is declarative and procedural

knowledge presented in knowledge-transforming text.

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The purpose of text learning in EE is basically knowledge, attitude, and skills that are

realized declaratively in understanding definitions, concepts, meaning of terms, and

description of facts. In addition, procedurally speaking, students have to be able to

explain how to solve problems in logical and appropriate stages, make products, and

explain how to create the products. From the attitudinal aspect, teacher motivates

students to think and act in accordance with the declarative and procedural knowledge

they obtain, for example no littering, planting and caring for trees, and actively

maintaining cleanliness and environmental sustainability such as holding school

cleaning activities, releasing hatchlings at the beach, and planting trees around the house

and school. The two types of knowledge being referred are declarative and procedural

knowledge. The following is the differences and commonalities between the two.

Table 2

The Construction of Procedural and Declarative Knowledge (Developed from

Marzano’s model, 2012)

Declarative

Procedural

The learner knows or understands a concept

The learner is able to actualize a concept

Information 1: Explaining a definition, the

meaning of a term

Explaining a procedure through a series of steps.

Information 2: facts, concepts, and

generalizations—within content

knowledge

The case deals with even complex processes like

writing, reading a bar graph, and setting up an

experiment. Although the sequence is not always

linear, there are steps which need to be performed

in the skills and processes

This research provides an overview of the impact of interdisciplinary learning. The KTT

as part of a text-based learning method, on language learning, has an impact on

environmental learning. The novelty of this research is concerned with the effect of

learning material produced in knowledge-transforming manner towards students'

declarative and procedural knowledge, as well as their ability to present their ideas.

During this time, the text as learning material produced by knowledge-telling.

Information is conveyed without considering rhetorical space, but employing

storytelling strategies.

This study looked at the effects of applying knowledge-transforming text (KTT) in EE

learning, which is expected to answer four quantitative questions and one quantitative

descriptive question.

The quantitative questions are related to the following hypotheses.

1- Does KTT learning pose a significant effect on students’ declarative knowledge?

H0: Learning with KTT does not pose a significant effect on students’ declarative

knowledge.

H1: Learning with KTT poses a significant effect on students’ declarative knowledge

2- Does KTT learning pose a significant effect on students’ procedural knowledge?

H0: Learning with KTT does not pose a significant effect on students’ procedural

knowledge.

H1: KTT learning pose a significant effect on students’ procedural knowledge

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3- Does KTT learning pose a significant effect on students’ presentation skills?

H0: KTT learning does not pose a significant effect on students’ presentation skills.

H1: KTT learning pose a significant effect on students’ presentation skills.

4- Quantitaive descriptive question is related to student motivation.

How is students’ motivation when engaged in KTT learning?

This study includes the provision of learning material devoted to EE, which is

considered appropriate to improve students' declarative and procedural knowledge. The

learning material is a supplementary text in the form of basic material texts arranged in a

knowledge-transforming fashion or knowledge-transforming text. Then, the provision of

learning material in the form of a KTT is investigated for its effects by delving into

variables related to (1) declarative knowledge, (2) procedural knowledge, (3)

presentation skills, and (4) student motivation towards learning with KTT.

Theoretical Background

Dehler (1996) mentions knowledge-transforming as an approach associated with the

opinion of Bereiter and Scardamalia (1987) which is concerned with intentional learning

as "the specific goal of developing independence" aimed at achieving several goals

throughout a learner’s learning trajectory. Through transforming knowledge, students

intentionally and independently learn to construct the meaning of what is learned.

Functionally speaking, as Vygotsky (1962) stated, language is an intellectual tool. In

addition, Çetin & Demiral (2012) also state that language is an important tool for

medium of self-expression and understanding everything in life. Learning material is

closely related to how language is used and activated to serve as a tool for understanding

knowledge. Teaching materials as teacher's speech is a component of language use

which has a big influence on learning outcomes. Rymes (2008:367) states that learning

is an interactive process that makes students not only learn new material, but also learn

new ways of speaking and participating. This opinion shows that students learn to

communicate and interact through language in classroom including how language is

used in text as learning material.

Galbraith (2009) in his research shows that knowledge-telling is a process involving

retrieving already-formed "ideas" from an explicit store of knowledge in long-term

memory and presumably translating these directly into text. By contrast, knowledge-

transforming is the process of goal-directed evaluation and manipulation of ideas or

translating them into text. With regard to writing skills, Galbraith (2009) states that the

knowledge-transforming model of higher-level reflective thinking is involved in writing.

Texts produced by knowledge transformation play a role in helping the students’

thinking process to see a concept as a whole and serving as the procedure to perform

complete logical steps. This is directly related to descriptive and procedural abilities.

Bereiter & Scardamalia (1987) show the process of writing model based on the level of

expertise and knowledge of the author. This is where knowledge-telling directly conveys

information, but does not show complex problem solving activities. By contrast, the

transforming knowledge model is done by presenting a context to solve problems

germane to various phenomena which require continuous content generation and

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planning. Sevgi (2016) states that the model is in line with the 'content generation

process' which is built on Strauss and Corbin's definition of the term 'process' and is

described as the idea used in written text. The term ‘process’ refers to idea used in

written text. The planning process that takes place in the rhetorical space refers to the

organization and management of these aspects reflected in the text.

Figure 2

Bereiter & Scardamalia Knowledge-Transforming Model

The procedure for writing in knowledge-transforming seeks to pay attention to the

conative element by realizing what is in the writer’s mind towards what will be written

by paying attention to the content and rhetorical strategy. Based on the model,

knowledge-transforming text in learning will meet the needs of students to (1)

understand concepts through points in the text, (2) perform analysis and synthesis of

contextual examples, and (3) understand ways and procedures to solve problems in

logical work order.

Bereiter & Scardamalia (2014) explain that there are formidable barriers to instituting

knowledge building in education. Some of these are the barriers any intellectually

serious approach faces: excessive amounts of material to cover, excessive emphasis on

test scores, and so on. On the other hand, there are obstacles driven by the lack of

motivation and focusing on efforts to improve students’ skills. Therefore, innovation is

needed on producing novel materials, alternative tests, and efforts to increase

motivation.

The two types of knowledge that underlie knowledge building are declarative and

procedural knowledge. The concept of Berge & Hezewijk (1999) shows the relationship

between declarative and procedural knowledge. They say that declarative knowledge is

not an alternative knowledge, as is usually the case in memory theory, but rather serves

as part of procedural knowledge. Declarative knowledge is related to psychological

(cognitive) aspects as the basis of procedural knowledge. Thus, from this opinion it can

be said that this knowledge cannot be separated. To understand procedural needs

declarative and vice versa. It can be said that in some cases procedural memory is

relatively autonomous, compared to declarative memory. Thus, both are very important

aspects of knowledge building, as pointed out by Bereiter and Scardamalia (2014).

Declarative knowledge is suggestive or real knowledge, while procedural knowledge is

real knowledge that can be seen from working on a series of steps and understanding of

CONTENT

SPACE

What do I mean

Convert item of content to

rhetorical subgoal

Convert to rhetorical

problem to content subgoal

RHETORICAL

SPACE

What do I say

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taking action (Sahdra & Thagard, 2003). Decalarative and procedural knowledge are

complementary in nature. Anderson (1993) states that knowledge starts from

declarative, conscious, and control actions. This control paves the way for procedural

processes. Declarative knowledge is the basis of knowledge transfer, procedural

knowledge plays a significant role in structuring concepts and explaining declarative

knowledge (Lawson, et al, 2000). Learning needs to accommodate these two types of

knowledge, including text as material learning in text-based learning. Text serves as the

main source of information that can be re-read by students and is a reflection of students'

knowledge.

Related Studies

Bank & Millward (2007) see the relationship between organizational knowledge on

teams and teams’ performance through differentiating between declarative and

procedural knowledge. The results show the effects of procedural knowledge on team

performance. Accurate procedural knowledge is positively associated with team

performance, and shared procedural knowledge is negatively associated with team

performance. This finding is interesting in the context of broader questions pertinent to

the organization of knowledge in group work. Thus, to improve group work, accurate

procedural knowledge is needed. Simply put, group work without shared procedural

knowledge actually has better knowledge performance. This research applies Shared

Mental Models (SMMs) to increase declarative knowledge that supports group process

and performance. This is in line with Utami, Sa'dijah, Subanji, & Irawati (2018) who

show that the mental model can portray students' thinking process. SMMs in Blank and

Millward's (2007) research are used to show declarative and procedural ways of

thinking to differentiate team performance in terms of ways of thinking and interacting.

Research on declarative and procedural knowledge shows the relationship between

success and knowledge. Yilmaz & Yalçin (2012) apply the Qualitative Measurement

Tool (QMT) obtained from several books and developed by previous researchers. The

study looked at understanding Newton's lows of motion in first-year Science students.

The results show that students' success rates are higher in procedural-knowledge

questions than declarative-knowledge questions, but they are more successful in

declarative questioning procedures. In other words, students fail to reflect their higher

procedural knowledge for their level of success in declarative knowledge. Since their

success rate is higher than their knowledge, it implies that their level of success does not

represent their level of knowledge. The study shows that knowledge of procedural action

is easier to master than the conceptual knowledge, but is related to the success of

procedures to understand the concept.

In general, efforts to increase declarative and procedural knowledge relate to education

in all fields, comprising of medicine, language, business, science, environmentalism, and

so on. One of them is the study of Abu-Zaed & Khan (2013) who report an increase in

declarative and procedural knowledge through the provision of multiple-choice

questions (MCQs). The results of these studies demonstrate that declarative and

procedural MCQs can help organize learning process. Declarative learning is the way to

promote deep learning. MCQs can integrate scientifically correct (declarative) and

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scientifically-sound (procedural) knowledge in science. This study shows that efforts to

stimulate student interaction declaratively and procedurally can be done by giving

questions characterized by the declarative and procedural dimensions. Both are

important parts of deep learning.

Ashley, Schaap, & Brujin (2016) report the results of their research through analysis of

dialogic interaction and students' writing assignments, descriptive research, and insights

on how knowledge-transforming writing contributes to a conceptual understanding of a

course for international business students. Pre-, mid- and post-tests revealing conceptual

understanding indicate that stimulating knowledge-transforming dialogic writing through

class interaction and writing assignments is positively related to the development of

students' conceptual understanding. Results suggest that meaning construction, active

engagement and knowledge integration are key effects. Educators need to stimulate the

self-regulatory processes needed for knowledge-transforming. The results of these

studies demonstrate that knowledge-transforming can improve conceptual

understanding. The action that needs to be done to optimize the understanding is the

management of individual student involvement. The concept in this case is declarative

knowledge which can support procedural knowledge.

The characteristics of declarative and procedural knowledge research, based on several

studies, include (1) the efforts to increase both knowledge through action (2) the

attempts to show the effect and influence of learning on both types of knowledge that

broadly shows the level of knowledge in detail, (3) the application of both types of

knowledge and the implementation of an approach to increase students’ performance. It

is necessary to carry out a research on the effect of a learning approach or model on

both types of knowledge and further see the resultant effects in detail from both

quantitative and qualitative perspectives.

KTT is a process of building knowledge through reading comprehension in which

students interact to form knowledge extracted from reading material. In the reading

example about "Oxygen Charity" for example, students form descriptive knowledge

through understanding what oxygen is, what processes produce oxygen, the

environmental conditions with less oxygen, why humans need oxygen, and the need for

oxygen charity. The understanding of material is embedded within a dialectic enterprise

between content and rhetorical spaces. This is the hallmark of KTT in establishing

declarative knowledge. What needs to be considered in reading material is

understanding on surface structure and deep structure. Harvey & Anderson (1996)

explain that in declarative knowledge there are two elements of knowledge, namely

episodic knowledge containing knowledge of context related to where, when, who and

so on; semantic knowledge which contains facts and meanings of words. Thus, it can be

assumed that understanding concepts in the text will increase declarative knowledge.

Procedural knowledge is knowledge in understanding working procedures, steps, and

how to solve problems according to these steps. The opinion of Berge &Hazewijk

(1999) needs to be underlined, especially the differences between declarative and

procedural knowledge. These differences set knowing what apart from knowing how.

Declarative knowledge is considered as an alternative kind of knowledge, as is the case

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International Journal of Instruction, January 2020 ● Vol.13, No.1

in theories of memory, but as part of procedural knowledge. This shows that procedural

knowledge is strongly supported by declarative knowledge. Similarly, Marzano (2012)

points out that we cannot presume that procedural knowledge is more important than

declarative knowledge. Declarative knowledge will lead students to take measures to

solve problems using their declarative knowledge.

METHOD

The Design of the Study

This study employed a of quantitative methods. Quantitative research was applied with

control group design in two classes divided into control class and experimental class.

The research population included three classes (clusters), and the number of students in

each class was 32 students in class A, 32 students in class B, and 33 students in class C.

The three classes were tested for homogeneity based on formative values (regular

achievement tests) with one way ANOVA test. Furthermore, in the experimental class

knowledge-transforming learning was applied, while in the control class the usual

learning methodology was applied, namely knowledge-telling text. After 9 learning

sessions had been conducted, declarative (DCLR) knowledge tests, procedural (PRCD)

knowledge tests, and presentation (PRST) skill tests were conducted, followed by

distributing questionnaires to investigate students' motivation towards KTT. The test

results of the DCLR, PRCD, and PRST variables of the control and experimental classes

were tested with inferential statistics using compare means test analysis with the

technique of Mann-Whitney U test and continued with a test of significance value

significance compared with 0.05. The variables were measured quantitative descriptive

by using a questionnaire to ask students’ opinions on their learning motivation using a

KTT with Likert scale.

The DCLR knowledge test in this study contained a test of conceptual knowledge about

definitions, meanings of terms, facts, and generalizations. The PRCD knowledge test

contained questions about the logical stages of action and how to solve problems based

on the right concepts. The PRST test contained presentations of environmental problems

around students’ lives and their solutions.

The research was carried out from February 4

2019 to February 22

2019. Learning

was carried out for 9 sessions in 3 weeks (3 sessions per week). The time needed for

each session was 90 minutes.

Participants

As explained earlier, this study was conducted to investigate the effects of knowledge-

transforming text on understanding declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge, the

ability to present environmental cases and solutions, and student motivation towards

learning using KTT. The number of elementary school students involved in this study

was 97 students divided into 3 classes consisting of 32 students in class A, 32 students

in class B, and 33 students in class C. These students were at grade 5 of elementary

school (they are around 10-11 years old) who received EE material since their first

grade. In the experimental class (Class A), students obtained the knowledge-

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transforming text and each session ended with the comprehension question on the

contents presented in the readings. These consist of questions related to main points and

descriptions of the contents. The reading main points are (1) keywords and (2) main

ideas or reading topics. Furthermore, in the description of reading content students

answered questions about (1) events in the text or problems, (2) solutions described, and

(3) tasks on compiling sentences about the concepts contained in the text.

Instruments

To meet data requirements, there were 5 instruments employed in this study, namely:

1. Readings related to EE

2. Test on Declarative knowledge

3. Test on Procedural knowledge

4. Test on presentation skills

5. Questionnaire on the implementation of KTT in motivating the mastery of EE

material

Procedure and Task

KTT was applied to the experimental class. There was also a description of the material

for the 9 KTT-focused meetings as shown in the table below,

Table 3

Topics of KTT

Meetings

Text Title

Sedekah Oksigen (Giving Oxygen)

Indonesia Pengekspor Asap (Indonesia: Smoke Exporter)

Mencangkok Tanaman Mangga dan Jambu (Transplanting Mango and Guava)

Hemat Listrik (Save Energy)

Tanaman Obat Keluarga (Family Herbal Plants)

Tanaman dalam Pot (Plants in Pots)

Selamatkan Kehidupan Sosial Kita dengan Gotong Royong (Save our Social Life

through “Gotong Royong” /Working Bees)

Jus Sehat dan Lezat (Healthy and Delicious Juice)

Mematuhi Rambu Lalu Lintas (Complying with Traffic Regulations)

At the first stage, understanding the content of KTT was at work. Students obtained

information from the teacher's explanation of the material according to the assigned title

for 10 minutes. Afterward, they were given the opportunity to do silent reading, for

approximately 30 minutes. As stated above, texts formed with knowledge-transforming

strategy involved tasks of highlighting key points, restructuring various sections, and

finding the connection between different parts of the material, and using various

contexts to support meaningful knowledge. Then, students answered KTT-related

comprehension questions and submitted their assignments. Afterwards, they were given

score by the teacher. For example, the questions given in the first meeting were related

to (1) what are the important points in the reading? (2) what is the topic of the reading?

(3) why do we need alms oxygen? (4) How to give oxygen? (5) What are the

characteristics that indicate the good air quality around us?

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At the second stage, on the 10

meeting, DCLR knowledge was measured. The teacher

distributed DCLR questions to measure students' knowledge of what was understood.

The question contained details related to organic and inorganic waste. There were 5

questions covering (1) the definition of organic and inorganic waste (2) the

characteristics of organic and inorganic waste, (3) the functions of separating organic

and inorganic waste, (4) the sources of organic and inorganic waste, and (5) difficulties

in dealing with organic waste and inorganic. Then, the researchers recorded the

students’ scores.

At the third stage, still on the 10

meeting, PRCD was measured by distributing

questions about how to do something in accordance with declarative concept and

knowledge. In this test, students were required to explain how to make organic fertilizer

from dried leaves that fell to the ground. Then, the researchers recorded students’

scores.

At the fourth stage, a performance test was conducted, in the form of a PRST test. The

test was carried out on the next day after DCLR and PRCD. The test was in the form of

a presentation about the problem of waste around the students’ environment and how to

overcome it. On this test, each student was given the opportunity to deliver a

presentation for 10 minutes at most. Then, the researchers recorded the students’ scores.

In the fifth stage, the questionnaire was given. The questionnaire aimed to garner

descriptive evidence on students' motivation towards the implementation of KTT.

Questionnaire in the form of test questions, coupled with Likert scale ranging from 1 to

5, was operative. The questionnaire included 5 questions.

In this study, quantitative analysis was conducted by (1) normality test by Kolmogorov-

Smirnov non parametric one-sample statistical test, (2) different test tests with non-

parametric statistics Mann Whitney U-Test, and (3) significance test by comparison

against a value of 0.05. Qualitative results analysis is done by calculating the percentage

of students' motivation towards KTT and describing the results to highlight essential

meaning.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

As stated earlier, the novelty in this study is to know the effect of learning through text

that is read by students toward their declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge, and

presentation skills. Declarative and procedural knowledge of students is indicated by the

performance in DCLR knowledge test with knowledge question maps on definitions,

characteristics, concepts, and functions; test on PRCD knowledge involves map of

knowledge of solutions and steps to solve problems. Next, a PRST test is performed. On

the PRST test, students bring their work into a demonstration.

Quantitative Analysis Effect of KTT on DCLR, PRCD Knowledge, and PRST Skill

The population in this study were class A involving 32 students, class B involving 32

students, and class C involving 33 students. In total, 97 students were involved. Then the

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homogeneity test was carried out based on the results of the previous formative test with

one way ANOVA inferential statistical test with the following results.

Table 4

Test of Homogeneity of Variances

Levene Statistic

df1

df2

Sig.

1,274

,284

Based on the table above, sig 0.284> 0.05 indicates that all classes belonging to the

population are homogeneous. Furthermore, from the three classes, class A is selected as

the experimental class, and class B is the control class. Taking these two classes as

samples from the population is done by cluster random sampling.

Table 5

Normality Test: One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test

Normal

Parameters

a,b

Mean

19,5000

17,7500

19,7188

17,9375

18,4375

18,3438

Std.

Deviation

1,41421

1,07763

1,17045

,80071

1,50134

,60158

Most Extreme

Differences

Absolute

,237

,279

,218

,313

,195

,372

Positive

,237

,252

,218

,313

,149

,372

Negative

-,201

-,279

-,189

-,250

-,195

-,253

Test Statistic

,237

,279

,218

,313

,195

,372

Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)

,000

,001

,000

,003

,000

Before the effect test of KTT learning on declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge,

and presentation skills, normality tests were carried out with the non-parametric

statistical test using one-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, generating the following

results.

The table 4 shows X1 as the declarative knowledge test results of the experimental class,

X2 as test results of declarative knowledge test of the control class, X3 as test results of

procedural knowledge test of the experimental class, X4 as test results of procedural

knowledge of control class, X5 as the test results of experimental class in presentation

test, and X6 as the test results of control class in presentation test. Based on the table

above, it can be interpreted that the results of a declarative knowledge, procedural

knowledge, and presentation skills test are unnormally distributed (Asymp. Sig. (2-

tailed) 0,000<0,05). Therefore, this research has applied Mann-Whitney U test

nonparametric statistics to compares the means between unrelated groups on some

continous.

The effect of KTT on declarative knowledge

The results of tests on declarative knowledge by Mann-Whitney U test nonparametric

statistic in the experimental class (1) and the control class (2) can be investigated in

following table.

Wuryaningrum, Bektiarso & Suyitno 579

International Journal of Instruction, January 2020 ● Vol.13, No.1

Table 6

Effect Test of KTT on DCLR Knowledge

Ranks

Class

Mean Rank

Sum of Ranks

DCLR

1,00

43,48

1391,50

2,00

21,52

688,50

Total

Test Statistics

DCLR

Mann-Whitney U

160,500

Wilcoxon W

688,500

-4,872

Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)

,000

These results indicate that the significance value is α/2. The significance is 0.000 < 0.05,

which means that H0 is rejected and H1 is accepted. In other words, KTT learning poses

significant effect on students' declarative knowledge in understanding EE material.

Several points about these results need to be elaborated. As explained earlier, EE in

Indonesia is carried out by reading and answering questions as in figure 1. In one

chapter, students read 3 texts. On the other hand, the text was presented in a knowledge-

telling manner, with inadequate rhetorical aspects. Galbraith (2014) shows that there are

two features in writing. First, it reflected the facts related to ideas represented, not only

as a reflection of the author's knowledge (content space), but also in terms of their

rhetorical functions in the text (rhetoric space). Second, writing is not just a matter of

adapting content to a rhetorical context, but rather serves as an emerging process in

which content is formulated as developing text, using context to support rhetorical

aspects. Both are fulfilled in knowledge-transforming writings. Bereiter and Scardamalia

(1987) contend that a KTT characterized by the use of such techniques as highlighting

key points, restructuring various sections, finding connection between different parts of

material, and using various contexts to support meaningful knowledge.

Content space and rhetorical space make it easier for students to understand concepts

and various real problems and solutions. The key lies in developing content formulation.

Thus, although it retains the knowledge-telling model as a content comprehension

retrieved from memory, this is embedded in a dialectic space between content and

rhetorical spaces (Galbraith, 2014). That being said, characteristics of objects, functions,

and concepts of objects that are part of declarative knowledge are embedded within a

dialectic space between content and rhetorical spaces. Thus, what Glassman (2001) says

is that language serves as an intellectual tool as conceptualized by Vigotsky (1962)

through language knowledge management, making content easily understood. Through

rhetorical space, knowledge can be made more meaningful. This view supports the

results of KTT which pose an effect on declarative knowledge. Similarly, research by

Ashley, Schaap, & Brujin (2016) shows the application of knowledge- transforming

actions. The results demonstrate that stimulating knowledge-transforming writing is

positively related to the development of students' conceptual understanding. This shows

580 The Effects of Knowledge-Transforming Text on Elementary …

International Journal of Instruction, January 2020 ● Vol.13, No.1

that there are conceptual features in KTT both in the text and in their performance that

can increase declarative knowledge.

Effect of KTT on procedural knowledge

The results of tests on procedural knowledge by Mann-Whitney U test nonparametric

statistic in the experimental class (1) and the control class (2) can be investigated in

following table.

Table 7

Effect Test of KTT on PRCD Knowledge

Ranks

Group

Mean Rank

Sum of Ranks

PRCD

1,00

44,94

1438,00

2,00

20,06

642,00

Total

PSDR

Mann-Whitney U

114,000

Wilcoxon W

642,000

-5,508

Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)

,000

These results indicate that the significance value is α/2, a significance value of 0.0000

<0.05, which means that the hypothesis H0 is rejected and H1 is accepted. In other

words, learning with KTT has a significant effect on students' procedural knowledge in

understanding EE material.

KTT helps students to gradually understand declarative and procedural knowledge.

Procedural knowledge, for example, is understanding how oxygen is produced and how

to solve the problem of reduced oxygen, how to give oxygen, and how to plant trees.

KTT can provide corrections to what was done. In this research, KTT presents the

problems and solutions to the functions of the actions taken. For example, in the step of

planting trees there are recommendations about spacing. KTT explains why and how

these actions should be carried out as material for correction on things that should not be

done. By understanding these steps in detail, students can understand how to do things.

Wang's research (2016) also indicates similar finding. The applied Metalinguistic

Corrective Feedback (MFC) has been proven to increase declarative and procedural

knowledge. Learners' declarative knowledge on both structures has also improved, but

not as drastically as has their procedural knowledge. MCF plays a positive role in

bridging the gap between declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge (Wang,

2016). MCF facilitates the proceduralization of declarative knowledge, i.e. procedural

knowledge has increased significantly through MCF actions which are hierarchically

carried out with detailed word correction and structure. By understanding the details and

causality relationships between problems and solutions, learning procedures can

increase procedural knowledge.

The research findings relate to KTT in terms of the element of correction. The

corrective actions contained in the MFC and KTT have major effect on procedural

Wuryaningrum, Bektiarso & Suyitno 581

International Journal of Instruction, January 2020 ● Vol.13, No.1

knowledge. In addition, procedural knowledge denotes proceduralization of declarative

knowledge. This research also explains how students understand procedural knowledge

based on declarative knowledge. This is the case when students improve their

procedural knowledge based on the understanding that humans need oxygen, that

oxygen is obtained from plants, and that oxygen deprivation has taken place. Students

therefore understand why oxygen is needed. With the knowledge that plants take

nutrients from the soil, students understand the meaning of spacing. In the end, students

comprehend procedural knowledge about how to plant trees. Thus, procedural

knowledge is supported by declarative knowledge. In other words, the statement of

Berge & Hazewijk (1999), stating that declarative is part of procedural, has been

proven.

The effects of KTT on presentation skills on environmental problems and solutions

The results of tests on presentation skills ability by Mann-Whitney U test nonparametric

statistic in the experimental class (1) and the control class (2) can be investigated

following table.

Table 8

Effect Test of KTT on PRST Skill

Ranks

Class

Mean Rank

Sum of Ranks

PRTS

1,00

34,52

1104,50

2,00

30,48

975,50

Total

Test Statistics

DCLR

Mann-Whitney U

447,500

Wilcoxon W

975,500

-,919

Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)

,358

These results indicate that the significance value is α/2, which is 0,358/2 = 0,179. Thus,

the significance value is 0.179>0.05, which means that the hypothesis H0 is accepted

and H1 is rejected. In other words, the implementation of KTT does not have a

significant effect on the students' presentation skills on issues concerned with the

environmental problems and their solutions.

Presentation is a combination of knowledge, skills to do things, and the ability to convey

ideas in spoken language. In KTT, students get content-based information packaged in

rhetorical strategies to make it easier for students to understand the material. In

presentations, students must express information and employ rhetorical strategies

correctly by preparing themselves before presentation. This seems to have a

considerable effect on their presentation skills. Although in general, they master the

concepts and procedures, but there are some assessment indicators that have not been

met by students, especially on the quality points of action to be taken. For example,

when students explain how to make natural fertilizers, students do not explain the target

of incorporating materials, managing, and use tools. In other words, student

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International Journal of Instruction, January 2020 ● Vol.13, No.1

presentations are not accurate. This shows the students’ weak control over conative

functions. Conative function is language function related to emphasizing the

understanding of listeners (Bühler, 2011). These conative functions have not been well

taken into account by students as part of their presentation. In presentations, students

should not only apply referential functions, but also conative functions.

Bank & Millward's (2007) research shows the complexity of presentation problems. The

SMMs or Shared Mental Models model is a shared declarative knowledge between

teams related to team performance. Conversely, shared procedural knowledge is

negatively related to team performance. Accurate procedural knowledge was positively

related to team performance. Therefore, procedural information sharing carried out by

the team does not affect the group's performance. Students need to obtain procedural

knowledge because the distribution of procedural information in the groups does not

indicate positive contribution.

What needs to be considered from these studies is accurate procedural knowledge in

presentation or team performance. Presentation requires not only declarative and

procedural knowledge, but also the skills to convey ideas verbally as part of productive

language skills. This is part of accurate procedural knowledge. Without accuracy of the

procedural knowledge, presentation will be flawed. The problem of describing the

quality of actions expected in each step described by students demonstrates the lack of

accurate procedural knowledge. This can be assumed to be the cause of the insignificant

effect of KTT on procedural knowledge.

Quantitative Analysis of Students’ Motivation towards Learning with KTT

Based on the results of the student motivation questionnaire about learning with KTT,

the following results are obtained.

Table 9

Percentage of Learning Motivation Questionnaire toward KTT

Statements

Attitude

KTT is fun

12,5

9,37

28,13

I am interested in learning activity

using KTT

21,9

6,25

56,25

15,6

KTT helps me to understand material

better

65,62

9,38

KTT is more comprehensible than

texts in school textbooks

6,25

65,62

28,13

I want to learn with KTT

15,62

78,87

12,51

Description

1: strongly disagree

2: disagree

3: neutral

4: agree

5: strongly agree

Wuryaningrum, Bektiarso & Suyitno 583

International Journal of Instruction, January 2020 ● Vol.13, No.1

From the questionnaire results, it is known that students want to learn using KTT, as

evinced by 23 students reporting this attitude or 78.87% of total sample. On the other

hand, this is corroborated by the fact that 65.62% of the students’ report that KTT

makes it easier for them to understand the material and 65.62% state that they are

encouraged to explain problem and solution in detail. This shows their positive attitude

toward KTT. The other findings from questionnaire confirm support for these two

indicators. Thus, it can be stated that in general students express positive attitudes in the

form of desires, interests, and objective judgments voicing the idea that KTT presents

problems and solutions in detail and facilitates understanding. These indicate that they

are motivated to learn with KTT strategy.

CONCLUSION

Based on the findings and discussion above, a number of conclusions regarding the

effects of KTT on declarative, procedural, and presentation knowledge, as well as

student motivation towards learning using KTT are drawn.

Answering the first question, the students’ ability in the experimental class, who study

knowledge-transforming text material to achieve declarative knowledge, are found to

perform better than those in the control class who learn with knowledge-telling text. The

implementation of Knowledge-transforming text has a significant effect on students'

declarative knowledge about EE material with a significance value of 0.000<0.05. This

is supported by the condition of KTT-driven learning. KTT contains two features,

namely (1) content space and (2) rhetoric space. Content space and rhetoric space are

portrayed in developing text assisted by the supporting real context. Both of these

features are considered the formula for KTT, particularly related to the use of such

techniques as highlighting key points, restructuring various sections, finding connection

between different parts of material, and using various contexts to support meaningful

knowledge. These techniques support the development of declarative knowledge. The

research findings contend that the features of KTT improve students' declarative

understanding. It can also imply that KTT can increase declarative knowledge.

Answering the second question, the students in the experimental class who study the

transforming text knowledge material to achieve procedural knowledge perform better

than those in the control class who learn with knowledge-telling text. The application of

Knowledge-transforming text poses a significant effect on students' procedural

knowledge about EE material, as evinced by a significance value of 0,000<0.05. This is

acknowledged by the context of KTT which provides a description of logical steps.

Students understand how to perform an action, why it should be done in certain way,

and what factors support and hinder the success of the action. Corrective measures on

incorrect performance or product have to be avoided at all costs. Thus, it can be

assumed that discourse production through KTT can increase students' procedural

knowledge. Moreover, it can be implied that KTT possesses the indicators contributing

to improved procedural knowledge.

Answering the third question, the experimental class learning with KTT has resulted in

slightly better presentation skills than has the control class learning. Although the scores

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International Journal of Instruction, January 2020 ● Vol.13, No.1

of student presentation skills in the experimental class are better than their peers, this

does not bring about a significant effect as corroborated by significance value of

0.372>0.05. This relates to accurate procedural knowledge in presentations. Based on

the research findings, it can be stated that accurate procedural knowledge denotes the

actualization of declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge, and presentation skills in

expressing ideas related to problems and their solutions in logical sequences as well as

corrective statements on how they work. In addition, this has to be supported by the

statement describing the quality of each step or action taken. This shows the complexity

of the presentation made by the students. At this point, it can be assumed that the

insignificance of KTT aforementioned is influenced by students' lack of accurate

procedural knowledge.

Answering the fourth question, students are basically motivated to engage in KTT

learning. The questionnaire results show that most students express their desires,

interests, and objective assessments expressed in the judgments which point out that

KTT presents problems and solutions in detail and also facilitates understanding. These

indicate that they are motivated to engage in KTT learning. This has implications for EE

learning in Indonesia to use KTT as a reference for EE learning that requires

understanding on real concepts and practices in preserving the environment.

LIMITATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

There are limitations in this study. First, this study is applied to small-scale populations

with 3 clusters due to the limited number of parallel classes in Indonesian schools. This

can be a consideration to expand future research in terms of population and research

actions as well as data collection in a relatively longer timespan. To see the impact of

learning in detail, classroom observation is needed. Therefore, in further research it is

necessary to apply qualitative methods such as observation and group discussion to get

precise findings.

Second, KTT learning practices are oriented to environmental education material that

involves textual learning material. Texts in environmental education are easier to be

expanded with respect to its concept and context. Thus, it is easier to organize content

space and rhetorical space in producing KTT. It is difficult to apply KTT to material

that requires practical actions whose concepts and theories require a lot of declarative or

procedural knowledge. Implementing KTT on these materials requires more in-depth

thinking. Therefore, the results in this study imply the need for broader generalization in

terms of material choices. In further research, future researchers need to ponder material

characteristics or subjects who will receive KTT learning.

Thirdly, the students’ initial ability in reading is a variable that can be assumed to

influence their understanding of KTT. In this study, the students’ reading

comprehension is not taken into account. Homogeneity is only taken from formative

tests. Therefore, in further research it is necessary to put the students’ reading

comprehension under investigation to investigate their ability to understand KTT.

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